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RESEARCH FRONT | PERSPECTIVE
https://doi.org/10.1071/MF21242
Perspectives on reducing anthropogenic interferences and
mainstreaming nature-based solutions for sustainable
restoration of Pulicat lagoon, India: from research to policy and
implementation
Harini SanthanamA,E,* , Shalini DhyaniB,C and Xavier BenedictD
ABSTRACT
For full list of author affiliations and
declarations see end of paper The present study highlights the modern threats and challenges faced by Pulicat lagoon, a coastal
ecosystem, as a result of urbanisation, and port development activities, and provides a detailed
*Correspondence to:
Harini Santhanam
National Institute of Advanced Studies
(NIAS), Indian Institute of Science (IISc)
Campus, Bengaluru 560012, Karnataka, India
Email: ecoharini@gmail.com
perspective of the significant factors causing changes to the ecosystem properties over the past
decade. In face of accelerated changes, the article presents the need to create policies that
recognise these threats as well as emphasises on the mainstreaming of nature-based solutions.
This can help effective management of the sensitive ecosystem, which is vulnerable and for
which collapse may be imminent if urgent conservation efforts are not initiated.
Handling Editor:
Ritesh Kumar Keywords: EcoDRR, ecosystem, ecosystem services, nature-based solution, port development,
public participation, Pulicat lagoon, urbanisation.
Introduction
Received: 6 May 2021
Accepted: 26 July 2022
Published: 22 August 2022
Cite this:
Santhanam H et al. (2022)
Marine and Freshwater Research
doi:10.1071/MF21242
© 2022 The Author(s) (or their
employer(s)). Published by
CSIRO Publishing.
In recent years, the definitions of ecosystem services have been extended to include
anthropocentric gains from the natural systems. For example, extensive development of
shore area is considered to be the cornerstone of new economic development in major
sensitive coastal cities for both the innumerable growth and employment opportunities it
offers. However, the magnitude of changes to the host ecosystems along the coast needs
proactive foresightful planning to minimise the negative effects and ensure conservation.
It hasbeenstressedthatthe effects of implementing mitigation measures will be apparent
only futuristically; hence, the impacts of the adaptive measures adopted for sustainable
coastal management need to be realised in the short term (Sathaye et al.2006). Further,
as public goods, a large category of wetland ecosystem services and biodiversity values
are not factored practically in decision-making, thereby resulting in the wetlands being
converted for alternate uses. Hence, it is worthwhile to understand the pressures and the
stressors on fragile coastal and marine ecosystems of the country to argue for the need to
capitalise on existing or emerging nature-based solutions (NbS) to be implemented at a
policy and on ground level for port and jetty developments and other industrialisation in
coastal areas, to ensure the sustainability of both humans and nature (Andrade et al.
2020; Dhyani et al. 2020a). Building on this concept, the sensitive case of fragile but
ecologically relevant Pulicat lagoon, India, is presented here to attract the attention of the
international wetland conservation community, and relevant international stakeholder
groups, especially Ramsar convention authorities.
Study area
The Coromandel coast in Peninsular India located in-between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay
of Bengal, extending from Machilipatnam, Andhra Pradesh in the north to Nagapattinam,
R. Kalangi
R. Araniar
India Urbanisation leading N
to heat islands
Pulicat Siltation and
choking of the
seaward
Decreasing areas of entrances
marshes and bird
habitats Sriharikota
sand spit
Building check- Pulicat
dams decrease flow water body
of riverine water
Excessive shell liming,
loss of flow creating
shallow areas of potential
anoxia
Decreasing
mean tidal
circulation
Shrinking
backwaters
connecting to
adjacent
Ennore creek
Excessive aquaculture
farming leading to pollution Pulicat Ennore
backwater channels
Imminent impacts of thermal pollution, Ennore Thermal
changes in sand shoaling, choking of Power Stations
lagoon
H. Santhanam et al. Marine and Freshwater Research
Tamilnadu in the south (Stephen 1997), hosts several lagoon
ecosystems, including Chilika as well as Pulicat lake
(13.7178°N, 80.2000°E; Fig. 1), which are rapidly influenced
by rapid and unplanned extensive development and urbanisa-
tion in the region. Pulicat anglicised from the Tamil word
for lagoon, ‘Pazhaverkadu’, is a combination of three Tamil
words, namely, ‘Pazhaya’ (old), ‘vergal’ (root), ‘kadu’ (forest;
Jayapaul 2007; Xavier 2019), referring to the mangroves
that existed in the region. This wetland ecosystem is a bird
sanctuary of international importance and is the second largest
brackish-water ecosystem in India. Thousands of migratory
waterfowls visit the lake from October to April, including
large numbers of Greater and Lesser Flamingos (Odd and
Sanjeeva 2009). The reduction and stabilisation of the sea
level over the past three centuries have caused the formation
of a beach ridge dune, the Sriharikota Island. There are two
entrances to the sea, including the functional one in the south
and a smaller and dysfunctional mouth in the north, influenc-
ing the exchange of water, salinity and nutrients with the sea
(Santhanam and Natarajan 2018). The Buckingham Canal,
which traverses through the lagoon at its eastern edge and
along with the rivers, Arani and Kalangi, flowing into the
lagoon, has cultural ecosystem services recorded in the
maritime history supporting the trade of Coromandel cotton
and its textile products made in the hinterlands connected
by this water system. Because of a focus on the modernisa-
tion of railways, the canal and its water system have not
been used for the past 100 years (Xavier 2019).
Approximately 80 years ago, the lake used to cover an
area of 700 km2 during high tide and 400 km2 during low
tide; however, the extent of the lagoon and its environ-
ment has been reduced at present to 460 and 250 km2
during high tide and low tide respectively (Jayapaul 2007;
Odd and Sanjeeva 2009), along with a drastic reduction
in its depth from an average of 3 m to about 1.5 m at
present (Santhanam and Amal Raj 2019). These changes
are connected with the large-scale changes in the rainfall
pattern (Sahoo and Bhaskaran 2016).
Deposited layers of molluscan shells, which include
keystone species, can cause the formation of shallow areas
with low dissolved oxygen circulation during periods of low
rainfall and circulation, giving rise to pockets of anoxia
(Santhanam et al. 2010). These changes lower even further
the adaptive capacity and the resilience of the system for
sustained functioning.
The lagoon plays an important role in maintaining the
hydrological cycle of the region, balancing the water influx
to the sea (Santhanam and Natarajan 2018). Both historical
records, as well as the available meteorological data, show
that a large percentage of cyclones cross the five large
wetlands including Pulicat along the south-eastern coast of
India (Sahoo and Bhaskaran 2016). The local knowledge of
the hydrology of the region imparts the understanding that
the quantity of rainfall is directly related to the movement
of winged migrants, identifiable from early visitors called
‘pilot-birds’. The presence of avian fauna provides feedback
control on the native fish and prawns harvested during
peak monsoon seasons. The bird guano deposited in the
lake bottom provides nutrients for algal growth, which are,
in turn, diets for the fishes and prawns. Thus, distinct inter-
relationships are evident among the presence of birds, the
hydrological cycles, lagoonal biodiversity and livelihood of
inhabitants (of more than 20 000 fishermen families living
in 17 surrounding lake villages; Jayapaul 2007; Odd and
Sanjeeva 2009; Xavier 2019), with the migratory birds
positioned at the top of the food chain at Pulicat wetland.
However, rapid urbanisation and developmental activities
have fractured many potential microhabitats and have
Fig. 1. Map showing the study area, Pulicat lagoon, south-eastern
coast of India, representing the lagoon-based issues identified by the
present investigation through ground surveys and interactions along
with inputs on in-lake processes reported in Santhanam et al. (2010,
2018) and Santhanam and Natarajan (2018).
restricted the movement of migratory birds, with changes
in the availability and distribution of their prey (Ramesh
and Ramachandran 2005; Sivalingam et al. 2015) causing a
shift in the dynamics.
Methods
In the present investigation, a review of the actual status of the
lagoon was undertaken and a qualitative survey of the
B
Identifying Analysing factors
environmental driving ecosystem
stressors collapse
Reviewing existing Identifying areas for
policies for integrated resources
conservation management
Deriving or
planning ecosystem
services delivery
www.publish.csiro.au/mf Marine and Freshwater Research
Fig. 2. Identification and analyses of lagoon-specific factors
contributing to the status of the ecosystem at Pulicat lagoon, on the
basis of the methodology used for the present investigation.
following indicators was conducted, as shown in Fig. 2. The
various factors investigated included the following:
1. the delivery of the ecosystem services of the lagoon with
respect to the current scenario
2. the factors contributing to the environmental stress and
the factors likely driving the ecosystem collapse
3. a review of the existing policies aiding wetland
conservation, and
4. the possible areas of resource management.
The qualitative study included the extensive survey of the
social, cultural and environmental systems at the ground
level, including the reports and experiences from public partici-
patory workshops (Santhanam et al.2010; Xavier 2019).
Five important factors related to urbanisation that produce
stressors of the ecosystem are as follows:
1. The building of check dams has drastically reduced the
influx of monsoon rainwater from the three rivers into
the lagoon, and is leading to a rise in the salinity.
2. Aqua-culture farms around the lagoon discharge high
levels of untreated effluent containing toxic chemicals
into the lagoon.
3. Transboundary movement of a large amount of mercury
and fly ash, claimed to originate from thermal power
plants in Ennore, has not been investigated. Resultant
mercury-laden groundwater and contaminated marine
produce may contaminate the food chain and also
produce adverse health effects (Thakur et al. 2020).
4. It has been hypothesised that port-related activities in the
vicinity of the lake can disturb the sand dunes and
flattening formation, constantly leading to blockages
of the sea-lagoon mouths and restriction or interruption of
the interchange of tidal water, and are likely to affect
the long-term ecological health of the lake. Closures
of the mouth may alter the brackish nature of the lake
as in the case of Chilika lake (Montreux Record or
threatened list of RAMSAR in 1993 owing to the change
in its ecological character of Chilika) and created new
habitats for the invasive freshwater invasive plants,
leading to loss of native species.
5. Ban on dredging for subfossilised lime shell (‘Gulla
Sunnam’) leads to their accumulation and, hence,
reduction in the depth of the lagoon. The traditional
form of removing shells from the lagoon was banned
during the enactment of the Environmental Protection
Act 1986, and Wildlife Protection Act 1972.
It is clear from the above section that the lagoon is already
in a critical stage and threatened because of a substantial
decline in the depth and water spread area. Further, Pulicat
faces severe degradation due to siltation, bar-mouth
dynamics, shell mining, processing and population pressure
owing to the resettlement of villagers from Sriharikota Island
and many other direct and indirect drivers of biodiversity loss
(Saraswathy and Pandian 2016). Ecosystem collapse reflects
the marked changes being observed in the ecosystem
condition that lead to complete loss of ecosystem services
and are irreversible in nature (Lindenmayer and Sato
2018). This can be reflected particularly with the rapid
decline in populations of keystone ecosystem structures
(e.g. native and migratory birds) and effects on ecosystem
functions (impact on vital ecosystem services), as in the
case of Pulicat. Ravikiran (2017) reported reduction in the
fish catch (provisioning services) from the lagoon by 30–40%
over 15 years. Govindan and Ravichandran (2016) observed a
substantial rise in temperature in many parts of Pulicat, which
indicates the altered quality of the lake’s environmental
structure and its productivity.
It should be noted that the issues highlighted herein are
synergistically expressed, whereas the causative factors may
be different (Santhanam et al. 2010). The magnitude of
changes resulting from in-lake processes is usually acutely
felt. Lake- and basin-related stressors need to be considered
from the perspective of adaptive management. However,
for the issues of other scales such as the influence of trans-
boundary pollution at Pulicat, the magnitude of these changes
is greater and long term. A detailed review of the biophysical,
biogeochemical processes, assessment of the causal loops,
leading to transformation of the ecosystem, has been compre-
hensively reviewed in Santhanam et al. (2022). Table 1
provides a detailed discussion on the stressors identified,
the policy interventions necessary, possible engineering as
well as relevant location-specific NbS solutions.
The Indian government is a signatory to The Convention on
the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals, also
C
H. Santhanam et al. Marine and Freshwater Research
known as the Convention on Migratory Species or the Bonn
Convention (1979) and RAMSAR Convention for Wetland
Conservation (1971). These threats and issues need to be
acknowledged at a basin level within strong policy
frameworks and interactive governance approaches, which
will help balance sustainable economic development with
the sustenance of the ecosystem services as well as the
livelihood of small-scale fishers. Consideration to local
livelihood and conservation of ecosystems to address site-
specific societal challenges are at the core of NbS. These
have to be planned synergistically with the factors that can
be useful to plan adaptive strategies to reduce disaster risks
as well as improve the resilience of the lagoon (Santhanam
et al. 2022). The participation of many stakeholder groups
in restoration, conservation, and management of Pulicat
must be mainstreamed. It might be beneficial to promote
regional links so as to build strategic collaborations and follow
best practices in conservation and management. Pulicat is a
wintering haven for migratory birds, so national efforts to
establish new or strengthen existing regional and global
cooperation linkages and strategic partnerships between
governments, multilateral institutions, academic institutions,
research organisations, non-governmental organisations
(NGOs), local communities, private sector, corporates and
communities can improve the current situation and
promote enhanced cooperation to improve Pulicat’s future
scenario. Two important discourses under this perspective
are given below.
National policies and regulatory instruments
Although forests in the country were protected under policies
from degradation since colonial times because of their high
economic values, most of the wetlands in the country were
mostly protected and conserved by indigenous and local
communities for diverse economic benefits harnessed from
them. In early 2020, after almost 2.5 years of notification
Wetlands Conservation and Management Rules 2017, that
replaced the 2010 version of the Wetland rules by the
Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change
(MOEF&CC) came up with the guidelines involving state
governments and making wetland conservation a state
subject for improving wetland protection. The Wetlands
(Conservation and Management) Rules 2017, highlight that
all the wetlands, despite their size, location, ownership,
biodiversity, or economic values, are to be notified under
the Wetlands Rules 2017, and wetlands falling in these
areas will be protected under the Indian Forest Act 1927,
Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972, Forest (Conservation) Act
1980, and the Coastal Regulation Zone Notification 2011.
Guidelines support ‘wise use’ of wetlands and strongly
discourage ‘non-wise uses’. Any intervention that changes the
ecosystem structure or function (reduction in water flowing,
change in native diversity of species, fragmentation, changed
water quality, invasive species including concretisation of the
wetland buffer zone for the sake of tourism and
industrialisation) is considered ‘non-wise use’. However,
despite having wise and non-wise categories clear, most of
the wetlands, including high conservation-value wetlands,
face serious pressure from non-wise use. Discharge of
industrial effluents, sewage, mostly goes unregulated.
The MoEF&CC, following a Supreme Court order of 2004,
issued guidelines on a declaration for eco-sensitive zones
(ESZ) around the Wildlife Sanctuaries to perform as ‘shock
absorbers‘ by regulation and effective management of the
anthropogenic interferences and developmental activities
around them. All activities in these ESZ are to be regulated
by the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act 1986,
and carefully managed. National Wetland Policy and the
National Board for Wildlife (NBWL) of India proposes
several guidelines for wetlands that deter construction
activities in the vicinity of the buffer zone of the wetlands.
NBWL guidelines protected by the norms are for the
protection of fisheries, shellfish, flood control, prevention
of storm damage, curbing pollution, groundwater, public or
private water supply, and wildlife habitat. Hence, any larger
developmental planning that has the potential to disturb the
larger ecosystem of the lagoon and its basic characteristics
within the eco-sensitive zone or in its immediate periphery
needs to be recognised as a potential threat. Surprisingly, in
2021, Tamilnadu forest department proposed reducing the
statutory 10-km ESZ around the Pulicat Lake as a serious
blunder to dilute the existing regulatory norms to protect
Pulicat and to facilitate intrusion and further encroachment
of the lagoon area by land-grabbing mafias and corporate
giants. Lagoon is already facing threat and pressure from
several ongoing developmental activities and other human-
induced interferences increasing every year (Table 1).
Expansion of commercial development with support from
regulatory agencies might jeopardise the crucial ecosystem
services, resulting in complete collapse of this ecologically,
economically and socially important wetland in coming
years, with no possibilities to reinstate its original character
and functions. Stringent rules and especially strict enforce-
ment of National Wetland Policy are required to address
the violations in the core and buffer zone of the lagoon and
reducing encroachment from land mafias, illegal aquaculture
and ongoing development beyond the carrying and bearing
capacity of the lagoon.
However, in the vicinity of growing new cities, for
example, Sri City, and the immense pressure because of
development because of insufficient enforcement of wetland
rules and regulatory instruments to protect the lagoon has
enhanced future security concerns for the lagoon health.
Lack of interactive governance has been a key constraining
condition that relies on regulatory instruments and largely
ignores social- and right-based approaches that are insuffi-
cient to address ground realities and local concerns.
Community-based planning and management scheme that
includes active participation of diverse stakeholder groups
D
www.publish.csiro.au/mf Marine and Freshwater Research
Table 1. List of stressors, the magnitude of their effects, the associated factors causing degradation of Pulicat ecosystem, along with policy
recommendations, engineering and NbS solutions.
Stressor Observed
magnitude Factors causing
degradation Scope for policy-based
implementation Possible engineered
solutions Suggested NbS
Thermal
pollution
Aquaculture
farming
Decreasing areas
of marshes and
bird sanctuaries
Constructions of
check dams
decreasing
freshwater
influx
Excessive shell
mining, loss of
flow and anoxia,
loss of tidal flow
Shrinking
backwaters
connecting with
creeks, Siltation
and choking of
seaward
entrances
Low
Low to
moderate
Moderate
Moderate
to high
Moderate
to high
Moderate
to high
Changes in sand shoaling and
degradation of backwater
environments
Excessive changes to soil
salinity of the shorelands, in
turn leading to higher
secondary salinisation of the
lagoon through the run-offs
followed by release of
endocrine-disrupting
compounds and emerging
contaminants
Shifts in migratory patterns,
decrease in tree and
mangrove covers, conversion
of marshlands into human
settlements
Barriers to the surface flow of
freshwater into the lagoon at
downstream and mid-stream
can increase make the lagoon
hypersaline and also cause
salinisation of the aquifers
Loss of benthic habitats, loss
of natural flow connectivity
and formation of isolated
multi-environment within the
lagoons
Loss of connectivity with sea,
change the character of the
lagoon and make it fresh
water, backwaters and creeks
can affect the migratory
routes of aquatic organisms as
well as restrict the regulatory
flows within the lagoon
environment, also navigability
of channels
Policies to avoid the incursion
of high temperatures in future
by reducing thermal load of
water and finding alternatives
to discharge hot water that
are strictly monitored and
regulated
Promoting non-motorised
fishing and traditional foot
fishing with socioeconomic
models for resilience and
subsistence supported by
alternative opportunities to
support local socio-economics
Promotion of conservation of
marsh lands and protection of
tree cover by strict
enforcement of no-go zones
for development and
urbanisation
Improve conjunctive water
management in the area
following recent the Wetlands
(Conservation and Management)
Rules 2017
Prevent or ban the extraction
of subfossilised shells from the
lagoon bed following recent
the Wetlands (Conservation and
Management) Rules 2017
Policies on natural resources
management should help the
administrators and local
communities keep the
backwater channels open
Use of methodologies such
as low temperature thermal
desalination for reusing the
coolant water at higher
temperatures at site without
letting it into the Ennore
creek for further damage to
the backwaters.
Construction of artificial
lakes, cooling ponds, and
cooling towers can also help
reduce the discharge in
Pulicat lagoon
Using geoliners across the
aquaculture farms to retain
salts and fallowing in the
intermediate periods
Mangrove reforestation,
establishment of tree
networks to preserve
migratory bird habitats as
well as fences for marshland
protection
Balanced use of managed
aquifer recharge systems,
borewell networks in place
of establishing the check
dams to stop freshwater
flow
Improve flow through
periodic reduction of sand-
shoaling, creating seagrass
patches in strategic zones of
the lagoon to regulate flow
Desiltation and restoration
of waterways straddling the
lagoon such as Buckingham
canal will be a long-term
effort to maintain the
connectivity with the
backwaters
Creation of vegetated swales
all along the creek and the
Buckingham, leading towards
the backwaters area of Pulicat
with heat- and salt-tolerant
genotypes
Regulate the aquaculture
farming practices while
encouraging, sustainable and
ecosystem-based aquaculture
(EAA) along with traditional
artisanal and foot fishing
Area-based management
program, ecosystem-based
management and ecological
restoration. Developing
artificial wetlands, floating
islands for improving bird
habitats
Establishment of large
plantations, artificial wetlands
and recirculatory systems in
the fringe areas, which will
help in groundwater recharge
as well as regulate the
freshwater flow into the
lagoon. Existing check dams
can be used to establish
dense turfs of vegetated
swales, along with mulch
anchoring and pea gravelling
in shore-area settlements
Establish substratum
conservation by establishing
seagrass patches and
ecosystem-based management
of lagoon floor
Shore-area reinforcement and
enrichment using bordered
vegetated swales, prevent
siltation of the canals,
ecological engineering and
area-based approaches
E
H. Santhanam et al. Marine and Freshwater Research
and resource users following an all inclusive integrated
approach can be a better enabling approach. Sustainable
zoning following efficient land-use planning, with appropriate
ecological conservation and socio-economic considerations,
can help identification and mitigation of key stressors
that have been ignored and insufficient so far. For policy
enablement toward the conservation of lagoon resources, a
regular and strong monitoring framework is crucial to track
the effect of stressors. Further, this will be helpful to plan
short- and long-term measures to reduce the effects of the
stressors on the ecosystem.
Recognition of fragile ecosystem threats to plan
coastal NbS operations for long-term
sustainability
As per estimates of Wetlands International, South Asia office,
nearly 30% of natural wetlands in southern Asia have been
lost in the past three decades alone (1990 onward). The
resultant losses in ecosystem services and biodiversity have
been observed to have direct economic consequences, which
are unfortunately underestimated (IUCN online report, see
https://www.iucn.org/news/mediterranean/202111/natural-
capital-approach-a-tool-highlight-contribution-artisanal-
salt-works-generation-shared-value-nature-and-society). An
all-inclusive multi-stakeholder approach of NbS implemen-
tation, with a focus on local and indigenous fishermen
folk, that addresses their livelihood demands and income-
diversification concerns can help explore issue-specific NbS
following area-based conservation approaches (Dhyani et al.
2018, 2020b; Maxwell et al. 2020). Here, curbing pollution,
and planning developmental activities as per the carrying
capacity or the bearing capacity of the ecosystem should be
scientifically assessed with active public participation,
consultations for better implementation, developmental and
conservation outputs. Ensuring secure breeding and feeding
grounds for native and migratory birds, along with other
relevant flora and fauna in and around the lagoon, by
identifying alternative feeding, breading and roosting
habitats that are well conserved and protected, followed by
reducing encroachment of lagoon buffer zone for develop-
ment and concretisation can help recover and reinstate the
lake food chain by ecosystem-based approaches. Focus on
fish species and ensuring that native fish are preferred over
exotics can build the natural lake ecosystem structure and
help restore the ecosystem functions. Creating awareness
on commercial aquaculture and its deleterious health and
natural-environment impacts followed by building capacity
on sustainable and ecosystem-based aquaculture can reduce
the release of enriched waste water from aquaculture ponds to
lagoons. Similarly, awareness on commercial shell mining
and its larger impact on lagoon health needs to be discussed
with local communities, followed by understanding and
documenting traditional efforts, and this can help protect
the long-term benefits of lagoon health. NbS that addresses
societal concerns is key to success of any NbS approach;
hence, community participation along with citizen science-
based NbS planning, implementation and monitoring can
help improve the situation if appropriately planned and
implemented (Dhyani et al. 2020a). There will be need for
constant financial support to support scientificmanagement
centre that can be facilitated by public finances from
government departments as well as private financial support
from the corporates with social and ecological responsibility
to support restoration, ecological engineering for protecting
the lagoon ecosystem and biodiversity. Efforts to also involve
corporates beyond finances for understanding their socio-
ecological responsibility to shift their approach from
mimicking conservation to actual conservation can be a
transformative approach to address the larger challenges of
the issue.
The roles of transformative conservation of ecosystems and
adaptational research must be recognised in planning the
developmental policies for transitional water environments
(e.g. Fougères et al. 2022). However, it must be noted that
all adaptive capacity-building strategies may not provide the
necessary results (e.g. Koomson et al. 2020), which could
necessitate adopting the sustainable livelihoods approach.
This would be able to address the important issues ‘through
pedagogy, political mobilisation, inner transformation, as
well as planning, action, and continual adjustment’ necessary
for ensuring sustainable development in the long term
(Fougères et al. 2022). As the way forward, data pertaining
to the following need to be collected through direct
stakeholder surveys and analysed to derive the ecosystem
services (ES) statuses and indicators for positive translation
of the NbS. For example, Kavi kumar et al. (2016) provided
macro assessment of ES for Indian coastal and marine
systems; however, there still remains the scope for evaluation
of NbS-enhanced as well as impacts-adjusted ES because of
climate change. Hence, it is proposed that policy frameworks
for development of transitional water environments such as
Pulicat must recognise the following activities as imperatives
of the growth of the eco-regions:
1. Periodic assessments of ecosystem characteristics by
active partnership of government body, scientific
organisation, CBOs and citizen scientists.
2. Categorisation and quantification of the ES provided as
provisioning, regulatory, supportive, and cultural ES for
highlighting the value of the lagoon.
3. Valuation of the ES provided by the coastal lagoon in
monetary and non-monetary terms for showcasing the
threats if the services are lost.
4. Assessment of the effects of climate change on the ES of the
system for incorporating adaptive placement strategies.
The above-mentioned actionable points must be
incorporated at local to state-level policies so that newly
created assets (e.g. NbS assets; Table 1) or administrative
F
www.publish.csiro.au/mf Marine and Freshwater Research
units such as the proposed Pulicat Lake Development
Authority can reflect on these ecosystem-specific governance
elements positively and critically as per the circumstances.
Baseline assessment of the ecosystem services
for Pulicat lagoon
Although differential ES evaluation methodologies are
reported, frameworks such as Common International
Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES) can be explored
as they can provide non-random, non-replicative assessments
through simple media such as spreadsheets or open-source
software (HainesYoung and Potschin 2013). Policies for
assessment and publishing the monetary and as well as
non-monetary evaluations affecting the developmental
benefits derived from ES at community-level can provide
robust frameworks to incorporate NbS into infrastructure
development in the shore environment. Assessment of these
NbS need to be standardised for the Indian scenario,
especially for transitional ecosystems as coastal lagoons.
The regulatory framework, in this case, can provide inputs
for targeted policy development of the appropriate NbS
category also described in Table 1, as follows: green
alternatives for total habitat management or supportive
management options. Ensemble solutions and naturally
conceived products can also be considered on a case-by-
case basis for each of the critical habitats (e.g. Santhanam
and Kundu 2022). Table 2 provides a list of the ecosystem
services offered by Pulicat lagoon.
A first-cut estimate of the monetary value for Pulicat
lagoon ecosystem is also provided in Table 2.Arecent
assessment of the value of the ES by the Madras Institute
of Development Studies (MIDS) provided a total value
of ~IN₹11 337 618 738 (~US$143 551 373) per year
through a market price and benefit transfer approach
and ~IN₹10 607 204 110 (~US$134 303 221) per year by
the willingness-to-pay (WTP) approach. The maximum
potential values on restoration were found to be
~IN₹145 822 876 720 or ~US$1 846 337 812 (Venkatachalam
2022). On the basis of these reports as well as the present
investigation, estimates for the value of the ES of Pulicat
lagoon is reported to be in the range of IN₹10 000 000 000–
160 000 000 000 (i.e. US$125 097 700–1 958 942 776) at
present considering a WTP approach, which combined the
actual ground data and secondary data on the ES parameters
available in public domain. The present study also considered
additional ES categories such as the production of value-
added products by using lagoon resources, disaster-related
bioshield ES services, resilience building ES attributed to
droughts, floods and heat island effects, supporting ES for
space programs, engineering tourism etc., for which the
lagoon environment has been a suitable base. These ES,
observed at ground levels to provide direct or indirect
benefits, are essential for the derivation of the economic
and developmental benefits of the lagoon. Estimates of ES
post-restoration are not defined in the current study,
differing from the approach reported by Venkatachalam
(2022). This is because the current study proposes a NbS
approach to restore and enhance the values of ES, and
standardised valuation of NbS is still being researched.
These values may again be monetary or non-monetary,
or a combination of both, requiring long-term assessments
on the scale of sustainability indicators, as provided in
Santhanam and Kundu (2022). Ecosystem units at Pulicat
such as wetlands, marshes, mangrove and sand barriers and
the multiple habitats for fishes, crustaceans, molluscans,
bird and animals that they support, significantly contribute
to the carbon sequestration through interconnected processes
and pathways of trophic interactions and biogeochemical
cycles. However, because of the extremely complex nature
of these inter-relationships, quantification of this ES (i.e.
carbon sequestration) separately is not easy for a specific
timeframe alone. Hence, although the highly significant role
of the Pulicat ecosystem in carbon sequestration is recognised
in the present study, quantification of sequestration as a
separate ES has not been undertaken. However, sequestration
has been quantified indirectly as a function of the combina-
tion of the existing ES contributed by the ecological units,
supportive habitats, fisheries and prawnery, as well as the
culture of ES.
However, differences in scientific literature with respect
to both methods and estimates of the ES for coastal
lagoons attributed to differences in the numbers, types and
levels of biotic and abiotic parameters considered by
different authors to influence ES at local scales have been
well documented by Newton et al. (2018). In this context,
it is complex yet essential to assess both monetary and
non-monetary ES values by using a standardised set of
parameters for transitional environments specifically, over
different periods and through an ES framework for Indian
scenario to bring out the consistent, impact-adjusted ES,
combining both monetary and non-monetary values.
Conclusions
Coastal wetlands have an essential and crucial role to play
in reducing the vulnerability of communities to climate
change that includes rising seas and coastal hazards,
through their role in sediment capture, vertical accretion,
erosion reduction, and moderating the climate and wave
attenuation. It is important to note that Pulicat lagoon has
provided sustained ecosystem services through historical
and modern times, largely owing to a native estuarine
resource management system practised by the indigenous
and local communities for more than three centuries to
promote and preserve sustainable fisheries in the region.
The lagoon’s unique fishing system, Padu (‘to share’), is
based on rotational fishing rights (Odd and Sanjeeva 2009;
G
H. Santhanam et al. Marine and Freshwater Research
Table 2. Types, levels of management and the estimation of the values of the ecosystem services provided by Pulicat lagoon.
Ecosystem services
offered Type Level of
management Approximate
value (IN₹) Major data used in
computation Remarks and notes References
Fisheries, including prawn
and shrimp culture, shell
fisheries
Provisioning Mismanaged 989 600 000 Earning members among the
fishers, n1 = 12 370
Average annual
earnings = IN₹80 000
Earnings calculated as per
State Governments norms BirdLife
International
(2022);
Nalle (2022)
Bird and animal habitats Provisioning Degrading 37 800 000 Average number of birds
visiting Pulicat annually,
n2 = 42 000
Value addition = IN₹900
per bird
Calculated using practical
surveys of the economic
values of birds droppings.
These become food for
fishes, crabs, and prawns and
hence the values are
downscaled form the
proportions of the total fish
& prawns sold in Pulicat
Present study
Wetland, mangrove and
sand barrier habitats Provisioning,
regulatory Degrading 2 000 000 000 Approximate value arrived
from total damages from
recent disasters
Buckingham Canal, fringe
mangroves, and sand dunes
protects the Coromandel
Coast from natural disasters
Present study
Habitat for coastal human
communities Provisioning Satisfactory 100 000 000 The value arrived from the
total ES value with 20% of it Padu-system protects the
eco-system, observed
through field research.
Hence, the human presence
adds value to the protection
of the lagoon
Present study
Eco-tourism, island
tourism Supportive Unmanaged 42 476 875 Willingness-to-pay (WTP)
value is Rs.245 (adjusted to
inflation); mean number of
daily visitors, n3 = 475
people (from present study)
Leisure Boating was banned
in 2011. However, visitors
to Pulicat villages add to the
total economic value.
Number of visitors to the
lagoon were averaged across
lean and peak periods (e.g.
local festivals)
Present study
Heritage and cultural
spaces Cultural Unmanaged 0 Not quantified because
of lack of holistic datasets International values could
not be appropriately
downscaled to local
economic value. The reason
is that the awareness about
the heritage internationally is
very less and has not
reflected in terms of the
local economic value, despite
that fact that the Dutch and
Portuguese cemeteries are
recognised as oldest
amongst the other historical
cemeteries in India.
Historical records of Fort
Geldria, remnants of which
are located at Pulicat are
famous, but have not yet
attracted visitors. One
Vaishnavite shrine, Adi
Narayana Perumal temple,
built entirely with laterites is
an ancient architectural
wonder, which has been
partially restorated in
modern times by INTACH.
Parthasarathy
(2013)
(Continued on next page)
H
www.publish.csiro.au/mf Marine and Freshwater Research
Table 2. (Continued).
Ecosystem services Type Level of Approximate Major data used in Remarks and notes References
offered management value (IN₹) computation
A culturally important
Shaivite temple at
Thirupalaivanam and another
ancient Vaishnavite temple
near Ponneri, the
Karikrishna perumal temple
the attracts much visitors.
But cultural values from all
these religious places are not
well quantified
Religious spaces Cultural Unmanaged 98 000 000 Willingness-to-pay (WTP)
value is IN₹245 (adjusted to
inflation); mean number of
visitors : 400 000 people
(from field-based
observation in the present
study)
The Catholic and Hindu
religious festivals attract on
average 400 000 visitors.
Catholic Church is a Basilica,
and it is the first church on
south-eastern coast of India
(1515)
Present study
Livelihood enhancement
through the manufacture
of value-added products
Provisioning Satisfactory 11 550 000 Number of villages involved
in the handicrafts = 33; total
numbers of artisans = 210;
annual average earning per
person = IN₹55 000
Handicraft is second income
for the women of Pulicat
Lagoon promoting the
production of value-added
products through gender
equity from a social
perspective. The present
survey considered the
earnings of the total number
of women who are provided
with an ‘Artisans Card’ by
the Government of India,
recognising their vocation
Present study
Scientific explorations of
the environment, space
and earth observation by
providing supportive
bases from sand barrier
island, Sriharikota (SHAR)
Supportive Satisfactory 2 643 691 750 Data on foreign exchange
from rocket launches from
SHAR, ISRO downscaled to
local currency; latest report
of foreign exchange
earned = US$35 million (as
per ISRO data); approximate
number of launches were
considered as per 1979–
2022 data available in the
public domain = 180
(including multiple payloads
in selected launches; ~10+
satellites)
Creation of Riparian forests
within SHAR has been
helping in conservation and
preservation of heronries in
the wetlands of Pulicat.
ISRO’s dedicated attention
to Space Situational
Awareness programs as per
Space Debris Mitigation
Guidelines 2002, to safeguard
space assets, minimise space
debris and collision threats
can also have enormous co-
benefits in limiting debris fall
into the lagoon in the
coming years. This will
enhance the additional value
of all the types of ES for
Pulicat
Sivakumar et al.
(2009); New Delhi
Television (2021);
Indian Space
Research
Organisation
(2022a, 2022b)
‘Engineering tourism’ of
Nellore district; visits to
SHAR, Somasila Reservoir
and Krishnampatnam port
Supportive Satisfactory 0 Not calculated due to lack
of complete data in public
domain
Not accounted for yet in
terms of supporting ES Sri Potti Sriramulu
Nellore District
website, see
https://spsnellore.
ap.gov.in/
engineering-
tourism/
(Continued on next page)
I
H. Santhanam et al. Marine and Freshwater Research
Table 2. (Continued).
Ecosystem services
offered Type Level of
management Approximate
value (IN₹) Major data used in
computation Remarks and notes References
Bioshield areas against
natural disasters Regulatory Unmanaged 0 Not calculated because of
the lack of actual Considering the impacts of
the 2004 Indian Ocean Chandramohan
et al. (2017)
quantification on the
numbers of lives saved in Tsunami, the flood
inundation levels at Pulicat
the presence of mangroves
and sand barriers as well as
the losses of crafts, gears
were reported to be lowest
along the entire stretch of
Tamilnadu, attributed to the
etc. Decrease in the
mangrove patches over the
years need to be accounted
presence of sand barrier and
the whole lagoon body that
bore the impact and
alleviated the flooding into
the villages. In recent times,
no loss of lives was reported
due to cyclonic activities.
However, loss of boats,
gears and fisheries are not
well constrained for every
annual event
Trading at local levels Provisioning Satisfactory 937 500 000 Annual average value of sale
of fishes, shell fishes, prawns
etc is 75 000 (from current
Fishers sell the fish and shell
fishes to market vendors.
Data was collected through
Present
investigation
investigation) primary survey
Navigability Provisioning, Less managed 0 Not calculated, but high Buckingham Canal crosses Press Information
regulatory value foreseeable in future if
National Waterways scheme
is implemented. Historical
value attributed to
790 km stretching entire
south-eastern coast, meeting
Pulicat near SHAR island.
Three rivers joining the
Bureau, Delhi,
India (2022)
navigability provisioned by
Buckingham Canal needs to
be estimated
lagoon on its western shores
can provide easy hinterland
navigability, which are
currently unused. However,
project for development of
National Waterway-4 has
been recently launched.
Pulicat has been known to
be a natural harbour
historically (two private
ports located on the North
and South of Pulicat
Lagoon). If the natural flow
channels of Pulicat are
preserved for their
regulatory ES and a nature-
based planning approach to
preserve the provisioning ES,
Pulicat can be converted
into a high value blue–green
infrastructure on the eastern
coast of India
Reduction of drought
effects and heat island
effects as well as
Regulatory Unmanaged 124 124 640 000 Only contributions from
approximate agricultural
yield values reported in the
Evapotranspiration of the
lagoon contributes to rain
cloud formation and
Centre for
Agriculture and
Rural
contributions to
agricultural production
through regulation of the
public domain are
considered here. The total
agriculture land in Tiruvallur
regulates, enhances the
precipitation for the entire
region. This helps in avoiding
Development
Studies and
Tamilnadu
hydrological cycle. District is 1 700 000 ha and
in Nellore District –
2 000 000 ha. The
the disservices of drought
due to high rates of evapo-
transpiration, which can
Agricultural
University (2015)
(Continued on next page)
J
www.publish.csiro.au/mf Marine and Freshwater Research
Table 2. (Continued).
Ecosystem services Type Level of Approximate Major data used in Remarks and notes References
offered management value (IN₹) computation
percentage of agriculture
land directly benefitted from
hydrological provisioning
services of Pulicat lagoon is
40% or ~1 480 000 ha
Cost of Production of Paddy
considered at cumulative
market prices across
states = IN₹83 868 ha–1
calculated as per
government data
manifest in the absence of
the lagoon. With respect to
the dominant Northeast
monsoonal precipitation,
government estimates
attribute 40% of agriculture
benefit from the monsoon.
The percentage area (40%)
is determined by the area of
lagoon covering the
cumulative agricultural
regions of the shore area of
the two districts of
Tiruvallur (Tamilnadu) and
Nellore (Andhra Pradesh).
Needs multi-agency inputs
to quantify the value
translated into multiple
economic values of
provisioning ES as avoidance
of loss of fisheries and
aquaculture, supporting ES
as agriculture, eco-tourism,
high conjunctive water use
indices as well as the social
parameters such as
improved liveability indices,
blue–green index
contributing to cultural and
supporting ES
Traditional, indigenous
and local knowedge base
Supportive,
cultural Unmanaged 20 000 000 Only an approximate
estimate provided here as
per current value estimated
by the local respondents as
per their estimates of
decadal earnings from the
use of traditional and local
knowledge. Need for
systematic scientific and
socio-economic analyses
Untapped vernacular
knowledge which would be
very useful to plan suitable
adaptive responses to the
impacts of climate change.
For example, samples of the
18th century Pulicat chintz
handkerchiefs are available in
global museums; however,
the special art of mordant
dyeing which was exclusive
to the region still needs
revival. Such enterprises can
add a lot of cultural ES value
to the region, also
promoting the local
economy. Villages like the
Karimanal were famous as
artisanal boat making centre
and such lost art can be
revived
Present
investigation;
Bhuvaneswari
(2003); Victoria
and Albert
Museum South
Kensington (1999)
s
Saraswathy and Pandian 2016). With this traditional manage-
ment practice, the members nurture a sense of collective social
responsibility and awareness of their resource territories
(Jayapaul 2007). These nature–culture linkages have
protected the lagoon from all destructive intrusion by
state administration or industrialisation, showing the direct
link among biodiversity, economic activity, and vernacular
sustainable management. Despite its rich natural and cultural
heritage, the lagoon has still not been considered for receiving
protection under the RAMSAR convention, which can facilitate
and ensure long-term ecological conservation of the lagoon for
ensuring long-term unhindered flow of ecosystem services.
K
H. Santhanam et al. Marine and Freshwater Research
Further, there is a growing need to assess the health of the
Pulicat lagoon ecosystem as per the IUCN guidelines on the
Red List of Ecosystems (RLE) in a more systematic manner
(Keith et al. 2013), given the apparent vulnerability of the
ecosystem possibly undergoing a hidden collapse (a condition
where an ecosystem superficially appears relatively intact,
but the prolonged period of decline of ecosystem structure
and functions coupled with long lag times for restoration of
key ecosystem components reflect that the collapse of the
ecosystem is almost inevitable (Lindenmayer and Sato
2018). The creation of a single Authority similar to Chilika
Development Authority (Odisha, India) with a coordinated
team of experts and coastal managers can help pursue policies
dealing with resource-use conflicts as well as pursuing
development and conservation of all stakeholders. Research
on the use of NbS backed by a strong coastal zone develop-
ment policy framework will provide a strong example for
reducing encroachment and enhanced industrialisation
and concretisation that can help implementation for other
parts of the Coromandel coast too. Further, examples of socio-
cultural management, as in the case of Pulicat, can help
illustrate the strong potentials for addressing socio-ecological
challenges by adopting site-specific NbS frameworks and
approaches to promote and achieve sustainable development
of the coastal ecosystems in India, while not compromising
on the economic and developmental opportunities. A new
methodology is required to derive value of NbS for lagoon
restoration needs to be distinguished from conventional
eco-restoration approaches with purely engineering- or
technology-based solutions.
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Data availability. Data sharing is not applicable as no new data were generated or analysed during this study.
Conflicts of interest. The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Declaration of funding. This research did not receive any specific funding.
Author contributions. H. Santhanam undertook planning and execution of the research, initiating and writing the paper, produced figures and tables, and
undertook data curation, metadata on ecosystem services evaluation. S. Dhyani co-wrote the paper, led discussions on NbS, legal frameworks and editing of
the paper, and provided insights on ecosystem services and ecosystem-based assessments. X. Benedict co-wrote the paper, compiled data and conducted the
economic valuation of the ecosystem services of the lagoon.
Author affiliations
ANational Institute of Advanced Studies (NIAS), Indian Institute of Science (IISc) Campus, Bengaluru 560012, Karnataka, India.
BCSIR National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Nehru Marg, Nagpur 440020, Maharashtra, India.
CCommission on Ecosystem Management, International Union for the Conservation of Nature, 28 Rue Mauverney, CH-1196 Gland, Switzerland.
DArt and Architecture Research Development and Education (AARDE) Foundation, Nungambakkam, Chennai 600034, Tamilnadu, India.
EPresent address: Manipal Academy of Higher Education (MAHE), Bengaluru Campus, Karnataka 560064, India.
M