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Interpersonal emotion regulation strategies: Enabling flexibility in high‐stress work environments
Abstract
While scholars have demonstrated that emotions play a central role in cognition, behavior, and decision making, most of the studies on emotions in work contexts show that emotions, or their expression, are often suppressed. We thus investigated how workers in high‐stress work environments deal with emotions and remain functional by focusing on the range of extrinsic regulation strategies used by workers in these environments. Drawing from participant observations and in‐depth, semi‐structured interviews, we show how police officers are flexible in their choices of emotion‐regulation strategies and how contextual factors emerge as the crux of this process. We contribute to the understanding of regulatory flexibility – defined as the process of matching emotion regulation strategies to environmental circumstances as they unfold in real work situations – by identifying two main enabling factors: co‐regulation and third‐party interference.
... This environment creates a heightened risk of decision fatigue, where the quality of leadership decisions deteriorates under sustained pressure (Madrid et al., 2019). Support mechanisms, such as regular training, mentoring programs, and resilience-building initiatives, have been shown to mitigate these effects and enable IT leaders to manage these pressures effectively (Gagnon and Monties, 2023). Organizations should prioritize these strategies to address the implications of high workloads and safeguard the health and productivity of their workforce. ...
... These managers are not only faced with increased quantitative demands, but also have to deal with qualitative demands such as emotional labour resulting from complex team dynamics and critical decision-making moments. Therefore, studies (Gagnon and Monties, 2023;Madrid et al., 2019) indicate the need for the promotion of emotional intelligence as well as emotional regulation in order to maintain a leader's challenging performance and effectively manage the intricacies of their role. ...
This paper investigates the impact of workload on leadership roles within the Austrian IT sector, by also paying attention to differences between genders. The research adopted a prospective design, selecting IT professionals, stratified by those with and without personnel responsibility and examined further through the lens of gender. A total of 200 participants completed the survey, where the modified German version of the Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire (COPSOQ) served as the primary tool, which evaluated dimensions such as demands, influence, interpersonal relations, work interface, and conflicts. The results indicate that individuals with personnel responsibility experience significantly lower scores in the dimensions demands and influence , suggesting challenges in managing qualitative or emotional demands alongside perceived limitations in their scope of action. This trend persisted, albeit less marked, within the dimension work interface , indicating concerns regarding occupational stability (job security) among leading individuals. Gender analysis revealed that male participants reported fewer conflicts compared to females, highlighting discordance regarding experiencing workplace challenges. Discussion revolves around the difficulties faced by individuals with personnel responsibility in managing multifaceted demands of their role and the specific challenges encountered by female leaders. The findings emphasize the necessity of strategies to support leaders on acknowledging gender-specific challenges to enhance occupational health in the IT sector. This study contributes to the understanding of workload dynamics within leadership roles in the IT industry, recommending targeted measures to address the particular stress factors of leaders and highlight the need for gender-specific considerations in organizational support systems.
... Understanding the mechanisms of emotion regulation is essential because effective emotion regulation helps students manage emotions such as anger, anxiety, and stress, preventing these feelings from impairing their decision-making abilities and increasing procrastination. Those with solid emotion regulation skills can better tolerate and modify negative emotions, allowing them to stay focused on completing academic tasks despite emotional challenges [48]. Based on the findings from previous research, it is proposed that emotion regulation mediates the relationship between teachers' academic motivation and student procrastination. ...
Purpose
The present study aimed to analyze the effectiveness of external and personal regulatory mechanisms in reducing procrastination behavior among university students. For this purpose, the role of teachers’ academic motivation is worthwhile in shaping the learning environment and reducing procrastination, with a focus on the mediating roles of emotion regulation and study habits considered imperative.
Research design/method
By employing a quantitative, cross-sectional research design, data were collected from a sample of 210 teachers working in universities located in Multan-Pakistan via convenient sampling, yielding a usable response rate of 70.28%.
Data analysis & study results
The gathered data was analyzed using Smart PLS 4 software. Results from the structural equation model (PLS-SEM) indicated that teachers’ academic motivation significantly affects student procrastination. However, when mediated by emotion regulation and study habits, the study confirmed the statistically significant mediating effect of both mediators in mitigating procrastination among students.
Findings
Findings of the present study suggested that enhancing teachers’ motivation may be more effective when mediated with emotional regulation and effective study habits. Emotionally regulated students and those with effective study habits were less likely to procrastinate during their academic endeavor. The findings highlighted the need for teacher training programs to develop and promote motivation and support students’ emotional and academic regulation to enhance learning outcomes.
Practical implications and recommendations
Based on the above findings, the study suggested that enhancing teacher motivation is more impactful when paired with strategies to foster student emotion regulation and study habits. It also recommended educational policies prioritizing academic content and personalized student engagement strategies to minimize procrastination and promote academic success. Programs should be implemented with a focus on promoting motivation while enabling teachers to support students’ emotional and self-regulatory needs for better academic outcomes.
... Aunque también es cierto que la forma más habitual de regulación emocional recibe el calificativo de "pobre". En entornos profesionales se corresponde con la manifestación de la supresión externa de la emoción (Gagnon y Monties, 2023), quedando un malestar en la persona que condicionará su futuro involucramiento en el equipo y, posteriormente, en sus resultados. El autocontrol tiene otras expresiones que reflejan una personalidad apocada que evita defender los propios intereses (categoría pobre), y entonces se reconoce como uno de los elementos constitutivos del autoliderazgo (Goleman, 1999). ...
El hecho de que un grupo de estudiantes online trabaje de forma conjunta en un cometido académico no es sinónimo de que lo hagan colaborativamente. Para que los alumnos se puedan desempeñar de esa forma (y que los profesores la puedan llegar a evocar), obteniendo así unos mejores resultados de su aprendizaje, resulta imprescindible comprender cómo se sucede esta interacción académica. La finalidad de esta investigación es validar un modelo de factores que permita entender cómo aportan los estudiantes a sus dinámicas de trabajo en equipo desde una perspectiva socioemocional. La muestra está compuesta por 722 estudiantes de masters de management. Se cursa un cuestionario que está integrado en su mayoría por ítems extraídos de instrumentos que son referente de la medida de la inteligencia emocional. La propuesta de factores se concreta de la forma siguiente: Autocontrol, Influencia personal, Comunicación integral, Trabajo en equipo y Gestión de conflictos. El modelo obtenido se comprueba ajustado mediante Análisis Factorial Confirmatorio. Se observan diferencias significativas entre sexo femenino y Trabajo en equipo, Influencia personal y Comunicación integral; así como entre mayores de 30 años y Gestión de conflictos, Trabajo en equipo e Influencia personal. Los resultados arrojan luz sobre como: a) plantear y mejorar esta dimensión pedagógica en la universidad; b) procurar una mejor orientación al alumnado para que este mejore su particular contribución a los trabajos de equipo.
... Author contributions VX: Conceptualisation (equal), data curation (lead), formal analysis (lead), investigation (lead) Methodology (equal) Validation (lead), visualisation (lead), writing -original draft (lead), writing -review and editing (lead) [11], i Thiel et al. [50], j Richard [33], k Gagnon and Monties [14] Area of psychology What our results suggest for these domains Clinical Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) • Cognitive restructuring: reframing an emotional event adaptively to alter its emotional impact a, b • This key emotion regulation strategy in CBT resembles the reconstrual subtype c • Extrinsic: clinicians help clients build adaptive reconstrual ability by helping them reframe lowintensity events d Couples ...
Prior research has established that people use reappraisal to regulate others’ emotions in higher-emotional intensities but use distraction in lower-emotional intensities. However, research has not compared different reappraisal subtypes, such as reconstrual versus minimizing. In three pre-registered studies, participants completed a novel advice-giving task where they selected regulation strategies (distraction, reconstrual, or minimizing) to help a ‘partner’ who was ostensibly experiencing stimuli of differing emotional intensities and types (the partner was, in fact, non-existent). In Experiment 1, participants selected reconstrual over distraction significantly more for low versus high intensity stimuli. In Experiment 2, participants showed no significant preference for minimizing over distraction on low versus high intensity stimuli. In Experiment 3, participants selected reconstrual over minimizing significantly more on low versus high intensity stimuli. Results indicate that previous findings regarding the effect of emotional intensity on ‘reappraisal’ preference are limited to reconstrual and may not generalize to other reappraisal subtypes (i.e., minimizing) which require lower cognitive costs and emotional engagement with the stimuli.
Blended classroom assessment (CA) has become commonplace in the post-pandemic era, offering advantages but also presenting challenges for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers. These challenges can impact teachers’ emotional experiences, distinct from face-to-face or purely online environments. However, scant research exists on how EFL teachers employ emotion regulation (ER) strategies in blended CA within EFL contexts. This qualitative study examines how eight EFL teachers at a university in southwestern China employed ER strategies in blended CA. Drawing on Gross’s ER theory, the study identifies ten intrinsic and extrinsic ER strategies, either antecedent-focused or response-focused, utilized by EFL teachers. These strategies helped teachers maintain resilience amidst challenges posed by blended CA, including low completion rates of online learning tasks prior to face-to-face instruction, interaction in blended CA, blended assessment design, managing the workload of blending online and face-to-face assessment, and addressing issues of plagiarism and cheating. The study enriches our understanding of EFL teachers’ emotions in blended CA and underscores the significance of ER competence in assessment literacy. Implications for equipping teachers with strategies to enhance their emotional well-being and resilience in blended CA are also discussed.
Important advances have recently been made in studying emotions in infants and the nature of emotional communication between infants and adults. Infant emotions and emotional communications are far more organized than previously thought. Infants display a variety of discrete affective expressions that are appropriate to the nature of events and their context. They also appreciate the emotional meaning of the affective displays of caretakers. The emotional expressions of the infant and the caretaker function to allow them to mutually regulate their interactions. Indeed, it appears that a major determinant of children’s development is related to the operation of this communication system. Positive development may be associated with the experience of coordinated interactions characterized by frequent reparations of interactive errors and the transformation of negative affect into positive affect, whereas negative development appears to be associated with sustained periods of interactive failure and negative affect.
Managers’ interest in the concept of emotional intelligence (EI) has grown steadily due to an accumulation of published articles and books touting EI’s benefits. For over thirty years, many researchers have used or designed tools for measuring EI, most of which raise important psychometric, cultural and contextual issues. The aim of this article is to address some of the main limitations observed in previous studies of EI. By developing and validating QEPro we propose a new performance-based measure of EI based on a modified version of Mayer and Salovey’s (1997) four-branch model. QEPro is an ability EI measure specifically dedicated to managers and business executives in a French cultural environment (N = 1035 managers and executives). In order to increase both the ecological and the face validity of the test for the target population we used the Situational Judgment Tests framework and a theory-based item development and scoring approach. For all items, correct and incorrect response options were developed using established theories from the emotion and management fields. Our study showed that QEPro has good psychometric qualities such as high measurement precision and internal consistency, an appropriate level of difficulty and a clear factorial structure. The tool also correlates in meaningful and theoretically congruent ways with general intelligence, Trait EI measures, the Big Five factors of personality, and the Affect measures used in this study. For all these reasons, QEPro is a promising tool for studying the role of EI competencies in managerial outcomes.
How do authoritarian leaders in modern organizations influence work team emotional climate and performance? Defining authoritarian leadership as an ambient, demanding, and controlling leadership style, we conducted a survey study of 252 leaders and 765 subordinates matched in 227 work teams in three large public Japanese organizations. The results indicate that authoritarian leaders are more likely to create a team climate of emotion suppression, which induces a higher level of team emotional exhaustion that negatively impacts team performance. Furthermore, we found that authoritarian leaders’ own emotion suppression enhances the above sequential mediation effects, i.e. the more emotion suppression the authoritarian leader him/herself exercises, the stronger the team climate of emotion suppression, the higher the level of team emotional exhaustion, and the lower the team performance. These findings suggest that leadership effectiveness may be improved if leaders can reduce their authoritarian behaviors and identify appropriate channels for employees to release emotions in the workplace.
Interpersonal emotion regulation is an important psychological function in social behaviour. However, this construct has still been scantly explored in work psychology and organizational settings, meaning that the effects of interpersonal emotion regulation on core aspects of work performance are as yet unknown. Thus, our article seeks to provide insight into how, in the context of teamwork in organizations, leaders can enhance team effectiveness by using interpersonal emotion regulation to capitalize on the important role that affects plays in team innovation. Using a multisource field study, we tested and supported a mediation model in which leaders’ attempts to improve their team members’ emotions were positively related to team innovation via team positive affective tone. Conversely, leader affect‐worsening regulation was negatively related to team innovation via team negative affective tone. As such, we contribute to the work and organizational psychology literature by applying the notion of interpersonal emotion regulation in the teamwork setting, identifying specific behaviours of leaders that influence the development of novel ideas through shared affective experiences.
Practitioner points
Leader interpersonal emotion regulation increases or decreases innovation by means of team affect.
Leader affect‐improving interpersonal emotion regulation is positively related to team innovation, whereas leader affect‐worsening interpersonal emotion regulation has the opposite effect.
Interventions for leader development should include training on interpersonal emotion regulation to benefit teamwork.
To date, the field of emotion regulation (ER) has largely focused on intrinsic ER (i.e., regulation of one’s own emotions) and has only recently started to investigate extrinsic ER (i.e., regulation of another person’s emotions). This paper selectively reviews current findings in order to answer the following questions: (1) What is extrinsic ER and how can it be distinguished from related constructs such as emotional contagion, empathy, prosocial behavior and social support? (2) How can we best model the processes through which extrinsic ER occurs as well as individual differences in extrinsic ER ability? The answers show that although extrinsic ER has much in common with intrinsic ER, the two cannot be equated. Research is therefore needed on the extrinsic side of ER.
Recent attention has focused on the role of interpersonal emotion regulation (IER) in the development and maintenance of a range of forms of psychopathology, including anxiety, depression, and borderline personality disorder (BPD). Despite the relevance of IER in psychopathology, few measures exist to characterize patterns of maladaptive IER. Our aim was to (1) develop a measure of maladaptive IER, (2) begin to explore the factor structure of this new measure, the difficulties in interpersonal regulation of emotions (DIRE), and (3) examine its association with symptoms of psychopathology. In Study 1, 853 Mechanical Turk workers completed the DIRE and measures of psychopathology symptoms. We identified two factors each in the IER and intrapersonal emotion regulation scales. In Study 2, 142 undergraduate students completed the DIRE and daily measures of emotion regulation and coping for 14 days. Preliminary findings suggest that the DIRE has adequate internal consistency and construct and predictive validity. This measure has the potential to supplement future efforts in assessing IER in psychopathology.
People often recruit social resources to manage their emotions, a phenomenon known as interpersonal emotion regulation (IER). Despite its importance, IER’s psychological structure remains poorly understood. We propose that two key dimensions describe IER: (1) individuals’ tendency to pursue IER in response to emotional events, and (2) the efficacy with which they perceive IER improves their emotional lives. To probe these dimensions, we developed the Interpersonal Regulation Questionnaire (IRQ), a valid and reliable measure of individual differences in IER. Factor analyses of participants’ responses confirmed tendency and efficacy as independent dimensions of IER (Study 1; N = 285), and demonstrated independence between how individuals engage with IER in response to negative, versus positive, emotion. In Study 2 (N = 347), we found that individuals high in IER tendency and efficacy are more emotionally expressive, empathetic, and socially connected. Two subsequent studies highlighted behavioral consequences of IER dimensions: people high in IER tendency sought out others more often following experimentally-induced emotion (Study 3; N = 400), and individuals high in IER efficacy benefitted more from social support after real-world emotional events (Study 4; N = 787). Finally, a field study of social networks in freshman dormitories revealed that individuals high in IER tendency and efficacy developed more supportive relationships during the first year of college (Study 5; N = 193). These data (i) identify distinct dimensions underlying IER, (ii) demonstrate that these dimensions can be stably measured and separated from related constructs, and (iii) reveal their implications for relationships and well-being.
In recent years, there has been increasing interest in how close relationships can impact personal goal pursuit. Extensive research on social support has shown that support often facilitates goal pursuit. However, Fitzsimons and Finkel found that perceived partner support may actually undermine motivation and decrease goal pursuit intentions. In this article, we report three well-powered studies (N = 850) that investigated the conditions under which romantic partners may bolster or undermine goal pursuit. In contrast with the original Fitzsimons and Finkel’s findings, the results of these studies consistently showed that perceived partner support bolsters goal pursuit intentions by increasing goal commitment. Implications for successful goal pursuit in the context of relationships are discussed.
Organization scholarship has seen an escalation of interest in research into extremes. Comprising several interconnected domains, this growing body of research is decidedly fragmented. This fragmentation risks limiting its potential for advancing management and organization studies. Drawing on 138 articles published in top-tier journals between 1980 and 2015, the purpose of this review is to resolve some of this fragmentation by sharpening definitions and by developing a context-specific typology to help differentiate between contributions from research into risky contexts, emergency contexts, and disrupted contexts. Doing so allows us to let the various literatures speak to each other and to outline ways to enhance the cumulative potential of extreme context research.
Recent studies have begun to document the diversity of ways people regulate their emotions. However, one unanswered question is why people regulate their emotions as they do in everyday life. In the present research, we examined how social context and goals influence strategy selection in daily high points and low points. As expected, suppression was particularly tied to social features of context: it was used more when others were present, especially non-close partners, and when people had instrumental goals, especially more interpersonal ones (e.g., avoid conflict). Distraction and reappraisal were used more when regulating for hedonic reasons (e.g., to feel better), but these strategies were also linked to certain instrumental goals (e.g., getting work done). When contra-hedonic regulation occurred, it primarily took the form of dampening positive emotion during high points. Suppression was more likely to be used for contra-hedonic regulation, whereas reappraisal and distraction were used more for pro-hedonic regulation. Overall, these findings highlight the social nature of emotion regulation and underscore the importance of examining regulation in both positive and negative contexts.
Recent wars in Iraq and Afghanistan have re-ignited debates on how to prevent and manage psychological injury among returning troops. These debates point to the psychological cost of war as a grand challenge whose scale and complexity stretch far beyond the already large and growing number of veterans affected. We use a unique ethnography of a military medical team's tour of duty in Camp Bastion, Afghanistan, to explore the role of institutional context as a contributing factor to psychological injury from war. We find that exposure to war and its consequences invokes sustained experiences of senselessness, futility, and surreality that are partially rooted in cultural expectations, professional role identity, and organizational protocol, and can threaten people's existential grounding in this institutional context. We argue that what makes work at war traumatic for some and not others is likely affected by the specific context through which people filter, frame, and cope with, their experience. A contextual understanding of psychological injury at war that is based in organizational research can thus form an important part of better addressing this grand challenge.
Coordination challenges are an inherent part of group work. They are perhaps more daunting for creative work because coordinating creative work-requires allowing for dynamics that seem to "pull the group together," or integrate, while also fostering dynamics that "pull the group apart," or de-integrate. During an inductive study of modern dance group rehearsals, these interactions emerged as central to understanding how groups navigate coordinating creative work. Our emergent findings reveal how groups use autonomy and constraints to accomplish elastic coordination throughout a creative project.
This article considers how and why people work with difficult emotions. Extending Hughes' typology of the physical, social and moral taints that constitute 'dirty work', the article explores the nature of a previously neglected and undefined concept, emotional dirt. Drawing on data from a situated ethnographic study of Samaritans, we consider how the handling of difficult and burdensome emotions, which are often written out of rational accounts of work, is outsourced to others who act as society's agents in the containment of emotional dirt. We provide the first explicit definition of emotional dirt, and contribute an extension to the existing tripartite classification of occupational taint. Moreover, in naming emotional dirt we seek to open up a sphere of research dedicated to understanding its emergence, nature and relational effects. To this end, we demonstrate how taint emerges as a sociological consequence of the performance of emotional labour as emotional dirty work, while considering how management of the difficult, negative or out-of-place emotions of others can be framed as a positive experience such that it can be good to feel bad when handling emotional dirt.
People respond to stressful events in different ways, depending on the event and on the regulatory strategies they choose. Coping and emotion regulation theorists have proposed dynamic models in which these two factors, the person and the situation, interact over time to inform adaptation. In practice, however, researchers have tended to assume that particular regulatory strategies are consistently beneficial or maladaptive. We label this assumption the fallacy of uniform efficacy and contrast it with findings from a number of related literatures that have suggested the emergence of a broader but as yet poorly defined construct that we refer to as regulatory flexibility. In this review, we articulate this broader construct and define both its features and limitations. Specifically, we propose a heuristic individual differences framework and review research on three sequential components of flexibility for which propensities and abilities vary: sensitivity to context, availability of a diverse repertoire of regulatory strategies, and responsiveness to feedback. We consider the methodological limitations of research on each component, review questions that future research on flexibility might address, and consider how the components might relate to each other and to broader conceptualizations about stability and change across persons and situations.
© The Author(s) 2013.
Two relatively independent research traditions have developed that address emotion management. The first is the emotion regulation (ER) tradition, which focuses on the processes which permit individuals to influence which emotions they have, when they have them, and how they experience and express these emotions. The second is the emotional intelligence (EI) tradition, which focuses—among other things—on individual differences in ER. To integrate these two traditions, we employed the process model of ER (Gross, 1998b) to review the literature on EI. Two key findings emerged. First, high EI individuals shape their emotions from the earliest possible point in the emotion trajectory and have many strategies at their disposal. Second, high EI individuals regulate their emotions successfully when necessary but they do so flexibly, thereby leaving room for emotions to emerge. We argue that ER and EI traditions stand to benefit substantially from greater integration.
Coregulation refers to the process by which relationship partners form a dyadic emotional system involving an oscillating pattern of affective arousal and dampening that dynamically maintains an optimal emotional state. Coregulation may represent an important form of interpersonal emotion regulation, but confusion exists in the literature due to a lack of precision in the usage of the term. We propose an operational definition for coregulation as a bidirectional linkage of oscillating emotional channels between partners, which contributes to emotional stability for both partners. We propose several distinctions and raise unanswered questions that will need to be addressed in order to understand the relevance of coregulation for well-being in adulthood.
In this diary study, we investigated multi-level predictors of daily counterproductive work behavior (CWB) relying on the theoretical frameworks of affective events theory and the emotion-centered model of CWB. We assessed significant work events, event-based fairness perceptions, negative emotional reactions to work events, and employee CWB over a 10-day period. We tested within-person relations predicting CWB, and cross-level moderating effects of two emotion regulation strategies (suppression and reappraisal). Results from a multi-level path analysis revealed that significant work events had both direct and indirect effects on negative emotional reactions. Further, negative emotional reactions in turn mediated the relationships between significant work events and all forms of daily CWB as well as the relationship between event-based fairness perceptions and daily CWB-O. Results also supported the moderating role of reappraisal emotion regulation strategy on relations between significant work events and negative emotional reactions. Less support, however, was found for the moderating influence of suppression on the link between negative emotional reactions and CWB. Among the broad work event categories we identified, our supplemental analyses revealed that negative work events involving interactions with supervisors elicited the highest levels of employee negative emotional reactions. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of these findings. Copyright (C) 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
In this article, we study emotional processes associated with the project management discourse. Employing a constructionist approach where emotions are experienced within an ordering discursive context, the study identifies four distinct emotional processes associated to the invocation of the project management discourse in daily work practices. From a study of theatre and opera house employees, we suggest that the project management discourse tends to normalise feelings of rigidity and weariness in project- based work, whilst emphasising projects as extraordinary settings creating thrill and excitement. Moreover, we argue that this discourse is invoked in ways that lead individuals to internalise emotional states related to chaos and anxiety, whilst ascribing feelings of certainty and confidence to external organisational norms and procedures. The study highlights how employees construct project-based work as a promise of exciting adventures experienced under conditions of rational control, but also how the negative and suppressed aspects of project-based work are constructed as inevitable and to be endured. Through these emotional processes, the Project management discourse is sustained and reinforced.
Contemporary emotion regulation research emphasizes intrapersonal processes such as cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression, but people experiencing affect commonly choose not to go it alone. Instead, individuals often turn to others for help in shaping their affective lives. How and under what circumstances does such interpersonal regulation modulate emotional experience? Although scientists have examined allied phenomena such as social sharing, empathy, social support, and prosocial behavior for decades, there have been surprisingly few attempts to integrate these data into a single conceptual framework of interpersonal regulation. Here we propose such a framework. We first map a "space" differentiating classes of interpersonal regulation according to whether an individual uses an interpersonal regulatory episode to alter their own or another person's emotion. We then identify 2 types of processes-response-dependent and response-independent-that could support interpersonal regulation. This framework classifies an array of processes through which interpersonal contact fulfills regulatory goals. More broadly, it organizes diffuse, heretofore independent data on "pieces" of interpersonal regulation, and identifies growth points for this young and exciting research domain. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).
One consistent element of Western sex stereotypes is that women are emotional, whereas men are rational. This is also widely spread in psychology and defended by feminist authors who equate women's relationality with their emotionality. In this article the concept of `emotionality' is criticized and the assumption that women are generally more emotional than men is questioned. A large amount of empirical research on sex differences in emotions is reviewed, leading to the conclusion that the general idea that women are more emotional than men tells us more about Western sex stereotypes than about women's actual emotions.
Because our emotions are crucial determinants of how well we function in our personal and professional lives, researchers from different perspectives have sought to understand how emotions can be best managed for optimal functioning. In this chapter, we focus on two research traditions that have examined this issue, the emotion regulation (ER) tradition and the emotional labor (EL) tradition. This effort is predicated on the belief that a more fundamental research tradition such as ER can inform and complement a more applied research tradition such as EL, first by extending our understanding of the various processes by which employees deal with their emotions, and second, by permitting a more accurate prediction of the consequences of these emotions. A case is presented that discriminating more finely between the various emotion management strategies may help to resolve some of the paradoxical findings observed in the EL literature.
This is the perfect book for any student new to qualitative research. In this exciting and major updating of his bestselling, benchmark text, David Silverman walks the reader through the basics of gathering and analysing qualitative data. David Silverman offers beginners unrivalled hands-on guidance necessary to get the best out of a research methods course or an undergraduate research project. New to the fourth edition: - A new chapter on data analysis dealing with grounded theory, discourse analysis and narrative analysis - Further worked-through examples of different kinds of data and how to interpret them - A separate section on focus groups and interpreting focus group data - An expanded ethics chapter - More coverage of digital media and photographs as data - A companion website with additional case studies and examples, links to SAGE journals online, and links to useful websites, podcasts and Youtube videos. This fourth edition is also accompanied with its own group page on www.methodspace.com where users can give feedback and discuss research issues.Visit www.methodspace.com/group/silverman
Emotion-related regulation is a topic of considerable current interest; however, this was not always true. We briefly discuss the history of interest in the topic and then the current state of the field, including definitions of the construct. In addition, we summarize some of the important issues for future attention, including definitional issues, topics that merit attention, and methodological and design issues. This field of inquiry is flourishing, but it is one that is rapidly expanding and improving in the quality of the research.
Research in industrial and organizational psychology demonstrates that the regulation of negative emotions in response to both organizational stressors and interpersonal workplace interactions can result in functional and dysfunctional outcomes (Côté, 2005; Diefendorff, Richard, & Yang, 2008). Research on the regulation of negative emotions has additionally been conducted in social psychology, developmental psychology, neuropsychology, health psychology, and clinical psychology. A close reading of this broader literature, however, reveals that the conceptualization and use of the term “emotion regulation” varies within each research field as well as across these fields. The main focus of our chapter is to make sense of the term “emotion regulation” in the workplace by considering its use across a broad range of psychology disciplines. We then develop an overarching theoretical framework using disambiguating terminology to highlight what we argue are the important constructs involved in the process of intrapersonal emotion generation, emotional experience regulation, and emotional expression regulation in the workplace (e.g., emotional intelligence, emotion regulation strategies, emotion expression displays). We anticipate this chapter will enable researchers and industrial and organizational psychologists to identify the conditions under which functional regulation outcomes are more likely to occur and then build interventions around these findings.
This title explores the psychological transformations and adaptations that result from police officers’ encounters with death. Police can encounter death frequently in the course of their duties, and these encounters may range from casual contacts with the deaths of others to the most profound and personally consequential confrontations with their own mortality. Using the ‘survivor psychology’ model as its theoretical base, this insightful and provocative research ventures into a previously unexplored area of police psychology to illuminate and explore the new modes of adaptation, thought, and feeling that result from various types of death encounters in police work. The psychology of survival asserts that the psychological world of the survivor—one who has come in close physical or psychic contact with death but nevertheless managed to live—is characterized by five themes: psychic numbing, death guilt, the death imprint, suspicion of counterfeit nurturance, and the struggle to make meaning. These themes become manifest in the survivor’s behavior, permeating his or her lifestyle and worldview. Drawing on extensive interviews with police officers in five nominal categories—rookie officers, patrol sergeants, crime scene technicians, homicide detectives, and officers who survived a mortal combat situation in which an assailant or another officer died-the author identifies the impact such death encounters have upon the individual, the police organization, and the occupational culture of policing.
Teammates’ perceptions of person‐focused interpersonal citizenship behavior (ICB) are important for effective teamwork, and a member's emotion suppression may critically influence others’ respective perceptions. The existing research is inconclusive, however, whether emotion suppression is helpful or harmful in this regard. This ambiguity hampers our understanding of the development of ICB perceptions within work teams, and it creates uncertainty as to whether members’ emotion suppression is beneficial or detrimental for themselves and the overall team. Hence, we examine a model that specifies important boundary conditions for the emotion suppression–ICB perception linkage. We illustrate a three‐way interactive relation across two studies, such that a member's emotion suppression is positively or negatively associated with a teammate's person‐focused ICB perceptions, depending on both the dyadic interaction context (i.e., relationship conflict) and the overall team context (i.e., goal interdependence). Beyond creating new knowledge on the origins of ICB perceptions, these results reconcile prior, seemingly contradictory perspectives on the role of emotion suppression by explicating when this emotion regulation strategy appears as either “faking in good faith” or “faking in bad faith.” Moreover, reiterating our findings’ relevance, we link others’ ICB perceptions with members’ receipt of ICB from their teammates as well as team performance.
Risk has become a crucial part of organizing, affecting a wide range of organizations in all sectors. We identify, review and integrate diverse literatures relevant to organizing risk, building on an existing framework that describes how risk is organized in three ‘modes’ – prospectively, in real-time, and retrospectively. We then identify three critical issues in the existing literature: its fragmented nature; its neglect of the tensions associated with each of the modes; and its tendency to assume that the meaning of an object in relation to risk is singular and stable. We provide a series of new insights with regard to each of these issues. First, we develop the concept of a risk cycle that shows how organizations engage with all three modes and transition between them over time. Second, we explain why the tensions have been largely ignored and show how studies using a risk work perspective can provide further insights into them. Third, we develop the concept of risk translation to highlight the ways in the meanings of risks can be transformed and to identify the political consequences of such translations. We conclude the paper with a research agenda to elaborate these insights and ideas further.
Policing has long been recognized as an emotionally distressing and stressful occupation, and recent years have seen a marked increase in psychological illness within the police service of Britain. Research into the emotional labor of police officers and its psychological consequences is limited and has predominately engaged quantitative methodologies. This paper takes a mixed methods approach, exploring emotional labor and the relationship with burnout within a large police force in the north of England. The use of audio diary provides in-depth exploration of feeling and display rules operating within the police service. Narrative analysis of thirty-eight audio diary entries and a focus group is integrated with results from the Maslach and Jackson Burnout Inventory. Findings indicated depersonalisation as a requirement of feeling and display rules, a strategy also used as a form of coping, as well as experienced as an aspect of burnout. Emotional suppression went beyond interactions with members of the public, continuing into peer and family relationships, with many officers never expressing their true emotions. This presents an important opportunity for the police service of England and Wales to better understand and respond to the emotional pressures and coping mechanisms that officer's experience within their lives.
Recent wars in Iraq and Afghanistan have re-ignited debates on how to prevent and manage psychological injury among returning troops. These debates point to the psychological cost of war as a grand challenge whose scale and complexity stretch far beyond the already large and growing number of veterans affected. We use a unique ethnography of a military medical team's tour of duty in Camp Bastion, Afghanistan, to explore the role of institutional context as a contributing factor to psychological injury from war. We find that exposure to war and its consequences invokes sustained experiences of senselessness, futility, and surreality that are partially rooted in cultural expectations, professional role identity, and organizational protocol, and can threaten people's existential grounding in this institutional context. We argue that what makes work at war traumatic for some and not others is likely affected by the specific context through which people filter, frame, and cope with, their experience. A contextual understanding of psychological injury at war that is based in organizational research can thus form an important part of better addressing this grand challenge.
En se fondant sur différents travaux de recherche et en s’appuyant sur les données qualitatives collectées auprès de la force « intervention » du GIGN, cet article tente de mieux comprendre les mécanismes de régulation émotionnelle de l’anxiété en situation extrême. L’étude révèle que la stratégie de réévaluation cognitive est la plus efficace et qu’à partir d’un certain seuil d’anxiété, les individus optent pour une stratégie de régulation émotionnelle inefficace. Finalement, les auteurs proposent un modèle en quatre étapes permettant de réguler plus efficacement l’anxiété.
Based on several researches and on the analysis of qualitative data collected from the Intervention Unit of the GIGN, this article investigates the mechanism of emotional regulation of anxiety in extreme situations. Our study confirms that cognitive reappraisal is the most efficient strategy to regulate anxiety, but when the level of anxiety perceived becomes too high, people tend to choose a less effective strategy. Finally, we draw practical implications based on the 4 steps process identified in this research.
The interpersonal dimension of emotion regulation in the field of sport has lately received a
burgeoning interest. Nevertheless, how and why athletes regulate their teammates’ emotions
in competitive setting remains unclear. Across two studies within a team sport context, we
uncovered athletes’ mechanisms for, and reasons to regulate teammates’ emotions during
competition. In Study 1, we investigated how rugby (N = 22 males) players’ emotions were
self- and interpersonally regulated during games. Findings revealed the emergence of a
continuum of self-involvement in the regulatory processes, wherein two forms of emotion
regulation co-existed: self-regulation (total self-involvement) and interpersonal regulation,
which included co-regulation (partial self-involvement; regulation with others) and extrinsic
regulation (no self-involvement; regulation by/of others). In Study 2, we examined the
motives that lead rugby (n = 30 males) players to use interpersonal extrinsic regulation
strategies during games. Interview data indicated that players regulated teammates’ emotions
for altruistic reasons (to help a teammate), egoistic reasons (for one’s own benefits), or both.
Overall, our findings further knowledge to better understand interpersonal emotion
regulation within competitive team sport contexts. From an applied perspective, findings
highlight the role that both individual goals and ego involvement may play in optimising
efficient interpersonal regulation during competition at team level.
Keywords: affective states; coping; emotional contagion; emotion regulation; rugby union
One of the fastest growing areas within psychology is the field of emotion regulation. However, enthusiasm for this topic continues to outstrip conceptual clarity, and there remains considerable uncertainty as to what is even meant by “emotion regulation.” The goal of this review is to examine the current status and future prospects of this rapidly growing field. In the first section, I define emotion and emotion regulation and distinguish both from related constructs. In the second section, I use the process model of emotion regulation to selectively review evidence that different regulation strategies have different consequences. In the third section, I introduce the extended process model of emotion regulation; this model considers emotion regulation to be one type of valuation, and distinguishes three emotion regulation stages (identification, selection, implementation). In the final section, I consider five key growth points for the field of emotion regulation.
Poised within the borderlands between two nations, Border Patrol agents form the largest federal law enforcement organization in the nation, yet the public knows very little about agents themselves. Agents complete a variety of job duties that may be viewed as “dirty work,” or work that society considers physically, socially, or morally objectionable. They also perform emotional duties and emotional labor, which are often stigmatized by the public. This interpretive ethnographic research provides a descriptive portrayal of the Patrol and extends theory in the areas of emotional labor—the emotional performances required to carry out certain jobs—and dirty work. This article asserts that emotion and emotional labor are emotionally tainted, and that engaging emotion provides one strategy for workers to make sense of this type of dirty work. A definition and framework for emotional taint are offered, extending the current discussion of both emotion and taint at work.
This article presents a framework for emotional intelligence, a set of skills hypothesized to contribute to the accurate appraisal and expression of emotion in oneself and in others, the effective regulation of emotion in self and others, and the use of feelings to motivate, plan, and achieve in one's life. We start by reviewing the debate about the adaptive versus maladaptive qualities of emotion. We then explore the literature on intelligence, and especially social intelligence, to examine the place of emotion in traditional intelligence conceptions. A framework for integrating the research on emotion-related skills is then described. Next, we review the components of emotional intelligence. To conclude the review, the role of emotional intelligence in mental health is discussed and avenues for further investigation are suggested.
Emotions have ubiquitous effects in human affairs. Vivian Gornick, in Fierce Attachments,^ recounts a typ-ical exchange with her mother. Gor-nick always begins these encounters with high hopes. "Somehow," de-spite her best intentions, the conver-sations always spiral downward: Today is promising, tremendously prom-ising I go to meet my mother. I'm flying. Flying! I want to give her some of this shiningness bursting in me, siphon into her my immense happiness at being alive. Just because she is my oldest inti-mate and at this moment I love every-body, even her. "Oh, Ma! What a day I've had," I say. "Tell me," she says. "Do you have the rent this month?" "Ma, listen ..." I say. "That review you wrote for the Times," she says. "Ifs for sure they'll pay you?" "Ma, stop it. Let me tell you what I've been feeling," I say. "Why aren't you wearing something warmer?" she cries. "It's nearly winter." The space inside begins to shimmer. The walls collapse inward. I feel breath-less. Swallow slowly, I say to myself, slowly. To my mother I say, "You do know how to say the right thing at the right time. Ifs remarkable, this gift of yours. It quite takes my breath away." But she doesn't get it. She doesn't loiow I'm being ironic. Nor does she Elaine Hatfield is a Professor of Psychology and Richard L. Rapson is a Professor of History at the Uni-versity of Hawaii. John T. Ca-cioppo is a Professor of Psychology at the Ohio State University. Ad-dress correspondence to Elaine Hatfield, 2430 Campus Rd., Honolulu, HI 96822; BITNET: psych@uhunix; INTERNET: psych@uhunix.uhcc.hawaii.edu. know she's wiping me out. She doesn't know I take her anxiety personally, feel annihilated by her depression. How can she know this? She doesn't even know I'm there. Were I to tell her that it's death to me, her not knowing I'm there, she would stare at me out of her eyes crowd-ing up with puzzled desolation, this young girl of seventy-seven, and she would cry angrily, "You don't under-stand! You have never understood!" (pp. 103-104)
We note a tendency in organizational behavior research to link positive emotions with positive outcomes and negative emotions with negative outcomes. In this Incubator, we argue against this simple association and provide suggestions for researchers to develop interesting lines of enquiry that look beyond simple symmetrical associations. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Emotional intelligence is a type of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one's own and others' emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide one's thinking and actions (Salovey & Mayer, 1990). We discuss (a) whether intelligence is an appropriate metaphor for the construct, and (b) the abilities and mechanisms that may underlie emotional intelligence. © 1993.
The purpose of this article is to revision Morgan and Smircich's typology, taking into account the changes in organization and management theory over the intervening 30 years. Developments in metatheoretical perspectives, organization theory, research methods, and ways of theorizing mean our choices about qualitative research have become more complex. In addition, the 1980 typology was based on a now contested subject–object distinction. I replace this continuum with three problematics—intersubjectivism, subjectivism, and objectivism—and examine the ontological, epistemological, and methodological assumptions of each. I offer examples and resources for qualitative researchers, arguing that considering our metatheoretical positioning provides a basis for building crafted, persuasive, consistent, and credible research accounts.
Law enforcement is a stressful profession. Police officers are faced with emotionally exhausting events on a daily basis and are required to control negative emotions in an effort to conduct their jobs effectively. This chapter explores the emotions experienced by police officers and seeks to understand the emotional labor of this profession. Twenty semi-structured interviews were conducted with police officers to garner information about the role of emotional expression and suppression on the job. The results revealed several themes, such as the importance of anger to the job of police officer and the emotional climate within the police force. Understanding emotion work and the management of emotions among law enforcement officers is an important contribution to improving the well-being and performance of police officers. Our research results call for further exploration of the role of emotions in law enforcement.
The idea that emotions regulate social interaction is increasingly popular. But exactly how do emotions
do this? To address this question, I draw on research on the interpersonal effects of emotions on behavior in personal relationships, parent–child interactions, conflict, negotiation, and leadership, and propose a new framework that can account for existing findings and guide future research: the emotions as social information (EASI) model. I demonstrate that emotional expressions affect observers’ behavior by triggering inferential processes and/or affective reactions in them. The predictive strength of these two processes—which may inspire different behaviors—depends on the observer’s information processing and on social-relational factors. Examples of moderators that determine the relative predictive strength of inferences and affective reactions include power, need for cognitive closure, time pressure, display rules, and the appropriateness and target of the emotional expression, which are all discussed.
This study focuses on the influence of structural aspects of social integration (social networks and social participation outside work) on mental health (common mental disorders (CMD), that is, depression and anxiety symptoms, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and alcohol misuse). This study examines differences in levels of social integration and associations between social integration and mental health among service leavers and personnel still in service. Data were collected from regular serving personnel (n = 6511) and regular service leavers (n = 1753), from a representative cohort study of the Armed Forces in the UK. We found that service leavers reported less social participation outside work and a general disengagement with military social contacts in comparison to serving personnel. Service leavers were more likely to report CMD and PTSD symptoms. The increased risk of CMD but not PTSD symptoms, was partially accounted for by the reduced levels of social integration among the service leavers. Maintaining social networks in which most members are still in the military is associated with alcohol misuse for both groups, but it is related to CMD and PTSD symptoms for service leavers only.
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In our chapter in the first edition of this Handbook (see record
1994-98625-005), we presented two tables that summarized our positions, first, on the axiomatic nature of paradigms (the paradigms we considered at that time were positivism, postpositivism, critical theory, and constructivism, p. 109, Table 6.1); and second, on the issues we believed were most fundamental to differentiating the four paradigms (p. 112, Table 6.2). These tables are reproduced here as a way of reminding our readers of our previous statements. The axioms defined the ontological, epistemological, and methodological bases for both established and emergent paradigms. The issues most often in contention that we examined were inquiry aim, nature of knowledge, the way knowledge is accumulated, goodness (rigor and validity) or quality criteria, values, ethics, voice, training, accommodation, and hegemony. An examination of these two tables will reacquaint the reader with our original Handbook treatment. Since publication of that chapter, at least one set of authors, J. Heron and P. Reason, have elaborated on our tables to include the participatory/cooperative paradigm (Heron, 1996; Heron & Reason, 1997, pp. 289-290). Thus, in addition to the paradigms of positivism, postpositivism, critical theory, and constructivism, we add the participatory paradigm in the present chapter (this is an excellent example, we might add, of the hermeneutic elaboration so embedded in our own view, constructivism). Our aim here is to extend the analysis further by building on Heron and Reason's additions and by rearranging the issues to reflect current thought. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)