Termites: Biology and Pest Management
... With few exceptions, the main food of all termites consists of wood, the chiefly utilized being cellulose (Harris, 1971). Termites cause economic loss by damaging structures such as buildings, bridges, dams, and even roads or by damaging crops, forest trees, or rangelands (Harris, 1971;Pearce, 1997;Gurusubramanian et al., 1999). They are major pests of all kinds of woods and products of wooden origin. ...
... Wooden or bamboo poles incorporated in the mud or cement walls of traditional houses offer an easy means of entry to termites from floor level to other areas. In all kinds of buildings good design is important but this may still not stop termites invading (Pearce, 1997). ...
... Polyethelene bag coverage did not protect termite attack. Nevertheless, termites were observed feeding on the botanical and the polyethelene bags themselves which was in accordance with Harris (1971), Hickin (1971) and Pearce (1997) who reported that termites feed on non cellulose materials such as plastic pipes, electric and telegraph cables. It also agreed with Sileshi Means with in a column followed by the same letter (s) are not significantly different at 5% Tukeys, studentized range test (HSD). ...
Field experiment was set up in November 2011 and continued up to March 2013 on 324 m 2 backyard garden plot of a farmer's residential area. The experiment was laid in 6 m × 6 m Latin square design. The treatments were polyethelene bag covered wooden sticks, chlorpyrifos 48% E.C. treated and polyethelene bag covered wooden sticks, Masea lanceolata treated and polyethelene bag covered wooden sticks, chlorpyrifos 48% E.C treated planting hole, M. lanceolata treated planting hole and untreated check. Every three months, termite infestation, damage and damage severity were recorded. The chlorpyrifos 48% E.C. treated polyethelene bag covered wooden sticks (0.2) and the chlorpyrifos 48% E.C. treated planting hole (0.2) protected termite infestation and damage throughout the study period starting from six months after application of treatment. In the rest of the treatments, damage progressed towards the end of the experiment with no significant difference amongst them. The severity of damage was significantly lower in chlorpyrifos 48% E.C. treated polyethelene bag covered wooden sticks (3 and 1.3) and chlorpyrifos 48% E.C treated planting hole (4.4 and 2.3) than the other treatments starting from twelve to eighteen months after application of treatments. Conclusively, chlorpyrifos 48% E.C. treated polyethelene bag covered wooden sticks and chlorpyrifos 48% E.C treated planting hole protected the wooden construction materials from both genera of termites. However, the chlorpyrifos 48% E.C. treated polyethelene bag covered wooden sticks was superior in providing longer duration of protection and reduction of environmental hazards. In the former treatment, no chemical was in contact with soils that saves not only contamination of soils and ground water but also reduced the rate of the biodegradability of the chemical.
... Few, if any effective control methods exist to control these termites. Integrated control strategies need to be developed in which chemical control or cultural control practices such as cultivation methods (Smit & Van den Berg, in review), timely harvesting (Wood, Johnson & Ohiagu, 1980), planting date and crop rotation (Pearce, 1997) can be used. Development of such systems necessitates a good understanding of termite activity, patterns of attack on maize and the damage caused to the crop. ...
... If termite damage to the crop were an effect of the seasonal activity pattern of termites, planting date would have been an option to limit termite damage. However, from an agronomical view point, there is great value in planting seed at the optimum planting date since this may result in producing vigorously growing seedlings that may tolerate termite damage and are less likely to be attacked by termites (Pearce, 1997). ...
Fungus-growing termites (Microtermes spp. and Allodontermes spp.) damage maize roots and cause lodging. The pattern of attack, incidence of lodging, and the effect of planting and harvesting dates on damage and yield were studied in field trials over five seasons. The pattern of injury was similar in different seasons, commencing three weeks after crop emergence and increasing to harvest. Variation in planting date had no effect on the pattern or severity of attack. Under conditions of reduced termite pressure, timely harvesting could be done when the incidence of lodging was comparatively low, resulting in reduced labour cost to collect ears from lodged plants. Under severe termite pressure lodging commenced at such an early stage that plants could not be harvested early enough to prevent losses owing to lodging. Lodging is regarded as the most severe symptom of damage by termites although yield loss may also occur if the roots are damaged. Lodging per se did not affect yields but the costs of labour required to collect ears contributed to an overall loss of income. Prolonged flooding conditions reduced the number of damaged and lodged plants.
... In some villages of India and Egypt termite damage have been reached to such extent that inhabitants are forced to move to other areas. Termites have also been known to attack old temples in Asia (Pearce, 1997;Hamra et al., 2022). The density of the termite population is dependent on the soil cores (Santhoshkumar et al., 2024), whilst the variety of termites is dependent on the foraging population of termites in the soil as well as the trees that are present in the region (Graham et al., 2024). ...
Pakistan faces considerable losses in the field of agriculture every year as a result of termite activity.
Numerous crops, particularly sugarcane, cotton, and wheat, are severely damaged by termites, resulting in
substantial economic loss. Termites can potentially inflict significant agricultural losses, ranging from 20% to
45% of the harvest yield. Termites are also known to cause damage to stored food, wooden objects, household
furniture, paper products, and various synthetic materials. They can attack both buried and above-ground
parts of plants. They bite and chew on tubers, young and old leaves, stems, lower branches of the plants,
and peanut seeds. Termite infestation is a considerable problem in the livelihood of the farmers of Pakistan.
Termite swarming is a major problem and revenue constraint in the area, destroying crops in the field and
store. Forests and orchards are rarely termites free, particularly when conditions are favorable for termites,
such as drought. Furthermore, pasture lands used for grazing are susceptible to termites, leading to an acute
shortage of animal feed. In this review, we tried to reveal all about the damages of termites in agriculture of
Pakistan.
... M. azedarach Linn has high antifeedant property, which helped for its avoidance against M. obesi than P. alba; similarly, A. indica and M. pinnata may have natural preservatives that showed high resistance. It has been tested that various environmental factors such as moisture contents, lignifications attack by fungus may increase wood susceptibility and age of wood which determine its compactness (Pearce, 1997;Qureshi et al., 2012a). In this study, wood blocks of P. alba and F. benghalensis have high consumption rate against M. obesi compared to all other wood species. ...
... Termites (Termitidae, Blattodea) are typically eusocial soil-dwelling insects, widely distributed around the world, especially in tropical and subtropical regions (Pearce 1997). Most termites are considered pests, causing significant impacts on forest ecosystems, and agricultural and forestry crops, with subterranean termites being particularly destructive (Rust and Su 2012;Scharf 2015). ...
Two new termite-pathogenic species, Ophiocordyceps globiperitheciata and O. longistipes , are described from Yunnan Province, China. Six-locus (ITS, nrSSU, nrLSU, tef-1α , rpb1 and rpb2 ) phylogenetic analyses in combination with morphological observations were employed to characterize these two species. Phylogenetically, O. globiperitheciata is most closely related to Hirsutella cryptosclerotium and O. communis , whereas O. longistipes shares a sister relationship with O. fusiformis . However, O. globiperitheciata differs from H. cryptosclerotium by parasitizing Blattodea and producing clavate, unbifurcated stromata. Ophiocordyceps globiperitheciata is distinguished from O. communis by multiple stromata, shorter asci and ascospores. Ophiocordyceps longistipes differs from O. fusiformis in producing larger stromata, perithecia, asci and ascospores, as well as smaller citriform or oval conidia. Morphological descriptions of the two new species and a dichotomous key to the 19 termite-pathogenic Ophiocordyceps species are presented.
... The pH (H20) of the termite infested soils is higher than that found for the surrounding soils without termites' activity. The pH (H20) of the termite infested soils ranges between very strongly acidic and very slightly acidic while that of the surrounding soils not infested by termite ranges between strongly acidic to slightly acidic (Ilaco, 1985;and Pearce, 1997). ...
The study was conducted to evaluate the effect of termites (Gnathamitermes perplexus) infestation on spatial variation of soil properties and horticultural crops growth in Alkaleri Local Government area of Bauchi State, Nigeria. A total of 68 soil samples were collected from two (2) location; 34 each from termites infested area and in a location without termite’s infestation. Results showed that the soils were characterized by very low to medium organic matter content, very low to low levels of nitrogen content, available phosphorus range between low and high, exchangeable bases (calcium, magnesium) in both soils ranges between very low and low, Sodium content ranges between medium and high with only slight variation in Cation exchange capacity (CEC). Results of soil analysis further revealed that pH (water) and pH (CaCl2) of both soils of the study area were acidic in nature. Correlation analysis showed that there was positive and significant relationship between pH versus CEC at 0.044**; organic matter versus CEC at 0321**; and calcium versus CEC at 0.909**. Correlation was again significant at P≤0.05 levels between available phosphorus versus calcium at 0.307* and available phosphorus versus CEC at 0.263*. T-test carried out revealed that the activities of termites in the infested soil placed the nutrients status higher compared to the surrounding soils without termites infestation. The study concluded that termite’s activities have also affected the lateral and spatial variation of both chemical and physical soil properties and horticultural crops growth in the research area. The study recommended that government, cooperate organizations and private individuals should encourage and provide adequate funding for a further research in both soils and horticultural crops infested with termites and farmers be enlightened to adopt modern techniques and skills for soil and fertility management.
... They also feed on wood and wood products and cause structural damage while foraging for food. The insect also penetrate and damage non-cellulose materials like plastering, plastic, rubber, polystyrene, soft metal covering, electric and telegraph cables and structures such as buildings, bridges, dams, roads and rangelands (Harris, 1971;Logan et al., 1990;Pearce, 1997;Gurusubramanian et al., 1999). There are about 2,600 species of termites, represented by 7 families and 281 genera. ...
The study evaluated the residual, repellant and termiticidal effects of extracts from four botanicals namely; Moringa oleifera, Polyalthia longifolia, Tithonia diversifolia and Azadirachta indica on termite in the laboratory and on the field at Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria. A synthetic insecticide, chlorpirifos was used as positive check and distilled water as control. Residual effect, repellency and contact toxicity of the treatments by topical application was conducted in the laboratory using standard methods. Chlorpirifos caused 100% mortality at 2 h after treatment and all the extracts except P. longifolia caused 100% at 10 h after treatment. The least in terms of repellency was the extract of P. longifolia that repelled 60% of the insects; followed by the extracts of A. indica and T. diversifolia that comparably (p>0.05) repelled 80% of the insects at a piece. Chlorpyrifos and extract of M. olefeira repelled all the insects (100%). The percentage repellence of chlorpyrifos and the plant extracts were (p>0.05) comparable. The residual effects of chlorpyrifos and all the extracts after 24 h caused 100% mortality of the termites. On the field, chlorpirifos and all the plant extracts except A. indica were rated as highly effective, while extract of A. indica and distilled water were rated as ineffective. Extracts of M. oleifera, P. longifolia and T. diversifolia has repellant, residual and termiticidal effects on termite in the laboratory and on the field and could be used as relatively cheaper and eco-friendly termiticide for the management of termite.
... Major and minor soldiers are common in some Termitinae. In the Rhinotermitinae and Schedorhinotermes, there are two distinct types of soldiers that differ in size, head shape and mandibles (Pearce, 1997). ...
... Previous researches report ecological role of termites in tropical forests and Savannas, where termites are rich in diversity and abundance. They are of great importance in recycling nutrients and soil fertilization in forest ecosystems (Pearce, 1997;Bignell and Eggleton, 2000). There has been extensive study on the influence of environmental factors such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen balance, energy availability, temperature, soil type and moisture content, on assemblages of termites in Tropical forests and Savannas throughout the world (Bignell et al., 1997;Eggleton and Tayasu,;Davies et al., 2003. ...
Termites were surveyed in seven forests (plantations) of Punjab (Bhagat, Kamalia, Chichawatni, Changa Manga, Jallo Forest Park, Daphar and Attock) in 2008. Twelve termite species were observed from soil, dead logs, and live wood and living trees. Host trees were also identified. The percentage of infested trees in Kamalia, Bhagat, Chichawatni, Changa Manga, Jallo Forest Park, Daphar and Attock forests were 22.5, 20, 19.6, 15.5, 10, 20 and 12.1% respectively. Examination of dead wood in seven forests showed that an average of three quarters of wood pieces was attacked by termites. The number of termites per unit volume of dead wood was also determined in these forests and it was almost similar (0.4 per cm 3) in all the forests. It was also investigated that the size of colony was correlated with the volume of dead wood and it ranged from 26 to 2,784 termites, the soldier caste ranged from 2.1 to 20% of the total population of termite colony. In all these forests, 20% of dead wooden logs and branches showed signs of subterranean termite.
Urban entomology is the study of arthropod and other pests of the urban environment. It has gained worldwide recognition as a distinct discipline. Its origin is associated with Walter Ebeling's publication Urban Entomology in 1975. Urbanization, invasive pests, increased demand for pest management services, and changes in legislation collided in the 1970s to create a need for research and extension activities worldwide. This resulted in urban entomology as a discipline and, within two decades, its national and international recognition. In this review, we present the factors that led to the development of urban entomology and how they have shaped its current meaning. As urbanization intensifies and the global economy increases, the demands for urban pest management will continue to grow. We discuss how these future challenges may shape and alter the discipline.
Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Entomology, Volume 69 is January 2024. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
The genus Termes Linneus, 1758 consisting of a total of 24 valid named species known from the Old World, is a very heterogeneous group of termites and seems to involve many taxonomic obscurities and confusions. In the island of Sumatra, the sixth-largest island located in the Southeast Asian tropics, four species of Termes have been found, namely, T. comis, T. laticornis, T. rostratus, and T. propinquus. Termes propinquus is also known from Brunei, Indonesia (Kalimantan and Sumatra), Malaysia, and Thailand. However, previous authors have mentioned that T. propinquus has been poorly discriminated from the other congeners, especially T. rostratus. Therefore, the present study aimed at clarifying the discrimination of Termes propinquus from the morphologically similar congeners from Sumatra. A total of 14 nests were collected using a standardized sampling protocol and visual colony searching in Sumatra and its adjacent island. As a result of a careful morphological examination of the soldier caste, T. propinquus was discriminated from the three other congeners by a combination of the following characteristics: distinctly long frontal projection, larger head capsule, and 2nd antennal segment distinctly longer than the 3rd. The redescription of the soldier caste of T. propinquus and a key to Termes species known from Sundaland are provided. The nests of T. propinquus were attached to the bases of living trees, clinging to stumps or the bases of the dead tree, or were epigeal.
Odontotermes parvidens is a commonly found important pest species of termite that primarily feed on a range of cellulosic sources. In termites, communication among the nestmates is the basis of all their daily activities in termites and the sensory structures present on the sensory appendages play a crucial role in different social behaviors perceiving and processing various signals of the nestmates and external environments. So, it is essential to understand in detail their sensory structures in order to understand the sensory system of the species O. parvidens. Thus, we have studied the antenna which is one of the primary sensory appendages of both soldier and worker individuals of the species to elucidate various antennal sensory structures and their distribution using scanning electron microscopy. Based on the morphological features of various sensilla, we observed seven types of sensilla as sensilla chaetica (subtypes I, II, III, and IV), sensilla trichodea (subtypes I and II), sensilla trichodea curvata (subtypes I and II), sensilla basiconica, sensilla capitula, Böhm bristles, and sensilla campaniformia (subtypes I and II) along with numerous glandular pores on the antenna of soldier and worker castes. We have also discussed the putative functions of all the sensilla observed based on their external morphology and distributional characteristics on the antenna of soldier and worker castes of the species O. parvidens. Furthermore, the abundance of sensillar types on the antenna of both the castes has also been discussed.
Termites are a significant pest of buildings, agriculture, and trees, and are mainly controlled by baiting. However, baiting systems are available for only lower termites (Rhinotermitidae) not for higher termites (Termitidae). Termite foraging behavior associated with baiting systems varies among species and families, and plays a significant role in baiting success. Here, foraging behavior of Odontotermes obesus (Blattodea: Termitidae: Macrotermitinae), a fungus-growing higher termite, was investigated relative to three bait-station sizes (small, medium, and large) containing different quantities of food. Significantly more workers recruited to large stations (470/station) compared to medium (246/station) and small (124/station) stations. Abundance of O. obesus in large and medium stations significantly positively correlated with relative humidity whereas negative but non-significant correlations were observed with temperature in large and medium stations. Total and continuous contacts with the stations increased with time and were greater in large stations. Station abandonment due to disturbance was significantly less in large stations (3%) followed by medium (9%) and small stations (20%). Our results suggest that large stations (≈8 litres volume) work best for population management of O. obesus and other related fungus-growing higher termites.
Mounds are prominent architectural features found in savannah ecosystems, where they play important roles. Although constant in form for many species, the appearance and type of mound can vary with environmental conditions such as rainfall, temperature , vegetation and locality. However, variability between mounds of same species in different habitats like savannah is not well studied. Here we compared the densities and architectural designs of mounds built by seven species of mound building termites found in two different savannah habitats. A low diversity (Shannon diversity index) was obtained for the Sahel compared to the Sudan region. Simpson's diversity shows 64% and 67% chances of encountering any two of the species from Sahel and Sudan savannah respectively. Within species, there were no main difference in height, basal circumference and width of mounds except for the mounds of Macrotermes bellicosus. Commonly built mounds by the species were cathedral, cone, dome and mushroom shapes. The differential response to the two savannah types by the termite's species suggest varying ability to respond to environmental selection pressures. Fungus growing termite, like Odontotermes, might have to trade mound modifications due to the environmental condition against mound structure beneficial to fungus growth.
In Ethiopia, termites pose serious threats to a variety of agricultural crops, forestry, range lands, houses and other wooden structures. Termite problem is particularly prevalent in the western part of the
country, where it has persisted for many years and has received wide publicity. Termites appeared in the region for the first time in 1904 at a specific place called Bafano Koreche around Kiltu Kara town in West Wallaga zone. From there, they spread in different directions to other areas and termite problem has increased from time to time. The severity of termite destruction has become worse than ever in all
the four zones of western Oromia National Regional State (ONRS). Termites are also causing serious damages to pastureland in the semi-arid areas of Borna and Guji zones of southern ONRS threatening
livestock production. By damaging crops, termites cause food insecurity and by damaging natural vegetation they cause denudation, accelerated erosion, and loss of biodiversity. Therefore, the purpose
of this paper is to examine the economic and environmental destruction termites pose in the rural areas of ONRS. Finally, the paper made concrete recommendations to government policy makers and land use professionals in their effort to mitigate the challenges.
Key words: Integrated management, soil erosion, termite pest, western Ethiopia.
Surveys of the conditions of termite attack were conducted in two regencies, Pidie and Greater Aceh, Aceh Province, Indonesia (40 houses in each location). Interviews were also conducted with home owners to collect data on the building history; culture, such as daily life in the house; the frequency and intensity of termite attacks; and traditional knowledge for avoiding and/or suppressing termite attacks. We found that 51% of traditional houses were infested by two termite species: Coptotermes gestroi and Nasutitermes matangensis. The lower parts of traditional houses were frequently attacked and severely damaged by termites. Previous land use and the ages of the traditional houses affected the intensity of the termite attacks. Several measures for avoiding and/or suppressing termite attacks on cultural heritage buildings are also proposed.
Background:
A long-term experiment at two trial sites in Kenya has been on-going since 2007 to assess the effect of organic and conventional farming systems on productivity, profitability and sustainability. During these trials the presence of significant numbers of termites (Isoptera) was observed. Termites are major soil macrofauna and within literature they are either depict as 'pests' or as important indicator for environmental sustainability. The extent by which termites may be managed to avoid crop damage, but improve sustainability of farming systems is worthwhile to understand. Therefore, a study on termites was added to the long-term experiments in Kenya. The objectives of the study were to quantify the effect of organic (Org) and conventional (Conv) farming systems at two input levels (low and high) on the abundance, incidence, diversity and foraging activities of termites.
Results:
The results showed higher termite abundance, incidence, activity and diversity in Org-High compared to Conv-High, Conv-Low and Org-Low. However, the termite presence in each system was also dependent on soil depth, trial site and cropping season. During the experiment, nine different termite genera were identified, that belong to three subfamilies: (i) Macrotermitinae (genera: Allodontotermes, Ancistrotermes, Macrotermes, Microtermes, Odontotermes and Pseudocanthotermes), (ii) Termitinae (Amitermes and Cubitermes) and (iii) Nasutitiermitinae (Trinervitermes).
Conclusions:
We hypothesize that the presence of termites within the different farming systems might be influenced by the types of input applied, the soil moisture content and the occurrence of natural enemies. Our findings further demonstrate that the organic high input system attracts termites, which are an important, and often beneficial, component of soil fauna. This further increases the potential of such systems in enhancing sustainable agricultural production in Kenya.
Termite-induced injuries to maize and baby corn were evaluated in ongoing comparison experiments on organic and conventional farming systems at two trial sites in the Central Highlands of Kenya (Chuka and Thika). The farming systems were established in 2007 at two input levels: Low input level, representing subsistence farming (Conv-Low, Org-Low) and high input level, representing commercial farming (Conv-High, Org-High). Termite-induced injuries to maize and baby corn, such as tunneling the stem or lodging the whole plant were assessed over two cropping seasons. The lodging occurred exclusively at Thika. It first became apparent in the Org-Low system, with most of lodging occurring during the vegetative stage. Baby corn grown under high input systems showed increasing lodging from the late vegetative crop stage and peaked before the final harvest. Tunneling was recorded at both sites, but was generally below 5%, with no significant differences between the farming systems. Overall, the injury patterns caused by termites appear to be a function of the plant growth stage, termite colony activities, trial site, and the types and levels of fertilizer input. Thus, the management practice used in each farming system (organic or conventional) might have greater influence on crop injuries than the type of farming system itself or the termite abundance within each system.
The termite wing has a specific property of wetting in contact with a water droplet: it adsorbs water mist, whereas larger water droplets are bounced on the surface. This is owing to the survival strategy of termites. Here, we reproduce the termite wing’s dual wettability by a photoinduced crystal growth technique. Upon UV irradiation to a microcrystalline surface of a mixture of two diarylethenes, two types of needle-shaped crystals of distinctly different sizes are observed to grow. The surface shows behavior akin to the termite wing’s dual wettability. The bouncing ability of a water droplet is attributed to the smaller-sized needle crystals, whereas the adhesive property is owing to the larger-sized ones, explaining the microstructures of the termite wing. Considering dissipation energy and adhesion energy, the bouncing ability and dual wettability can be explained theoretically. The surface could potentially be used in water harvesting applications.
The Kalotermitidae Cryptotermes brevis (Walker) presents colonies that lack a true worker caste. They have totipotent worker-like individuals named pseudergates. Few studies have characterized the morphology of immature instars, including pseudergates. In order to identify these instars and characterize the pseudergates, we conducted a comparison between morphometric and morphological variations among immature individuals of C. brevis colonies. Juvenile hormone analog (JHA) was used in the first instar nymphs to induce regressive molts and compare morphological differences between nymphs and pseudergates. Results showed the existence of three larval instars and four nymphal instars. These immatures were morphologically characterized. Individuals classified as third instar larvae presented white body, 10 to 12 antennal articles, absent or small non-pigmented compound eyes, and absence of wing buds. Pseudergates presented pigmented abdomen and sclerotized cuticle, 10 to 12 antennal articles, and absent or small compound eyes, and few specimens had large pigmented compound eyes and absence of wing buds. First instar nymphs had pigmented abdomen and sclerotized cuticle, 10 to 12 antennal articles, both large non-pigmented and pigmented compound eyes, the presence of wing buds. Bioassays using JHA on first instar nymphs resulted in a large percentage of nymph-soldier intercastes. We concluded that abdomen pigmentation and sclerotized cuticle are good characters to differentiate pseudergates from larvae and the absence of wing buds is a good character to differentiate pseudergates from nymphs. Our findings not only contribute to the basic biological and morphological information of this species but also help to identify correctly pseudergates in further studies that involve applied bioassays.
More than 200 colonies of the genus Longipeditermes were collected in our field surveys across the Sundaland region of Southeast Asia from 1998 to 2014. Two species, L. kistneri Akhtar & Ahmad and L. logipes Holmgren, are recognized and redescribed with color photographs of the workers and major soldiers. We use variation in characters of soldier caste (head capsules, antennae, and pronotum) and worker caste (antennae and mandibles) to distinguish these two species. Longipeditermes kistneri seems to prefer high-altitude forests (above 1,000 m) and has so far been found exclusively in Java and Sumatra, while L. logipes seems to prefer lowland and swamp forests and is widespread in the Greater Sundas.
The termite Odontotermes brunneus is an economically important species causing damage to cellulose containing wooden material and agricultural crops in India. Insecticide application is an effective strategy in termite control. In the present study the effect of cypermethrin was tested for workers and soldiers termite using filter paper dip method. After 24 h treatment the lethal concentration (LC50) was increased to 9.7 ppm in workers and 1.8 ppm in soldiers respectively. The detoxification enzyme activities of esterase, glutathione S-transferase was increased in worker termites 23 µmol, 9 µmol/min/mg of protein compared to soldiers 15 µmol, 7 µmol/min/mg of protein respectively (p < 0.05). The activity of mixed-function oxidase was found very less in both samples. Further nPAGE analysis revealed that increased esterase band in workers than soldier and control sample. The data of this study revealed that possible mechanism of esterase and glutathione S-transferase mediated cypermethrin detoxification that leads to reduce the sensitivity in worker termites of O. brunneus.
Termites show a structured social life, provisioned with work-based divisions, i.e., king, queen, workers, and soldiers. Ecologically, termites interact with living and nonliving surroundings and deliver a wide range of behaviors. They ensure the survival of colony members by harvesting food, constructing shelters, defending the external and internal threats, and nourishing the new borne progeny in a systematic manner. The termites are equipped with complex characteristics such as chemical communication, morphological and chemical defense, and brood care that enable their successful survival. Besides their usefulness, these tiny insects are a center of attraction because they damage the human economy as wood pests. In this chapter, the ecological role of termites is examined and explored.
There have been several attempts by taxonomists to identify and trace the phylogeny of termites over the course of time. Termites were previously classified under the order Isoptera because of the equal size of front and hind wings of adult. They are considered as a sister group of primitive wood-dwelling cockroaches and mantids, hence classified under the same superorder, Dictyoptera. However, a molecular phylogenetic study by Inward et al. (Biol Lett 3:331–335, 2007) proved that termites are social cockroaches. The study showed that termites nest within the cockroaches in the phylogenetic tree. Also, wood roach Cryptocercus forms a sister group with termites. Hence, termites are reclassified under the order Blattodea and epifamily Termitoidea. At present, 3106 living and fossil termite species have been identified across the world, representing 330 living and fossil genera, under 12 families. In general, the termites can be grouped according to the presence/absence of protozoan in the gut, feeding, and nesting behavior. Only 10% of termite species act as pests either in forest, urban, or agricultural areas. Asian termite pests mainly belong to the family Rhinotermitidae and Termitidae, with species of the genera Coptotermes, Macrotermes, and Schedorhinotermes. They cause serious damages to buildings, crops, and even in plantation forests.
A description of termite biology, distribution and diversity, economic importance, and sustainable management is presented. Liquid termiticide injection to soil, to establish a toxic or repellent chemical barrier against termites, is a traditional method applied for control. Baiting programs have been used successfully to eliminate subterranean termite colonies. Biological approaches along with entomophagy are also effective to manage termite population.
Termites are the most dominant arthropod decomposers in the tropical forests and show high diversity and abundance. Within tropical ecosystems, they play a key role in modifying the biotic and abiotic environment. The areas of higher altitudes and extreme temperatures have restricted the distribution of termite fauna in India. The species richness is more in the north-eastern regions, compared to rest of India. Out of 337 species of termites known so far from India, about 35 have been reported damaging agricultural crops and buildings. Odontotermes is the major mound-builder, whereas Coptotermes, Heterotermes, Microtermes, Microcerotermes and Trinervitermes are the major subterranean genera occurring in India.
Insects exhibit a fascinating and diverse range of micro- and nanoarchitectures on their cuticle. Beyond the spectacular beauty of such minute structures lie surfaces evolutionarily modified to act as multifunctional interfaces that must contend with a hostile, challenging environment, driving adaption so that these can then become favorable. Numerous cuticular structures have been discovered this century; and of equal importance are the properties, functions, and potential applications that have been a key focus in many recent studies. The vast range of insect structuring, from the most simplistic topographies to the most elegant and geometrically complex forms, affords us with an exhaustive library of natural templates and free technologies to borrow, replicate, and employ for a range of applications. Of particular importance are structures that imbue cuticle with antiwetting properties, self-cleaning abilities, antireflection, enhanced color, adhesion, and antimicrobial and specific cell-attachment properties.
Background
The number of termite species in the world is more than 2500, and Africa with more than 1000 species has the richest intercontinental diversity. The family Termitidae contains builders of great mounds up to 5 m high. Colonies are composed of casts: a queen, a king, soldiers and workers. Some species of termite cultivate specialised fungi to digest cellulose. Termites constitute 10% of all animal biomass in the tropics. The purpose of the study was to make an overview of how termites are utilized, perceived and experienced in daily life across sub-Saharan Africa. Method
Ethno-entomological information on termites (Isoptera) in sub-Saharan Africa was collected by: (1) interviews with more than 300 people from about 120 ethnic groups from 27 countries in the region; (2) library studies in Africa, London, Paris and Leiden. ResultsVernacular names relate to mounds, insects as food, the swarming, and the behaviour of termites. Swarming reproductive, soldiers and queens are collected as food. There are many different ways to harvest them. Termites can also be used as feed for poultry or as bait to catch birds and fish. The mushrooms that grow each year from the fungus gardens on the termite mounds are eaten. The soldiers, the fungus gardens and the soil of termite mounds are used for multiple medicinal purposes. Mounds and soil of termites have numerous functions: for geochemical prospecting, making bricks, plastering houses, making pots, and for storage. Termite soil is often used as fertilizer. The act of eating soil (geophagy) among women, especially those that are pregnant, is practised all over Africa. The mounds can serve as burying places and are often associated with the spiritual world, especially containing the spirits of ancestors. Termites also play a role as oracle, in superstitious beliefs, in art and literature. Conclusion
The following characteristics make termites so appealing: the dominance in the landscape, the social organization, the destructive power, and the provision of food. The study shows that termites play a major role in peoples’ lives, in physical as well as spiritual aspects.
Different authors have tried in the past to develop captive colonies of termites in their laboratories, starting with capturing of alate pairs and confining them in Petri dishes or small boxes to facilitate mating, then transferring incipient colonies into progressively larger containers. Twenty-three termite species of the genera Coptotermes, Cortaritermes, Cryptotermes, Hodotermes, Macrotermes, Mastotermes, Microtermes, Odontotermes, Pseudacanthotermes, Reticulitermes, Trinervitermes, and Zootermopsis have been explored following this method in 33 reported studies. However, in most of the attempts, incipient colonies did not grow beyond the population of a few hundred insects and tended to die off in a few months. In this paper, we report the efforts made to develop colonies of Hypotermes obscuriceps, Macrotermes convulsionarius, Microcerotermes cameroni, Odontotermes brunneus, Pericapritermes sp., and Trinervitermes biformis found in the study area. Several strategies were attempted to develop termite colonies to maturity. However, none of these efforts resulted in any greater success than the previous attempts of other authors had been, albeit targeted at the development of different species. Although some useful information on termite biology was obtained in the course of the process, the studies performed indicate that termitaria are possibly based on too fine a tuning of food, architecture, humidity, and temperature to be amenable to simulation in laboratory conditions.
Baiting is considered to be a relatively environmentally benign termite control method; however, all commercial baiting systems are designed for species in the Rhinotermitidae and are used primarily in temperate countries. Fungus-growing termites in the Macrotermitidae can be important pests in tropical countries; they can be difficult to control using all available methods, and there are no baiting systems designed for them. We tested bait station size, an important component of bait station design, against two Macrotermes species in Singapore. Macrotermes gilvus recruited to small stations (0.35 L) very poorly and medium stations (3.6 L) poorly (both similar in size to various commercial stations), but they recruited to large stations (11.5 L) well. Macrotermes carbonarius followed a similar pattern but recruited to fewer stations overall. In the occupied stations, M. gilvus ate the bait wood, sometimes creating a fungus garden inside the stations, and brought little soil into the stations. In comparison, M. carbonarius ate no wood at all, but filled stations with soil. There was significantly less leaf litter around M. carbonarius mounds compared with M. gilvus mounds, although there were no obvious differences in habitat, which suggested that M. carbonarius eats leaf litter only and is not a pest species. Our study shows that stations much larger than current commercial options may provide a useful means for controlling pest wood-eating, fungus-growing termites in tropical countries.
In this review the evolution of modern termites from the detritus-feeding common ancestor of termites and wood-feeding cockroaches is reconstructed as a stepwise process, driven by the need to secure the transfer of increasingly specialised intestinal symbionts from parent to offspring. This selection resulted in the extant eusociality characterised by generational overlap, proctodaeal feeding, altricial development, paedomorphosis and co-evolution with microorganisms. Further, it is argued that the behavioural and ontogenetic characteristics of termite societies overly the internalisation of a community of microorganisms derived from and representing an earlier external rumen. To demonstrate the contemporary ecological importance of termites in the tropics and subtropics, an account is given of their typical abundance, biomass, trophic diversification and impacts on soil health and the terrestrial carbon cycle. An overview of the symbioses between termites and microbes is presented, including tabulations of the major flagellate and bacterial taxa forming the intestinal communities and a discussion of their presumptive roles, especially the relative contributions of host and microbiota to the digestion of lignocellulose. A separate account of the fungus-growing subfamily Macrotermitinae focuses on uncertainties concerning the role of the basidiomycete symbiont and its evolution. Finally, the available information on the relative processing of plant polysaccharides and lignin by termites is evaluated, with a brief summary of new insights made possible by molecular sequencing.
Termites are famous for wood-destroying insects, and also for eusocial insects. They play an important role in ecosystem because of their unique symbiotic system with microorganisum. This review showed relations between taste and odor reception of termites on their sensilla, and their feeding and trail-following behaviors. The structures of natural compounds affecting the feeding repellent and trail-following are discussed.
Termites are serious pests of agricultural crops and rural houses in Ethiopia. Some attempts were made to control termites on crops. However, termite problem on rural houses is a neglected area regardless of the intensity of the problem which at times results in total collapses of newly constructed houses. To collect preliminary information on status of termite infestation to rural houses, surveys were conducted in three districts of the Central Rift Valley of Ethiopia in 2012. Data were collected by direct observations and through semi-structured interviews. A total of 58 houses were inspected in the three districts of which 91% were termite infested at deferent levels. About 81% of the houses aged less than 10 years. Over half of the homeowners used pre-construction preventive measures such as plastic sheet cover and painting with used engine oil. Even though termite infestation was common and serious, only 35% of the homeowners took post construction preventive measures mainly because of lack of knowledge on the problem. The post construction termite control methods used in the study area were removing or scratching mud tubes from the infested parts and painting of the houses with used engine oil. There was no evidence of using synthetic chemicals for the management of termites on rural houses. The local government officials or Development Agents were not aware of termite problems in rural houses as the problem was only seen as a secondary problem. Termite samples were collected from houses, wooden fences and mounds built attached to the exterior walls of the houses. The collected termites were only from the genera Macrotermes and Odontotermes where about 79% was found to be from the former genus. This study explicitly indicated that termites have a great impact on local houses leading to frequent repairing and rebuilding. This damage will eventually lead to deforestation and environmental degradation in addition to its economic impact and spread of the termites. According to key informants of the study areas termite resistant tree species became rare and/or went extinct since they are used for all types of construction. In this study, preliminary information which can clearly demonstrate the level of termite infestation on local houses was obtained which can serve as an important input for the government both for awareness creation and developing best termite management practices.
This chapter reviews the communication that occurs among termites performing different behavioral activities. Termites are social insects, and social activities require communication signals that are emitted by signaler individuals and perceived by receiver individuals. Termite castes are mostly blind, and the communication among individuals occurs predominantly through chemical and mechanical cues. The chemical communication involves pheromones that elicit behavioral responses from the individuals; these semiochemicals signal the trail from the nest to food, the presence of enemies, the location of reproductive partners and provide cues for the recognition of nestmates. In addition, indirect communication occurs during building activities through a self-organized mechanism in which the information that elicits termite behavior comes from changes in the environment and does not require direct contact among individuals. © 2014 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht. All rights are reserved.
Throughout the years a lively debate has flourished around niche construction theory. A source of contention has been the distinction between narrow and broad construction activities proposed by critics. Narrow construction is limited to the production of evolutionarily advantageous artifacts while broad construction refers to construction activities that have an impact on the ecosystem but offer little or negative adaptive feedback to the organisms. The first has been acknowledged as relevant to evolutionary studies in that it increases species’ fitness and it is genetically inherited, while the second has been dismissed as accessory and irrelevant. I argue this distinction is unsatisfactory and leads to misinterpreting the achievements of niche construction theory. Instead I propose a three-tier categorization of constructionism (literal, analogical, and figurative) based on the analysis of the metaphor of construction itself. I show metaphors are not a mere rhetorical device but represent an instrument through which theories evolve and introduce new elements. In fact through this categorization I will be able to highlight two innovative features of constructionism: the introduction of reciprocal causation as a main causal framework and the expansion of studies about evolution to large frameworks involving multiple levels of biological organization. I will show their role in each of the three kinds of construction in order to offer a better understanding of the distinctive features of the niche construction approach. The innovations introduced encourage the revision of the concepts of adaptation and enlarge the range of phenomena to be considered relevant in biological studies.
Some gallic esters have interesting effects on the feeding activity of Formosan subterranean termites (Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki). The feeding response of termites varied markedly according to the numbers of carbon in alkyl chain. In particular, 1-decyl gallate exhibited the highest feeding deterrence, whereas 1-octadecyl gallate exhibited the highest feeding-stimulating activity.
Located in central Uganda, the grasslands of Nakasongola face devastation of herbaceous vegetation by subterranean termites. Reduction in the preferred food of termites (plant litter), and loss of their natural predators and parasites are known to be major factors contributing to the damage imposed by termites on grassland vegetation. This review analyzes the situation with respect to termites in the area to draw the attention of ecologists, conservationists, policy makers and farmers, to the current and future threats of subterranean termites to the functioning and sustainability of this ecosystem. The suppressive effect of anthropogenic activities on termites' food resources, populations of natural enemies and the resultant escalation in termite populations is discussed. I hypothesize that tree cutting, overgrazing and overhunting are reducing the food resources and predator populations and, consequently, are enhancing the current destructive behavior of termites in the rangelands of Uganda. It is suggested that intervention for sustainable management of termites in the area should consider restoring their natural food sources and predators to reestablish the ecological equilibrium between termites and other components of the ecosystem.
Field trails were conducted from the 1994/95 to 2000/2001 growing seasons to evaluate various insecticides for preventative and corrective control of the fungus-growing termites, Microtermes sp., Odontotermes sp. and Allodontermes sp. in maize. The incidence of lodged maize plants was used as criteria for insecticide efficacy. Carbofuran GR, imidacloprid WS, chlorpyrifos GR and fiponil GR were evaluated as preventative treatments. Corrective treatments in the form of spray applications of the systemic insecticides carbosulfan EC, benfuracarb EC and imidacloprid SL were also evaluated. Treatments were applied to the basal 25 cm of maize stems and to the soil surface surrounding plants. Imidacloprid spray applications generally provided good control of termites. The optimum plant growth stage for imidacloprid application was during the pre-flowering stage, 6 to 10 weeks after plant emergence. Pre-flowering applications were usually more effective in limiting damage than post-flowering applications. The granular insecticide, fipronil, showed promise for termite control. Chlorpyrifos granules, applied as a side dressing four weeks after plant emergence, significantly reduced lodging. Two novel control methods (fishmeal and diesel fuel) on the soil surface resulted in suppression of termite damage and subsequent reduction in lodging of plants. In the majority of trials total yields (lodged and upright plants) did not differ over insecticide treatments. However, the proportion of the total yield that had to be hand-harvested from lodged plants ranged from 0 to 41%, and was significantly higher in ineffective treatments. This resulted in increased production costs and uneconomic maize production.
This study revealed that termites are found all over the world with numerous species that have existed on this earth in the past million of years. The most prominent among these various species under different land use patterns is the Isoptera. Generally, termite activities in the soil affect the nutrient and organic matter dynamics, productivity of the ecosystem via carbon sequestration, nutrient recycling as well as some physical properties of the soil.
To cite this article: Khalid Zamir Rasib, Hina Ashraf & Muhammad Afzal (2014): Feeding preferences of Odontotermes obesus (Rambur) (Isoptera: Termitidae) on different commercial and non-commercial woods from Lahore, Pakistan, under laboratory and field conditions, Zoology and Ecology, makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the "Content") contained in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of the Content. This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at
Reticulitermes nelsonae, a new species of Rhinotermitidae (Isoptera) is described based on specimens from Sapelo Island, GA, Thomasville, GA, Havelock, NC, and Branford, FL. Adult (alate) and soldier forms are described. Diagnostic characters are provided and incorporated into a supplemental couplet of a dichotomous key to the known species of Reticulitermes found in Georgia, USA.
Subterranean termites are extremely vulnerable to desiccation, and high moisture makes their habitat and food favorable for survival and colony growth. Although there is a general perception that termites can manipulate moisture, documentation is surprisingly scanty with regard to how termites transport water and the factors that impact it. There has been no study of water transfer by Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki, a notoriously invasive termite in the southern United States. We conducted a study to determine if C. formosanus transfers water. Bioassays using arenas with a dry food source connected to a moist substrate by either a short tube (10 cm) or a long tube (100 cm) were conducted. Three moistened substrate types were tested to see how they impacted water transfer. In addition, workers and soldiers sampled from a moist sand substrate were dissected to determine water sac volumes for possible transfer of water to wood. The results indicated that some water transfer is achieved by the evacuation of water sacs. However, moist soil was also moved to increase humidity. When termites had use of moist silty clay, wood moisture gain increased significantly in both 10 and 100 cm tubes. As tube distance increased, moisture to the more distant food source decreased. Workers had the largest water sacs, though soldiers appear to contribute in water transfer via water sacs as well. Water transfer and its implications are discussed.
Termite baiting is now one of the two main management tools in developed countries after 20 years of commercial release. It has two main goals: to use small amounts of active ingredient and ‘colony elimination’, viz. death of all individuals in the colony. We consider how well baiting has been evaluated from 100 studies in the scientific literature. Studies have included 15 active ingredients, 23 termite species and 16 countries, yet most studies were of the chitin synthesis inhibitor hexaflumuron, Reticulitermes, and the USA. Baiting has mostly met its goals: typically about 0.5 gram of active ingredient was used; and colony elimination achieved, albeit rates varied from 0-100%, and were sometimes supplemented with liquid insecticide. Baiting was most successful using chitin synthesis inhibitors against Reticulitermes and Coptotermes (Rhinotermitidae), in temperate locations, although colony elimination was usually inferred indirectly - mostly by termite absence from baits - and was often slow, from 25 to 450 days. Baiting has been less tested and less successful against higher termites in tropical locations, where they are most diverse and abundant. Future research may have to consider greater termite species diversity and other active ingredients to reduce control times to fulfil the potential of baiting.
The pattern of swarming of the termite Coptotermes gestroi was studied in a thickly wooded 780 acre campus of Pondicherry University, located about 12 km north of downtown Puducherry, India. In four years, C. gestroi swarms occurred 17 times of which 14 occurred in June and the remaining three in the first half of July. All the swarming occurred after sunset and after rain. In 15 instances, the alates were in the air for 15–20 min, whereas in other two cases the flights were for 35 and 60 min, respectively. There was a sharp year-to-year variation in the number of swarmings: 1, 7, 4 and 5 swarmings occurred in 2009, 2010, 2011 and 2012, respectively.
Eusociality has evolved multiple times across diverse terrestrial taxa, and eusocial species fundamentally shape many terrestrial ecosystems. However, eusocial species are far less common and have much less ecological impact, in aquatic than terrestrial environments.
Here, we offer a potential explanation for these observations. It appears that a precondition for the evolution of eusociality is the defence and repeated feeding of offspring in a nest or other protected cavity, and so eusocial species must be able to exploit a predator‐safe, long‐lasting (multigenerational) expandable nest. We argue that a range of factors mean that opportunities for such nests are much more widespread and the advantages more compelling in terrestrial than aquatic ecosystems.
Chlorfluazuron (CFZ) is a benzoylphenylurea insecticide that is common-ly used in baits for management of subterranean termites. In this study, a new method using GC-MS for the determination and quantification of CFZ in termites was developed and validated. Since a small volume of organic solvent (250 µL) was used in the sample preparation procedure, the extract was analyzed without any evaporation. The assay was simple and rapid, with a short GC run time (10.0 min). The calibration curve was linear over the range of 0.1–2.5 µg/g, and the correlation coefficient was >0.998. This method was sensitive, as demonstrated by the detec-tion and quantification limits of 0.003 µg/g and 0.1 µg/g, respectively. The mean recovery of CFZ from spiked samples was 95.6%. The within-day and between-day precision and accuracy of the assays ranged between 1.19 and 6.43%. This method was used to screen for CFZ transfer between nestmates of a treated Macrotermes gilvus mound. The highest amount of CFZ was detected in workers from the royal chamber, followed by workers in the peripheral zone, workers in the nursery zone, larvae in the nursery zone, and larvae in the peripheral zone.
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