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Journal of Contemporary Management
Volume 19 Issue 1
Journal of Contemporary Management
DHET accredited
ISSN 1815-7440
Volume 19 Issue 1
2022
Pages 432-456
Page 1
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. Open access under the terms and conditions of the Creative
Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) license https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
A leadership skills development model for the
Kwaden Group: A case study of an African
fast-moving consumer goods business
network
DOI: https://doi.org/10.35683/jcm21092.154
CRAIG R. MULLER
Gordon Institute of Business Science, University of Pretoria, South Africa
Email: craig@super-cube.com
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2266-5498
THEUNS G. PELSER*
Gordon Institute of Business Science, University of Pretoria, South Africa
Email: theuns.pelser@twimsafrica.com
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5935-0185
*corresponding author
ABSTRACT
Purpose of the study: The purpose of the study was to develop and assess whether a leadership skills
development model, which integrates six valid conceptual constructs, will develop enhanced leadership skills in
an African-based fast-moving consumer goods business network.
Design/methodology/approach: The six-construct model is predicated on the literature review, which was
empirically tested. Thus, the study selected a pragmatic approach and followed up with an explanatory
sequential design typology. Moreover, this study adopted a quantitative, cross-sectional survey research
methodology, while an online survey was administered to collect primary data from the Kwaden Group.
Inferential statistics were also employed so as to appropriately examine the validity and reliability of the
constructs. Finally, a qualitative phenomenological research approach was utilised to collect primary data from
key decision-makers within the African fast-moving consumer goods business network via structured face-to-
face interviews.
Findings: The study provides a theoretically relevant and empirically validated leadership skills development
model amendable to an African fast-moving consumer goods business network. Additionally, a confirmatory
factor analysis confirmed a good model fit for the leadership skills development model. It was also established
that leadership skills development should be multilevel, which infers that participants should have the
opportunity to develop multifaceted leadership skills and that such leadership capabilities should be a primary
company objective.
CR MULLER
TG PELSER
A leadership skills development model for the Kwaden
Group: A case study of an African fast-moving
consumer goods business network
Journal of Contemporary Management
DHET accredited
ISSN 1815-7440
Volume 19 Issue 1
2022
Pages 432-456
Page 2
Recommendations/value:
The leadership skills development model, if adopted by an organisation, will result
in a leadership skills development initiative being established on theoretically relevant and empirically validated
constructs.
Managerial implications: This dedicated approach should assist organisations in developing the necessary
leadership skills among their personnel so as to enhance the company’s leadership capacity and ultimately
improve business potential and profitability. This perspective should also challenge the fast-moving network of
consumer goods organisations and academic institutions to seek a new approach to developing leadership
skills.
Keywords
Business network; fast-moving consumer goods; FMCG; leadership; leadership skills; skills development; skills
development model.
JEL Classification: M10, M13, M14, M16.
1. INTRODUCTION
Organisations that are currently competing and/or preparing to compete in Africa’s business
sectors tend to face numerous complex and substantial challenges. Also, the African continent
is comprised of 1.2 billion people in 54 countries, which collectively account for over a
thousand languages, diverse resources, a broad spectrum of income levels, infrastructure
progress, educational opportunities and, in turn, business capabilities. Accordingly, it remains
‘a high priority’ to pursue business-model improvement, develop local talent, improve local
development, and create business resilience in Africa. However, Africa’s business setting
remains poorly understood and is, thus, predicated merely on its reputation for complexity,
corruption, and continuing conflict (Desvaux & Leke, 2018; Leke et al., 2018; Chironga et al.,
2019).
Moreover, Africa has an abundance of talent; thus, businesses that succeed in Africa must
invest in talent as such investments will reap significant rewards for these organisations as
they grow and become more profitable. In other words, developing talent is a strategic role,
which should be considered part of the value chain and not merely outsourced to the national
university system (Cohen, 2017; Chironga et al., 2019). Moreover, converting Africa’s raw
talent may only require a short training program that could be sufficient to unlock the skills and
leadership capacity that businesses need for success and sustainability (Leke et al., 2018;
Swaniker, 2018; Chironga et al., 2019). Furthermore, Jacobs and Mafini (2019) posited that
South Africa’s fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG) industry is faced with significant
challenges that require prompt attention and pragmatic solutions.
CR MULLER
TG PELSER
A leadership skills development model for the Kwaden
Group: A case study of an African fast-moving
consumer goods business network
Journal of Contemporary Management
DHET accredited
ISSN 1815-7440
Volume 19 Issue 1
2022
Pages 432-456
Page 3
Additionally, Africa covers a large geographic area that provides ample space to build and
develop scalable business networks, whether in technology, retail, agriculture, manufacturing,
mining, or other important sectors. Also, Africa's immense unmet leadership needs make it a
prime target for leadership skills development and commercial expansion (Muller & Pelser,
2022). According to Cohen (2017) and Eberly et al. (2017), leadership skills development
initiatives are often constructed on various questionable assumptions, which, in turn, do not
develop the necessary leadership skills to improve the leadership capacity required for African
FMCG businesses (Eberly et al., 2013; Cohen, 2017; Cullen-Lester et al., 2017; Leke et al.,
2018; Jacobs & Mafini, 2019; Chironga et al., 2019). Therefore, to appropriately address the
leadership challenges and business prospects in Africa’s FMCG businesses, we must
cultivate the next generation of leaders. In doing so, we could cultivate the required leadership
capability to establish a successful business model in Africa.
This study aims to develop a conceptual model based on developing theoretically-relevant
leadership constructs that focus on appropriate approaches that promote leadership skills
development. In other words, we must develop a unique model for expanding leadership skills
that can be empirically tested by performing a quantitative assessment of the appropriateness
of leadership constructs based on a conceptual leadership skills model. Additionally, the model
should be amenable to performing a qualitative assessment governing leadership skills and
establishing specific protocols to critically explore how the conceptual model could develop
leadership skills within the Kwaden Group.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
Leadership research extends throughout the behavioural, social, and physical sciences,
including management, psychology, anthropology, politics, sociology, biology, and
evolutionary studies (Yammarino, 2017). In contrast to the comparatively extended history of
leadership theory and research, the orderly analysis of leadership development (generally
defined as including leader development) has a relatively limited historical background
(Yammarino, 2017). More than a century of leadership study has resulted in various paradigm
shifts, which have given rise to much confusion. On numerous occasions, leadership scholars
have become somewhat frustrated with exploring minor theoretical advances with
contradicting results. Bennis (1959:259-260) proffered six decades ago that “Of all the hazy
and confounding areas in social psychology, leadership theory undoubtedly contends for the
top nomination… Probably more has been written, and less is known about leadership than
about any other topic in the behavioural sciences.” Similarly, Hackman and Wageman
CR MULLER
TG PELSER
A leadership skills development model for the Kwaden
Group: A case study of an African fast-moving
consumer goods business network
Journal of Contemporary Management
DHET accredited
ISSN 1815-7440
Volume 19 Issue 1
2022
Pages 432-456
Page 4
(2007:43) established that the subject of leadership is “curiously unformed”. Over the last half-
century, leadership scholars have struggled to construct an integrated and theoretically
cohesive perspective of leadership. As such, leadership remains an expansive and essential
field of study (Bass & Bass, 2008; Yukl, 2012; Day et al., 2014; Yammarino, 2017; Day &
Thornton, 2018).
More importantly, leadership is a central component in the managerial and mainstream media
realm. Accordingly, corporate-, government-, military-, and not-for-profit organisations all
require effective leadership, which is currently a significant concern for all organisations (Day
et al., 2014). In spite of considerable growth and investment in leadership development, there
is limited evidence that leadership has improved, nor has it become more effective. Leaders
at the helm of various religious, financial, corporate, educational, and government institutions
have been responsible for significant organisational failures. Such failures have eroded public
trust and, thus, led to damaging social, economic, political, and environmental consequences
(Cohen, 2017). In order to resolve these complex problems facing our global society, we must
develop leaders who have the necessary skills to transform our current social, economic,
political and ecological realities (Burns et al., 2015).
Overall, leadership is one of the social sciences’ most significant studied phenomena;
however, such scrutiny is not surprising considering that leadership is a widespread problem
related to humanity in general (Bass & Bass, 2008). References concerning leadership are
evident in Western and Eastern texts, with a consensus that leadership is essential for social,
economic, and environmental development (Antonakis & Day, 2018). Therefore, it is possibly
the most critical event in the realm of human behaviour, especially since very little is
accomplished without appropriate leadership (Yammarino, 2017).
While leadership may be easily recognised in practice, it is often difficult to define and clarify.
When considering the multifaceted study of leadership, a generally agreed-upon definition of
leadership does not currently exist (Yammarino, 2017). Antonakis (2018 highlighted that
academic training in the social sciences is still not cohesively integrated; thus, there is
profound evidence that leadership researchers operate in an area of uncertainty. Similarly,
Fiedler (1971:1) posited that "There are as many definitions of leadership as there are
leadership theories-and there are almost as many theories of leadership as psychologists are
working in the field." It is, therefore, problematic to get leadership researchers to settle on a
specific definition. In the absence of a consensus, the following description of leadership was
submitted by Antonakis and Day (2018:3) “Leadership is equally formal and informal,
CR MULLER
TG PELSER
A leadership skills development model for the Kwaden
Group: A case study of an African fast-moving
consumer goods business network
Journal of Contemporary Management
DHET accredited
ISSN 1815-7440
Volume 19 Issue 1
2022
Pages 432-456
Page 5
contextually fixed and an objective-orientated manner that comprise leadership, followers, or
societies. The discipline of leadership concerns a methodical inquiry of this practice and its
effects. Leadership includes how the leader’s character and behaviours, observer
assumptions concerning the leader’s qualities, and witness acknowledgements created
concerning the effects”. Furthermore, leadership is equally formal and informal, contextually
fixed and objective-oriented, and comprises leadership, followers, or societies (Muller &
Pelser, 2022). The discipline of leadership concerns a methodical inquiry of this practice and
its effects. Hence, leadership includes the leader’s character and behaviours, observer
assumptions concerning the leader’s qualities, and witness acknowledgements created
concerning the effects (Muller & Pelser, 2022).
In order to offer further clarity, a summary of the six leadership constructs, the associated
construct theories, and examples of the related leadership skills for development are
presented in Table 1. The six leadership constructs are as follows: choices, principles, mental
(cognitive), emotional, physical, and spiritual. These are perceived as humancentric and
multidimensional and inherently incorporate the notion of being developmental. In short, these
leadership attributes can be developed.
Table 1: Leadership constructs, associated theories, and skills
Leadership constructs
Theory, author(s) and a brief description or
explanation
Leadership skills for
development
1. Choices (e.g., morals,
values, attitude, decision-
making, judgment, risk-
taking)
Choice theory: Levin and Milgrom (2004).
Choice theory is the skilful process of evaluating
available options and then choosing the preferred
option based on a consistent criterion
E.g., decision-making; risk
assessment; moral
decision-making
2. Principles (e.g., ethics,
context, situation,
principles)
Principle theory: Caldwell et al., (2006).
Principle theory provides a foundation of guiding
principles, which relate to a person’s ability to act
by the rules or standards
E.g., context; ethics;
governance
3. Mental (e.g., cognitive,
logos, problem-solving,
knowledge, vision,
Cognition theory: Prinsloo & Barrett (2013),
Mumford et al.(2017).
E.g., thinking; learning;
teaching
CR MULLER
TG PELSER
A leadership skills development model for the Kwaden
Group: A case study of an African fast-moving
consumer goods business network
Journal of Contemporary Management
DHET accredited
ISSN 1815-7440
Volume 19 Issue 1
2022
Pages 432-456
Page 6
Leadership constructs
Theory, author(s) and a brief description or
explanation
Leadership skills for
development
experience,
understanding, memory,
education, goals)
Cognition theory is a person’s ability to solve
problems, plan, reason, think conceptually, grasp
complex concepts and learn quickly as well as
learn from experience; cognitive skills are
essential aspects and of critical importance in the
leadership context
4. Emotional (e.g.,
emotion, pathos, social,
motives, self-efficacy,
relational,
communication, social,
interpersonal, influence,
conflict resolution)
Emotional intelligence theory: Mayer et al. (2004),
Doe (2015), Heath et al. (2017),.
Emotional intelligence theory comprises a four-
branch ability model of a person being able to
perceive, use, understand and manage emotions.
Each branch of emotional intelligence can be
developed and are vital attributes of effective
leadership
E.g., social skills;
motivation; self-awareness
5. Physical (e.g.,
physical, stress, body,
physiological)
Physical well-being theory: Hattie et al. (2004).
The ‘Wheel of Wellness’ theory relates to a
person’s physical health and that stress
management, nutrition, and exercise are critical
aspects of the physiological well-being of a leader
E.g., stress management;
nutrition; exercise
6. Spiritual (e.g.,
character, ethos,
integrity, trust, purpose,
trust-building, role-model)
Spirituality Scale: Maslow (1972), Delaney (2005);
Avolio et al. (2009) .
The ‘Spirituality Scale’ is a method to assess a
person’s beliefs, values, and choices. The spiritual
life (the contemplative, religious, philosophical, or
value-life) is part of the human essence and a
defining characteristic of human nature
E.g., individual, team, and
organisational leadership
(purpose, meaning, and
values)
Source: Own compilation
CR MULLER
TG PELSER
A leadership skills development model for the Kwaden
Group: A case study of an African fast-moving
consumer goods business network
Journal of Contemporary Management
DHET accredited
ISSN 1815-7440
Volume 19 Issue 1
2022
Pages 432-456
Page 7
Overall, people possess varying educational levels, different experiences, diverse views, and
unique circumstances—resulting in a diverse range of knowledge, skills, abilities, and
perspectives. This study aims to critically explore how the conceptual model for leadership
skills development could grow leadership skills within the Kwaden Group as a case in the
African FMCG sector. As such, it tends to infer that the model should cater to all people within
the Kwaden Group—irrespective of age, ethnicity, education, experience, belief system,
circumstances, etc. The overall objective of the leadership skills development model is to
assist individuals to improve their leadership capacity and, in this case, the Kwaden Group,
as a case in the African FMCG sector.
As will be discussed in further detail later in the paper, our conceptual leadership skills model
will be presented as a cube. According to the conceptualisation and naming of the conceptual
leadership skills model, the word cube refers to “you”, where the letter “u” in the word cube
represents you… the leader. The word “super” is an adjective, which implies you are
wonderful, fantastic, great, marvellous, fabulous, excellent, splendid, superb, brilliant,
superior, enhanced, outstanding, etc. The primary objective is to provide a pragmatic model
that promotes and enables superior leadership (you) capability (i.e., you (from a
multidimensional perspective) are superb).
The conceptual model proposes Buber's I-Thou relation, which appreciates people as equals
(Morgan & Guilherme, 2012). The I-Thou relation highlights the mutual and holistic existence
of two distinctive entities. Morgan and Guilherme (2012) describe the I-Thou approach as an
encounter of equals who value each other as such. The ethical nature of the I-Thou relation
also proffers that if someone is unable to respect a fellow human being as a person and merely
as an object, they too will be considered an object (Morgan & Guilherme, 2012). This approach
represents a person as a means to an end; however, it ceases to ascribe rights and duties to
both parties. However, Buber encouraged people and communities to perceive fellow human
beings as “Thous”, having the same psychological, intellectual, emotional, and spiritual
attributes. In this study, the conceptual leadership skills model values people as being holistic
entities comprising multidimensional capabilities, along with the capacity of being both a leader
and/or follower in certain contexts.
Six constructs conceptualised the theoretical six-construct leadership skills model from the
leadership theory discussed and presented previously. Foti and Hauenstein (2007:347)
argued that “the person is considered as an integrated totality rather than a summation of
variables.” Also, leadership scholars posit that progressive research on traits or personal
CR MULLER
TG PELSER
A leadership skills development model for the Kwaden
Group: A case study of an African fast-moving
consumer goods business network
Journal of Contemporary Management
DHET accredited
ISSN 1815-7440
Volume 19 Issue 1
2022
Pages 432-456
Page 8
characteristics and their effects on leadership requires more extensive, multifaceted models
and approaches (Bass, 1990; Lord & Hall, 1992; Zaccaro et al., 2013). Considering the above
discussion, the researchers conceptually developed a leadership skills model that comprises
six leadership constructs grounded in associated academic literature.
The first construct (Choices) was appropriated from choice theory. Choice theory describes
the notion that making choices is a skilful process of evaluating available options and then
choosing the preferred option based on a consistent criterion (Levin & Milgrom, 2004). Levin
and Milgrom (2004) proffered that real-world choices often appear to be highly situational and
context-dependent such as the social context, the emotional state of the decision-maker, and
a variety of other environmental factors that influence choice behaviour. Based on the
conceptual model perspective, the Choices construct represents the primary function that is
influenced by cognitive, emotional, physical, and spiritual dimensions but conceptually guided
by the Principles construct.
The second construct (Principles) is supported by the principle theory, which provides a
foundation of guiding principles related to a person’s ability to act according to established
rules or standards (Caldwell et al., 2006). Furthermore, Johns (2006) argued that context is a
phenomenon external to the individual; yet, tends to affect leadership decision-making
processes. In the context of this study, the Principles construct represents the rules and
standards of social, economic, and natural laws (e.g., science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics (STEM)). In essence, the Principles construct corresponds to ethics (decision-
making foundations) and, thus, ethical leadership development for the greater good of
humanity (Wilson & McCalman, 2017). Based on the evidence from these two theories, it
appears reasonable to suggest that choice and principle theory support tend to symbiotically
guide one another as established in the conceptual model for leadership skills development.
Furthermore, with the conceptual leadership skills model in mind, the third construct, Mental
(cognitive), represents a leader's mental intelligence, which is supported by cognition theory.
This theory claims that is a person's knowledge, skills, and ability to solve problems, plan,
reason, think conceptually, grasp complex concepts, learn quickly, learn from experience, and
teach are essential aspects and of critical importance within and throughout the leadership
context (Prinsloo & Barrett, 2013; Mumford et al., 2017). Mumford et al. (2017) proffered that
mental intelligence ultimately refers to the speed and depth of leaders' information processing
skills and their ability to solve complex problems. Furthermore, evidence suggests that mental
CR MULLER
TG PELSER
A leadership skills development model for the Kwaden
Group: A case study of an African fast-moving
consumer goods business network
Journal of Contemporary Management
DHET accredited
ISSN 1815-7440
Volume 19 Issue 1
2022
Pages 432-456
Page 9
intelligence can be developed to provide people with the required knowledge and skills
necessary to perform complex leadership tasks (Mumford et al., 2017).
Also, emotional intelligence theory includes a four-branch ability model of a person being able
to perceive, use, understand and manage emotions (Mayer et al., 2004). Each branch of
emotional intelligence can be developed and represent a crucial attribute for effective
leadership (Mayer et al., 2004; Doe et al., 2015; Mfikwe & Pelser, 2017). Likewise, Heath et
al. (2017) highlighted that great leaders can develop five emotional intelligence skills: self-
awareness; self-regulation; motivation; empathy; and social skills. The first three skills are
related to personal competence, while the last two skills involve social competence, all of
which determine how leaders deal with relationships (Doe et al., 2015).
Next, the physical construct of the conceptual model for leadership skills development
represents a leader’s physiological well-being and is conceptualised as physical intelligence.
The “Wheel of Wellness” theory involves a person's physical health and states that stress
management, nutrition, and exercise are all vital aspects of the physiological well-being of a
leader (Hattie et al., 2004). Harms et al. (2017) postulated that stress and leadership are
inextricably linked and argued that leadership is most needed and vital to any organisation
during stressful events.
Subsequently, leaders who can handle stressful events effectively are generally more inclined
to engage in appropriate decision-making and facilitate overall group fitness (Harms et al.,
2017). Edwards (2006) maintained that regular exercise for an average of thirty minutes a day
at least three times a week is associated with significant improvements in a person’s physical
well-being and positively impacts mood, coherence, fortitude, and stress management.
Next, the Spiritual construct of the conceptual model for leadership skills development
represents a conduit between the leader’s Choices construct and Principles construct.
Moreover, the Spiritual construct also symbolises a fusion between the mental, emotional, and
physical constructs of a leader. Delaney's (2005) “Spirituality Scale” is commonly utilised to
assess a person's beliefs, values and choices. Maslow (1972) contended that “the spiritual life
(the contemplative, religious, philosophical, or value-life) is … part of the human essence… a
defining characteristic of human nature…” In this regard, Avolio et al. (2009) suggested that
spiritual intelligence is central to leadership capacity as it unites the four innate aspects of a
person’s existence (mind, heart, body and spirit). Therefore, it can be inferred that spiritual
intelligence prompts people to be more intrinsically motivated to achieve important goals,
become more committed to achieving organisational objectives, and experience higher levels
CR MULLER
TG PELSER
A leadership skills development model for the Kwaden
Group: A case study of an African fast-moving
consumer goods business network
Journal of Contemporary Management
DHET accredited
ISSN 1815-7440
Volume 19 Issue 1
2022
Pages 432-456
Page 10
of personal joy, peace, and fulfilment. Similarly, research findings in South Africa established
that higher levels of spirituality were generally associated with improved health, fewer mental
health problems, and better health-related, physical, psychological and environmental
outcomes (Edwards, 2006; Muller & Pelser, 2022).
Based on the conceptual leadership skills model, the researchers (Muller & Pelser, 2022:199)
define leadership as a "multidimensional, human-centric and principled approach that promote
the progression of humanity (i.e., the process of developing or moving gradually towards a
more advanced state)”. As a supplement to the complexity of the six-construct conceptual
model, Day and Thornton (2018) also proposed that leadership development is inherently a
multilevel process. Hence, levels include within-person and between-person; higher dyadic
levels involving relationships with followers, peers, and subordinates; and team and
organisational levels. Muller and Pelser (2022) proffered that cross-level research approaches
will further promote the understanding of leadership skills development. Leader and leadership
skills development is a dynamic and longitudinal process that involves considerable time
(Kalenzi & Pelser, 2021). The development of organisational leadership in general and
leaders, in particular, occurs throughout one’s entire adult lifespan (Day et al., 2012).
Furthermore, leaders do not develop in the same way through identical growth patterns
(Antonakis & Day, 2018). In other words, people learn different things from the same
experience, while some learn critical lessons through experience quicker than others (Day &
Thornton, 2018). Despite the distinction between leader development and leadership
development, it is not an either/or proposition. Instead, advanced initiatives seek to establish
methods that combine individual leader development with that of collective leadership
development to further the overall leadership capacity among teams and organisations (Day
& Dragoni, 2015).
3. METHODOLOGY
This study employed a pragmatic approach and followed an explanatory sequential design
typology. A quantitative analysis was conducted, after which an inductive thematic
interpretation methodology was adopted to help clarify the initial quantitative results. By
applying confirmatory factor analysis, the three data-model fit indices were able to provide
empirical evidence that the leadership skills development model was a good fit for the model.
In this study, the hypothesis development of the leadership skills development model involved
reviewing leadership and leadership development theories: traditional and contemporary
topics in leadership and leadership skills development topics. Subsequently, a review of
CR MULLER
TG PELSER
A leadership skills development model for the Kwaden
Group: A case study of an African fast-moving
consumer goods business network
Journal of Contemporary Management
DHET accredited
ISSN 1815-7440
Volume 19 Issue 1
2022
Pages 432-456
Page 11
traditional and contemporary leadership schools identified various theoretically-relevant
leadership attributes and dimensions so as to establish constructs for a conceptual leadership
skills model. Six leadership constructs perceived as human-centric, multidimensional, and
inherently incorporating the notion of being developmental were conceptualised as follows: i)
choices; ii) principles; iii) mental (cognitive); iv) emotional; v) physical; and vi) spiritual. Foti
and Hauenstein (2007:347) argued that “the person is considered as an integrated totality
rather than a summation of variables”. Leadership scholars argue that more multifaceted
models and approaches are required to advance research involving traits or personal
characteristics and their effects on leadership (Bass, 1990; Lord & Hall, 1992; Zaccaro et al.
2013; Muller, 2021; Muller & Pelser, 2022;). Considering the above, the researcher
conceptually developed a leadership skills model that encompassed six leadership constructs
grounded in academic literature (as shown in Table 2).
Table 2: A conceptual leadership skills model
Leadership constructs
A conceptual leadership skills model
1. Choices
2. Principles
3. Mental
4. Emotional
5. Physical
6. Spiritual
Source: Own compilation
The conceptual leadership skills model is presented as a cube and named super-cube®. The
super-cube® model in the schema in Table 2 implies that each side of the cube unites to
create a holistic, integrated, coherent, multifaceted human-centric perspective (refer to the
interpretation of “u” and “you” as explained earlier). The objective was to provide a model that
promotes and enables superior leadership (you) capability (i.e., you (from a multidimensional
perspective) are superb). Leadership, on its own, is already a highly complex construct in
scholarly disciplines and appears "curiously uninformed" (Hackman & Wageman, 2007:43).
CR MULLER
TG PELSER
A leadership skills development model for the Kwaden
Group: A case study of an African fast-moving
consumer goods business network
Journal of Contemporary Management
DHET accredited
ISSN 1815-7440
Volume 19 Issue 1
2022
Pages 432-456
Page 12
Furthermore, Baltes (1987) suggested that development is an equally complex construct,
given that it involves change and is a process of innate gains and losses.
Zaccaro and Horn (2003) ascertained that there is a wide gap between leadership theory and
leadership practice. As a result of this gap, the field of leadership development is mainly a
collection of disparate "best practices" (e.g., coaching, mentoring, on-the-job experience)
rather than a coherent, continuous, theoretically relevant, and empirically-validated process
(Day, 2000). Additionally, Illeris (2018) proffered that more education does not necessarily
result in increased and better learning. He further went on to state that while the theory of
learning is broad, it invariably comprises three dimensions:
1. Content dimension: refers to knowledge, understanding, behaviour, skills, values, or
feelings—typically cognitive;
2. Incentive dimension: refers to the intrinsic, interest and motivational aspects—typically
emotional; and
3. Interaction dimension: refers to the social engagement and has various layers, ranging
from the current, local, institutional, environmental, national and other situations to the
global context in general.
The unification of the conceptual leadership skills model (discussed and presented in Table
2) and the leadership skills development dimensions that form a model for leadership skills
development are depicted in Table 3.
Table 3: A conceptual model for leadership skills development
Leadership constructs
A conceptual leadership skills
model
Leadership skills
development
1. Choices
1. Leaders can and do
develop over time
2. Create structured
programmes and
experiences
3. Adhere to the theory of
learning
2. Principles
3. Mental
4. Emotional
5. Physical
6. Spiritual
Source: Own compilation
CR MULLER
TG PELSER
A leadership skills development model for the Kwaden
Group: A case study of an African fast-moving
consumer goods business network
Journal of Contemporary Management
DHET accredited
ISSN 1815-7440
Volume 19 Issue 1
2022
Pages 432-456
Page 13
In the conceptual model for leadership skills development, the leadership skills development
process can be considered inherent in each of the six leadership constructs of the model. The
leadership skills development rationale is as follows: (1) leadership can and does develop
overtime (De Neve et al., 2013); (2) structured programmes and experiences best promote
leadership development (Conger, 2010; Kegan & Lahey, 2016; Day & Thornton, 2018); and
(3) there should be an adherence to the theory of learning during the developmental process
(Illeris, 2018).
Based on the conceptual leadership skills development model, the authors defined leadership
skills development as being “inherent skills developed by structured methodologies
concerning learning theory, associated with the development of multidimensional, human-
centric and principled approaches towards the progression of humanity.” Due to the complex
nature of the research problem this study addresses, an overarching philosophy of
pragmatism has been embraced as it combines two worldviews or perceptions that benefit
from addressing the research problem from multiple perspectives (i.e., pragmatism is one
philosophy that includes post-positivism and constructivism).
Research approaches are broadly classified into two categories, namely, quantitative and
qualitative methods, and when combined, they are referred to as a mixed-method approach
(Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018). This study adopted a mixed-method approach. Moreover, an
explanatory sequential design was followed, comprising an initial quantitative analysis
followed by the qualitative analysis. Bryman and Cramer (2005) concluded that the
quantitative approach presents methods used to combine empirical observations with
deductive reasoning. The questionnaire survey included the following sections:
1. Research project overview;
2. Informed consent; and
3. Leadership question evaluation:
3.1. Choices construct: three questions;
3.2. Principles construct: three questions;
3.3. Mental construct: three questions;
3.4. Emotional construct: three questions;
3.5. Physical construct: three questions; and
3.6. Spiritual construct: three questions.
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A leadership skills development model for the Kwaden
Group: A case study of an African fast-moving
consumer goods business network
Journal of Contemporary Management
DHET accredited
ISSN 1815-7440
Volume 19 Issue 1
2022
Pages 432-456
Page 14
The questions were developed from the leadership theory associated with the dimensions and
attributes pertaining to each construct in the conceptual model for leadership skills
development. The questionnaire was subsequently converted into an electronic format.
Moreover, the quantitative approach covers the conceptualisation and operationalisation of a
conceptual model for leadership skills development as shown in Table 4.
Table 4: Construct conceptual and operational definitions
Leadership
constructs
Conceptual definition
Operationalisation definition
1. Choices
Decision-making
intelligence
The ability to make decisions based on a set of principles
2. Principles
Decision-making
foundations
The ability to understand the rules and standards of social,
economic, and natural laws
3. Mental
Mental intelligence
The capability to think, learn, teach, and have self-
awareness
4. Emotional
Emotional intelligence
The ability to perceive, use, understand and manage
emotions
5. Physical
Physical intelligence
The capability to manage stress, nutrition, and
cardiovascular well-being
6. Spiritual
Spiritual intelligence
The ability to act according to principles
Source: Own compilation
The multivariate statistical technique—confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to perform
theory-testing rather than opt for a theory-generating approach (Stapleton, 1997). By utilising
CFA, the researcher departed with the conceptual model for leadership skills development
and then specified the relevant variables expected to correlate with certain factors. Inter-factor
correlations were also proposed. Ullman (2006) noted that once the subject of concern is
multifaceted and multidimensional, CFA is the one assessment that reliably offers concurrent
tests regarding all the correlations in a theorised framework or model. Consequently, CFA
supports a level of examination to fit with the level of theory as CFA can test the hypothesis at
a factor or construct level.
By using this methodology, the reliability and internal consistency of the data were also
measured using Cronbach’s coefficient alpha (Cooper & Emory, 1995; Field, 2009). Overall,
the primary intent of a mixed methods explanatory sequential design is for the qualitative
phase to explain the initial quantitative results (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018). Furthermore,
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TG PELSER
A leadership skills development model for the Kwaden
Group: A case study of an African fast-moving
consumer goods business network
Journal of Contemporary Management
DHET accredited
ISSN 1815-7440
Volume 19 Issue 1
2022
Pages 432-456
Page 15
Creswell and Plano Clark (2018) posited that the qualitative phase typically explores and
elaborates on the statistical tests from the quantitative phase.
Therefore, during the qualitative phase, this study was able to collect primary data via face-to-
face, one-on-one, semi-structured interviews with key decision-makers in the Kwaden Group,
a business case in the African FMCG sector. The data analysis comprised thematic
interpretation and aimed to explore and elaborate on the results from the quantitative results.
The validity of the qualitative data was assured by applying the four criteria used to ensure a
trustworthy study: credibility; transferability; dependability; and conformability (Shenton,
2004).
4. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
The online quantitative questionnaire achieved a 43.9 percent response rate. The age group
with the highest percentage of respondents was those aged 36-45 at 36 percent, while the
second-highest was aged 25-35 at 28 percent. The remainder of the respondents were those
below age 25 at 4 percent, and those over 65 at only 1 percent.
In terms of gender, the respondent percentage was relatively equal, with slightly more female
participants at 53 percent, versus 47 percent of the male population. Additionally, with regard
to the educational level, most of the respondents (30%) reported an undergraduate
qualification, with the second-highest percentage of the respondents (26%) listing a
postgraduate qualification. The third highest response rate’s qualification status is unknown at
22 percent, while 12 percent of the respondents indicated a secondary qualification. A
certification (5%) and trade certification (5%) contributed towards 10 percent of the
participants. Next, confirmatory factor analysis was used to provide a viable method to
evaluate the construct validity (Stapleton, 1997).
In order to determine the relative contribution of each variable (i.e., each question), a
standardised regression weight analysis was performed. The results from the standardised
regression weights analysis determined the relative contribution of each variable (research
question), which, in this case, are noted as the estimate. It should be clarified that estimate
values between 1.0 and 0.5 are acceptable; however, values of 0.3 are also considered
acceptable (Stapleton, 1997).
The Choices construct had estimates of 1.071, 0.776 and 0.377. While an estimated value of
1.071 is marginally higher than 1.0, it is deemed acceptable. The Principles construct results
of 0.713, 0.622 and 0.529 are deemed acceptable. The results for the Cognitive construct
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A leadership skills development model for the Kwaden
Group: A case study of an African fast-moving
consumer goods business network
Journal of Contemporary Management
DHET accredited
ISSN 1815-7440
Volume 19 Issue 1
2022
Pages 432-456
Page 16
were 0.710, 0.614 and 0.495, which are all considered acceptable. The Emotional construct
results were 0.804, 0.518 and 0.509, and all deemed acceptable. The results of the Physical
construct were 0.969, 0.955 and 0.386, which are all acceptable. The Spiritual construct
results are all deemed acceptable at 0.773, 0.736 and 0.572 Figure 1 provides a graphical
representation of the construct-to-construct relationship.
Figure 1: Confirmatory factor analysis
Source: Own compilation
The model-fit statistics were calculated to evaluate a model where fixed parameters were
applied so as to postulate the model and the approval or dismissal of the model (Stapleton,
1997). Table 5 displays the summary of the conceptual model-fit results.
Table 5: Model-fit summary
Model
CMIN/DF
CFI
RMSEA
Requirement
~1:5
≥0.90
<.100
Study results
2.232
0.86
0.097
Study findings
Good model fit
Acceptable model fit
Good model fit
Source: Own compilation
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consumer goods business network
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As can be ascertained, the results provide empirical evidence that the conceptual model for
leadership skills development is considered a good model fit. Furthermore, Cronbach’s alpha
coefficient values ranged between 0.604 and 0.803, indicating acceptable and satisfactory
reliability. Table 6 depicts Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient distribution results.
Table 6: Construct reliability distribution
Constructs
Cronbach’s Alpha
Mean
Standard Deviation
Choices
0.74
6.66
0.62
Principles
0.65
6.76
0.39
Cognitive
0.60
6.28
0.72
Emotional
0.62
6.78
0.35
Physical
0.80
5.47
1.14
Spiritual
0.63
6.44
0.62
Source: Own compilation
The objective of the qualitative phase in an explanatory mixed-methods design is to further
explain and elaborate on the initial quantitative results obtained from the statistical analysis
(Creswell & Plano Clark, 2018). Figure 2 depicts the construct distribution results from the
qualitative thematic analysis.
Figure 2: Construct distribution results
31%
29%
18%
12%
9%
1%
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
30%
35%
Mental Emotional Principles Spiritual Choices Physical
Word contrubtion %
Qualitative construct results
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Source: Own compilation
As per Figure 2, the results from the conceptual model indicate that the mental construct had
the most words at 31 percent, while the emotional construct was marginally lower at 29
percent. Therefore, the Mental and Emotional constructs represent 60 percent of the words
described by participants during the interview process as pertaining to leadership skills
required by the Kwaden Group.
The Principles and Spiritual constructs contributed 18 percent and 12 percent, respectively
(30% when combined). Choices contributed 9 percent of the total word count and Physical
only 1 percent, with only two words qualifying from 321 words.
From the qualitative results and findings in this study, it seems reasonable to suggest that the
qualitative phase in this explanatory mixed-methods study sufficiently clarifies and elaborates
on the initial quantitative results obtained from the quantitative strand. Next, Table 7 presents
the qualitative results that complement the initial quantitative results concerning the leadership
constructs of the conceptual leadership skills development model.
Table 7: Summary of results
Super-Cube® Model
Constructs
Measurement reliability
Qualitative results
Model-fit tests:
CMIN/DF: 2.232;
CFI: 0.86;
RMSEA: 0.097
1. Choices
0.74
9%
2. Principles
0.65
18%
3. Mental
0.60
31%
4. Emotional
0.62
29%
5. Physical
0.80
1%
6. Spiritual
0.63
12%
Good model-fit = accepted
as a model
Cronbach’s alpha = construct reliable
Interview: word count
as a percentage (%)
Source: Own compilation
Empirical evidence discussed in the quantitative strand notes the Choices construct as the
second most reliable (0.74) construct. This result is also supported and explained in the
qualitative strand, with an overall word count of 9 percent.
The Choices construct concerns the primary construct in the leadership skills model. In this
study, the ability to make choices is described as a skilful process of considering available
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A leadership skills development model for the Kwaden
Group: A case study of an African fast-moving
consumer goods business network
Journal of Contemporary Management
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ISSN 1815-7440
Volume 19 Issue 1
2022
Pages 432-456
Page 19
options and then selecting an option based on principles (Levin & Milgrom, 2004). As this
choice skill develops, decision-making can improve decision-making speed, accuracy, and
consistency.
Additionally, the empirical results presented in the quantitative strand state that the Principles
construct is the third most reliable (0.65). This result was also confirmed and explained in the
qualitative strand with an overall word count of 18 percent.
The Principles construct concerns the foundational and guiding principles which relate to the
ability to make decisions according to rules or standards (Caldwell et al., 2006). In this study,
principles involve the following:
• Social principles: the skills and abilities to care for other people, put other people's
needs first, serve others and act as a servant for the good of another person (i.e.,
embracing the principles of servant leadership;
• Economic principles: the skills and abilities to operate efficiently (lean) and effectively
during business operations. For example, a business should adhere to economic
principles, such as making a profit to ensure continuity—to pay employees, suppliers,
and other business-related activities. Importantly, the business must adhere to ethical
principles, that is, the rules and standards concerning statutory and regulatory
requirements in the context in which it manifests itself and where the business
operates.
• Natural law principles: the skills and abilities to understand and apply STEM and
natural law (i.e., gravitational) principles.
Generally, the understanding of principles will inevitably vary based on personal
circumstances (e.g., education and experience). However, improving the understanding and
adherence (choices construct) to principles is considered foundational and intentionally
designed as the foundation of the leadership skills development model.
Empirical evidence discussed in the quantitative strand noted that the Mental construct is the
least reliable (0.60), yet was supported and explained in the qualitative strand with the highest
word count of 31 percent.
The Mental construct represents the skills and ability to solve problems, plan, reason, think,
grasp complex concepts, learn quickly, and learn from experience, as well as the capability to
teach and impart knowledge (Prinsloo & Barrett, 2013; Mumford et al., 2017).
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In this article, the Mental construct refers to the speed and depth of information processing
skills when solving complex problems. Evidence suggests that mental intelligence can
improve so as to provide the required knowledge and skills to perform complex leadership
tasks (Mumford et al., 2017).
The empirical results presented in the quantitative strand state that the Emotional construct is
the fifth most reliable (0.62), yet was explained in the qualitative strand with an overall word
count of 29 percent, the second-highest. Here, the Emotional construct represents the skills
to perceive, use, understand, and manage emotions (Mayer et al., 2004).
Additionally, the Emotional construct concerns abilities involving self-awareness, self-
regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills. The first three skills are regarded as one’s
personal competence, while the last two skills are considered one’s social competence. All
five skills determine how relationships are handled and are attributes that can be enhanced
(Mayer et al., 2004; Doe et al., 2015; Heath et al., 2017).
The empirical evidence discussed in the quantitative strand note that the Physical construct is
the most reliable (0.80); however, it was hardly discussed in the qualitative strand with the
lowest overall word count of 1 percent. Here, the Physical construct represents the
physiological well-being of a person.
Additionally, as previously discussed, the management of stress, nutrition, and exercise is
considered essential for physical well-being (Hattie et al., 2004). Edwards (2006) suggested
that regular exercise is associated with significant improvements in physical well-being,
including mood, coherence, fortitude, and stress management. Harms et al. (2017) noted that
stress and leadership are inextricably linked.
Next, the empirical results presented in the quantitative strand state that the Spiritual construct
is the fourth most reliable (0.63). This result was confirmed and explained in the qualitative
strand with an overall word count of 12 percent. Here, the Spiritual construct represents the
conduit between the choices and principle constructs and unites the four innate aspects of a
person's existence (mind, heart, body and spirit) to intrinsically motivate people to achieve
important goals (Maslow, 1972; Delaney, 2005).
Lastly, Figure 3 illustrates leadership skills development at an individual level. The concluding
findings indicate that it is possible to develop leadership through a series of events to improve
the overall wholeness of a person.
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A leadership skills development model for the Kwaden
Group: A case study of an African fast-moving
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Journal of Contemporary Management
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Volume 19 Issue 1
2022
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Page 21
Figure 3: Leadership skills development illustration at an individual level.
5. CONCLUSION
The study purposed to develop a conceptual model from theory and also to test the conceptual
model empirically. The results reveal that the leadership constructs identified within the
conceptual model for leadership skills development in the Kwaden Group, as a case in the
African FMCG sector, are statistically valid and reliable and, therefore, considered
appropriate. A thorough review of leadership and leadership development literature resulted
in conceptualising and operationalising a multidimensional conceptual model involving
leadership skills development that comprised six constructs. The key contribution of the
conceptual model for leadership skills development was that it effectively incorporated
traditional and contemporary leadership theories into a holistic, integrated, coherent and
universal approach to advancing leadership skills development.
In this study, it was established that leadership skills development should be multilevel, which
implies that everyone should have the opportunity to cultivate their leadership skills and that
developing leadership capability should be a company objective. Importantly, the findings
suggest that the Kwaden Groups’ leadership team need to prioritise leadership development,
which requires careful thought and pragmatic planning. Additionally, the findings confirm the
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A leadership skills development model for the Kwaden
Group: A case study of an African fast-moving
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Journal of Contemporary Management
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Volume 19 Issue 1
2022
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Page 22
conclusion of Van der Westhuizen et al. (2021) that leadership skills development is a
continual journey, which should include coaching, mentorship, and a blended learning
approach.
The leadership skills development model, if adopted by an organisation, should result in a
leadership skills development initiative being built on theoretically relevant and empirically-
validated constructs. This approach should assist organisations in building the necessary
leadership skills to advance leadership capacity and ultimately improve business potential.
This perspective should also challenge FMCG (and other) organisations and learning
institutions to seek a new approach to leadership skills development.
The opportunities for future research are vast. As leadership is a complex and evolving
concept with numerous variables, opportunities for future research exist, particularly in
evaluating the effectiveness of leadership interventions. Based on this study, future research,
for example, could include research at the individual level, business level, FMCG Group level,
FMCG Alliance level, and industry and African continent level. Research opportunities also
exist for longitudinal studies, where subjects can be assessed over an extended period of
time. Other possibilities include assessing subjects in the various contexts in which they
operate and live (e.g., at home and with their family).
FMCG businesses in Africa need to work towards developing Africa’s talent at scale to
effectively unlock the skills that businesses require to promote local economies and create
sustainable ecosystems throughout the supply chain. The researchers hope to continue
research in the field of leadership, coordinated with a particular focus on the effectiveness of
leadership interventions.
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A leadership skills development model for the Kwaden
Group: A case study of an African fast-moving
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ISSN 1815-7440
Volume 19 Issue 1
2022
Pages 432-456
Page 23
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consumer goods business network
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DHET accredited
ISSN 1815-7440
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2022
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consumer goods business network
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