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“We wait to be true people, Christians”:
An Idolatry Confession in Zapotec
David Tavárez, Vassar College
Context. This article presents a translation and analysis of the only extant formal
confession of human sacrifice written in an Indigenous language in the colonial
Americas. An analysis of this document, written in Northern Zapotec by the town
officials of Yalalag in 1704, provides numerous insights about how a community
deployed traditional rhetoric to seek mercy from their civil magistrate, and
to provide a justification for committing acts of idolatry and child sacrifice.
Rather than aligning with the canonical middle ground (nepantla), often used
as a yardstick, this confession eloquently and incisively places Northern Zapotec
society in tentative terrain point in terms of their knowledge of Christianity, and
depicts Christianization as a long-term process, which confessants boldly tied to
latent forms of negotiation.
Keywords. Idolatry, Mesoamerica, Zapotec, religion, Dominican Order
Introduction
On 7 December 1704, seven elected officials and eighteen male residents of
the Northern Zapotec town of Yalalag in Oaxaca, New Spain, presented
a fervent admission of guilt. This document, signed by all officials, was
addressedtodonDiegodeRiverayCotes,alcalde mayor,governor,of
theprovinceofVillaAlta.
1
Yalalag’s statement was only one among more
than a hundred collective confessions that were presented in 1704 and
1705 in response to an offer of amnesty for idolatry prosecution proclaimed
by fray Ángel Maldonado, bishop of Oaxaca. Maldonado’s proposal was
heeded by the concerned authorities of 102 Zapotec, Chinantec, and Mixe
Ethnohistory 69:3 (July 2022) doi 10.1215/00141801-9705958
Copyright 2022 by American Society for Ethnohistory
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communities in the region, as it came in the wake of a 1700 riot at San
Francisco Caxonos, the execution of fifteen of its instigators, and the dis-
play of their bodies on the main road to Oaxaca City (Alcina Franch 1993;
Chance 1989; Gillow [1889] 1990). Before this riot, Northern Zapotec
communities had embraced various strategies for enduring, or openly
resisting, Dominican evangelization efforts (Tavárez 2022: 253–62).
The Yalalag confession, an unusual document prepared during an
extraordinary campaign against idolatry, is all the more unprecedented
because it was delivered not viva voce and through an interpreter, but in
measured and elevated Northern Zapotec prose. Both in New Spain and
in colonial Peru, Indigenous defendants accused of idolatry, sorcery,
superstition, and other crimes against the Christian faith routinely pre-
sented oral testimony before ecclesiastical judges and civil magistrates, or
had their assertions inserted into the legal record as writs drafted by their
lawyers (Duviols 2003; Lara Cisneros 2014). There were very few excep-
tions to the predominance of oral testimony; for instance, the 1539 trial of
don Carlos of Tetzcoco featured a translation of a Nahuatl-language text
drafted by Francisco of Chiconauhtla (González Obregón 1910: 3, 41;
Tavárez 2011: 44). The Yalalag notables, however, used their own words,
not those of advocates or interpreters, as they detailed their faithlessness
and asked for mercy.
Zapotec Paths towards Christianity
This confession was authored collectively by two alcaldes, four regidores,
“councilmen,”one alguacil mayor,“constable,”and a notary—Yalalag’s
yoo lahui,“house of the community,”a Zapotec metonym that conveyed
the notion of cabildo,“town council.”The 1704–5 collective confessions
followed a predictable pattern: Native officials summarized ceremonies held
in the previous two or three decades, listed sacred sites by appellation,
named their ritual specialists, and described ritual practices, sometimes in
great detail. For instance, the confession of the Chinantec town San Juan
Lalana, which precedes the Yalalag confession in the legajo, or archival unit,
México 882 at the Archivo General de Indias, detailed celebrations that
addressed disease outbreaks and locust plagues; listed six townsmen who
ingested amuiquia, a plant with hallucinogenic properties, for divination
purposes; and exposedone of them, Diego Cardozo, as a nahualli: a shape-
shifter specialist who could turn at will into “a snake, a mule, or a piglet.”
2
In contrast, the Yalalag confessants charted a careful path from dis-
belief to compliance. Although it was Bishop Maldonado who had issued
an amnesty, these officials appealed directly to the alcalde mayor Rivera y
Cotes as protector, and mentioned their bishop only once. The letter begins
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with an expression of submission. Having identified themselves as the
“children”of their xana nachij señor General,“dear Lord, Lord General,”
the letter’s writers stated, niga chao nettoo ditozoxibi nettoxa nijahalo,“We,
together, kneel at your feet here,”and proceeded to request of the alcalde
mayor a quality that was closely associated with the nature of the Virgin,
yelahuezaalachij,“generous giving,”an epithet associated with Mary, called
in colonial Zapotec the “mother of generous giving,”and also an approxi-
mate gloss of the Marian epithet “Mother of Mercy”(Tavárez 2011: 210).
This letter’s recognition of multiple transgressions made precise use of
a common phrase for describing idolatry. It was not the received term
deployed in the most influential colonial Zapotec catechism, published by
Pedro de Feria in 1567 and partially based on an earlier text by Bernardo de
Albuquerque, which called “idolatry”quela huecete bitoo quiela yagala,
“the teachings of stone and wood deities”(Feria 1567: 23v, 63v). Instead,
in four separate instances, the text refers to y.tolla golazaa,“the ancient
sin,”and defines it as china xihuij que Bezellaho,“the evil labor of Bece-
lao,”or y.ticha goza que Bezellaho,“the word that came from Becelao.”
Becelao, also written Bezelao and Bezeloo, was the Zapotec lord of Yoo
Gabila, House of Underworld, and Dominicans had chosen his name as the
Zapotec appellation for Satan, thus blurring the line between the Zapotec
Underworld deity and Christianity’s fallen angel.
3
In this and several other
instances, Joseph Ramos, Villa Alta’s court interpreter, rendered Zapotec
rhetoric in unadorned Spanish, steered away from naming Becelao, and
translated the reference to Becelao’s labor as “idolatry”(idolatría,orido-
latrando).
The confessants then admitted to vacillation. After attempting to
didoxiha,“make agreements,”and confronting their yelladiachijlachij tao,
or “great fear”of punishment, they learned that a ticha behe,“word of
command,”issued in the Yalalag account not by Bishop Maldonado but by
the Viceroy and the Real Audiencia, would give them relief: chibala gui-
cabijlij xitollaa nettoo gonnitilao zo loy,“were we to confess our sins,
forgive us, you!”Perilously, the confessants also acknowledged that they
had dissembled. First, they noted that sa balla sij goloo nettoo lachijnaaloo
yogoo Bet[a]o quiag lani hueçeti maestros,“although we placed in your
care all the deities of stone, and the teachers, the maestros [of idolatries],”
they did not dare to guina . . . zaca lao,“speak to contradict,”due to their
great fear. But now, the Yalalag yoo lahui stated, diacalachi guitibiyadi
animas que netoo,“We want to wash our ánimas [souls] clean”by con-
fessing a previously untold “sin”that had existed Golazaa cannatezi Sea-
glij,“in ancient times, always and forever.”
This momentous avowal constituted the very core of the confession.
The Yalalag officials made the unmitigated assertion that they engaged in
Idolatry Confession in Zapotec 327
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an act they knew to be particularly nefarious from a Christian perspective:
the sacrifice of young children. The confession’sfirst attempt at describing this
transgression is oblique: dieaggoa nettooo Bitao diaca xonee y.lao Bet[a]o
quiag dieni yocho bidilalag,“We take children to make a reverence before the
deities of stone; something fetid is made, we were sickened.”The translator
Ramos eschewed these euphemisms, and instead indicated that the town
had been “sacrificing young children.”The full weight of this sin is not
unloaded until later in the letter, where theofficials revealed, ditoxoalapijlij
netto y.lao loy tolla que neto didiogo na yeni Bitao yogoo xijniloo,“We
confess before you our sin: we indeed cut the necks of children, all of them
your sons and daughters.”Itwasasthispivotalmomentthattheofficials
requested yelladinitilao lao Dios lani y.lao cuina Rey,“forgiveness before
God, and before the king himself.”
As remarkable as this confession may seem, other communities also
employed Maldonado’s amnesty offer to present narratives about child
sacrifice. In January 1705 the collective confession entered by the town of
Tiltepec described a child sacrifice that was supervised by the ritual spe-
cialist Juan de Luna in 1698. In an attempt to end a smallpox epidemic that
took the lives of more than thirty adults, a man called Agustín de Santiago
had extracted the heart of an unbaptized newborn; he then placed the heart,
and the child’s body, in the waters of Lao Gui, asacred marsh near Tiltepec.
4
Moreover, as part of the 1705 Xosa confession, Gabriel Belasco, who
described himself as a “sorcerer”who could turn into fire and travel any-
where in the world in his dreams, claimed that he used his shape-shifting
ability to enter the house of one of his enemies through a ventilation hole to
seize a newborn child, whom Belasco then allegedly sacrificed.
5
Between the confessant’s two momentous professions—the reverence
that children were forced to make before ancient deities, and the final
confirmation of their beheading—an explanation of the origins of these
communal “sins”was outlined. Although Yalalag was yeche Bee,“a right-
hand town,”an important community, and even if it was located in prox-
imity to the head town of San Ildefonso Villa Alta, the officials complained
that aca no zoa ala dihego loy y.neza lij galag bitadiaCuinalo,“there was
no one until you [the alcalde mayor] placed the straight road, until you
yourself arrived.”The officials then turned to a concern that was periodically
expressed in New Spain regarding nonresident clergy who tended to spiri-
tual needs during short visits(Taylor 1996). Since there were no Dominicans
or clergy who resided in Yalalag, a priest came lalatezi catibi lani cati dizi zee
gona quehe “only when there is a feast, when he receives his offering.”
According to the Yalalag yoo lahui, they had been redeemed only through
the actions of their powerful alcalde mayor, and not by virtue of Dominican
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teachings or the bishop’s intervention. Instruction had to be funded through
local means, and thus the community mentioned payments that have been
made to the alcalde mayor, although these went unmentioned in the trans-
lation. Still, the cabildo noted, lani niaque etoo bitij gotixoghe netooy.laolo,
“and because of that which was placed and paid to you,”the alcalde
mayor arranged for wise old people to be “placed in the school”to instruct
the community.
Seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Mesoamerican primordial titles
commemorated a distant time in which a community’s ancestors converted
to Christianity and encountered Spanish conquerors (Wood 2003). In
contrast with these formulaic depictions, the Yalalag yoo lahui presented
themselves as neophytes who, more than a century and a half after the
arrival of Christianity in Northern Oaxaca, had made only modest prog-
ress toward Christianity. After requesting the pardon of the RealAudiencia
and Viceroy, the Yalalag notables stated their hope that, having already
adopted Christian prayers, all they had to do is await their transformation
into Christian subjects: dioni nettoo y.leza gaca netto Benne lij christianos,
“We wait to be true people, Christians.”The officials also noted that, since
the alcalde mayor arrived, aca bata e.cha ni gani netoo y.tolla xihuij que
Bezellaho,“There will never be a day in which we commit the evil sin of
Becelao.”Toward the end of their text, the confessants stressed that only the
alcalde mayor had told them y.tichaa sîna lao nij neza lij,“the wise words
about this straight road,”a road on which they could travel if two remedies
were applied. First, Yalalag requested a priest who aca bata yezahe yeche
que netoo,“will never leave our town;”then, they asked for a teacher who
could instruct them about lahaya Doctrina y.ticha castilla,“the prayers of
the doctrine in the Castilian language.”
Concluding Remarks
While this letter contains carefully worded contrition formulas and humble
declarations, town officials also presented their reentry into Christianity as
a process to be negotiated. Without access to the instruction they requested,
the community would be lost again, for, they argued, aca nezi nettoo catij
zaa lij y.tichaa yelladieaglijlachi yellaachristiano,“We do not know when
the words of the belief in Christianity are true.”At the end of the letter,
before reiterating their need for a priest and their plea for mercy, the yoo
lahui outlined a troubling prospect. Due to their intense fear of punishment
by their alcalde mayor, diacalachij yogoo xicoo xijniloo gazi guixij taho
cheag to to nettoo nitilao nettoo,“all your household members and chil-
dren want to sleep in the wilderness; each of us would go, and we would be
lost.”This was a powerful warning that the townspeople had the option to
Idolatry Confession in Zapotec 329
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flee temporarily in order to avoid any engagement with civil or ecclesiastical
authorities, as had occasionally occurred during idolatry inquests.
6
In an influential sixteenth-century chronicle, the Dominican fray Diego
Durán famously registered a Nahua neophyte’s complaint that his people
were nepantla,“in the middle,”as they followed both Christian and Nahua
observances (Durán 1967, 1:237). This term has been used emblematically
to describe not only Mesoamerican Christianities, but also broad accul-
turation phenomena. In contrast, the Yalalag confessants described a rela-
tionship with Christianity that diverges markedly from the middle ground
that nepantla staked out. While this document recorded acts of humilia-
tion and obeisance, its authors made an audacious attempt at negotiation,
even as they stood accused of idolatry, and hinted at the possibility of
reincidence—not an idle threat, as it materialized three decades later.
In 1735, the Yalalag yoo lahui was once again accused, in a proceeding
now incomplete, of returning to child sacrifices, and of committing canni-
balism. The officials scored a short-lived victory, as the Audiencia of Mexico
ordered them reinstated after the alcalde mayor had removed them from
their posts as punishment for their alleged transgressions. This measure was
permanently reversed in 1736 after an inquiry led by a scandalized Juan
Antonio de Vizarrón y Eguiarreta, viceroy and archbishop of Mexico.
7
In
the end, Yalalag’s letter was merely a tactical surrender. For its authors, it
was one of many skirmishes that punctuated the town’s trajectory during a
protracted confrontation over the management of the cosmos that would
extend across several generations.
Primary Document: Yalalag Idolatry Confession (AGI México 882,
750r–754r)
Abbreviations and conventions
AHJO-VA: Archivo Histórico del Poder Judicial de Oaxaca, ramo Villa
Alta
1plE:first-person plural exclusive; 1plI:first-person plural inclusive; 2sg:
second-person singular; 3: third person; 3an: third person, for animals;
3f: third person, familiar; 3in: third person, inanimate; AG: agentive; C:
causative; CMP: completive; E: emphatic affix; EC: emphasis on comple-
tion; FRE: frequentative; HAB: habitual; HON: honorific; IMP: impera-
tive; INT: interrogative; NOM: nominalizer; NEG: negation; POS: pos-
sessive; POT: potential; PREP: preposition; PRF: perfect; PRM: progressive
movement; PRO: pronoun; PRT: particle; REP: repetitive; STA: stative
330 David Tavárez
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[ ] Reading of abbreviated words
< > Tentative transcription
Line 1: Transcription of Northern Zapotec confession, 750r–752v
Line 2: Analytical transcription
Line 3: Morpheme parsing with English translation
Line 4: Zapotec–English translation
Line 5: 1704 Zapotec–Spanish translation by interpreter Joseph Ramos, 753r–754r,
with some phrases underlined by him to facilitate the reading of this document
Line 6: English gloss of Ramos’s Spanish translation
[750r]
xana nachij señor General yogoo netto xijni loo Bennee yeche queloo niga San Juan
Yalalag
xana nachij señor General yogoo netto xijni-loo Bennee yeche que-loo niga San Juan
Yalalag
lord dear lord general all 1plE child-2sg people town POS-2sg here
Dear Lord, Lord General, all of us, your children, the people of your town here of San Juan Yalálag,
1. [753r] Señor General, todos tus hijos los del Pueblo de San Juan yalala,
Lord General, all your children, they of the town of San Juan Yalálag,
niga chao nettoo ditozoxibi netto xanijaha loo ditto naba netto yela huezaa lachij misericordia
niga chao nettoo di-to-zo-xibi netto-xa nijaha-loo di-tto-naba netto yela-hue-zaa-lachij misericordia
here together
8
1plE HAB-1pl
9
-stand-knee
10
1plE-E foot-2sg HAB-1pl-request 1plE NOM-AG-give
11
-heart mercifulness
we, together, kneel at your feet here. We request generous giving, misericordia [mercifulness],
2. Venimos a postrarnos a tus pies Y a pedir tu Misericordia
we come to lie at your feet and to ask for your mercy
niaque natapa ne too tiPatee yellaa di huinij lachij
niaque na-ta-pa netoo tiPa-tee yellaa-di-huinij-lachij
because STA-1pl-have 1plE strength
12
-E NOM-HAB-shrink
13
-heart
because we have illness and sadness, we all, your children, the townspeople.
3. porque andamos muy tristes todos los hijos del Pueblo,
because we go about with much sadness, all the children of the town,
bichaga yogoo netto to to le zohuani la zaa. di doxiha netto
bi-chaga yogoo netto to to le-zohuani lazaa di-do-xiha netto
CMP-meet all 1plE one one immediately
14
-many
15
turn HAB-1pl-agree
16
1plE
We all met together and one by one, and many times and right away, we make agreements on
Idolatry Confession in Zapotec 331
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4. que nos hemos Juntado muchas Vezes para Ver,
we have gathered many times to see
chihua ca gui to xoba lepi to ytollaa golazaa too natapa nettoo laa biyenizi netto
chihua-ca gui-to-xoba-lepi -to y.tollaa go-lazaa-too na-ta-pa nettoo laa bi-ye-ni-zi netto
if/whether-E POT-1pl-be.placed
17
-lift-1plE sin CMP-turn-1plE STA-1pl-have 1plE thus CMP-FRE-make-only 1plE
whether we would confess our ancient sin, which we have, which we thus have committed
frequently,
5. si te haviamos de Confesar Vn pecado Antiguo, que tenemos que âsiamos
whether we would confess an ancient sin we have, which we would commit
catij goca y china xihuij que Benneelao [sic]
catij go-ca y.china xihuij que Benneelao
when CMP-be labor evil POS [Becelao]
when the evil labor of Becelao existed.
6. tamVien en la Ydolatria,
also during the idolatries.
na naca xa gopa nettoo tipatee yella dia chij lachij tao nettoo
na n-aca-xa go-pa nettoo tipa-tee yella-di-achij-lachij tao nettoo
indeed
18
STA-be-E CMP-keep 1plE strength-E NOM-HAB-fear
19
-heart great 1plE
Indeed, there is, and we have had, illness and a great fear of ours.
7. y como hemos tenido miedo,
And since we have been afraid,
aca bata Beaxog ni nettoo galag bjeni naga netoo ziani lizoo
aca bata B-eaxog-ni nettoo galag b-jeni-naga netoo ziani lizoo
NEG when
20
CMP-dare
21
-PREP
22
1plE until CMP-hear-ear
23
1plE many times
We never dared, until we heard with our ears many times, [that]
8. no nos hemos atrebido, hasta que te hemos oydo muchas Veces
we have not dared, until we heard you many times
napa loo yti chaa Behe que goque ViRey xana nettoo lani que Yahuij R.l Audiencia
na-pa-loo y.tichaa Behe que goque ViRey xana nettoo lani que Yahuij R[ea]l Audiencia
STA-have-2sg word order POS ruler Viceroy lord 1plE and POS palace
you have a word of command from our ruler the Viceroy, our lord, and from the palace of the Real
Audiencia:
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9. que tenias despacho del ss[eñ]or ViRey y de la R[ea]l Audiencia
that you had a dispatch from the Lord Viceroy and the Real Audiencia
chi bala guicabij lij xi-tollaa nettoo gonniti lao zo loy
chiba-la gui-cabij-lij xi-tollaa nettoo go-nniti-lao zo loy
if-thus POT-confess
24
-straight POS-sin 1plE
25
CMP-be.forgiven
26
STA.stand 2sg
Were we to confess our sins, forgive us, you!
10. para si Confesariamos nuestas Culpas perdonanoslas,
if we confessed our sins, forgive us for them,
chellaa cati bitaloo y lao yeche que ni netoo
chellaa cati b-ita-loo y.lao yeche que-ni netoo
and when CMP-arrive-2sg before town POS-3 1plE
And when you arrived in our town,
11. y quando estubiste en nuestro Pueblo
and when you were in our town
cati goyeagloo yeag goa loo yella diniti llao goca lahaya nettoo
cati go-yeag-loo yeagg-oa-loo yella-di-niti-llao go-ca lahaya nettoo
when CMP-go-2sg POT.go-carry
27
-2sg NOM-HAB-be.forgiven CMP-be prayer
28
1plE
when you came and brought the pardon, there was our prayer.
12. a llebarnos la absoluzion
to give us the absolution
Sa ba lla sij go loo nettoo lachijnaa loo yogoo Bet.o quiag lani hueçeti maestros
Sa balla sij go-loo nettoo lachij-naa-loo yogoo Bet[a]o quiag lani hue-çeti maestros
[although]
29
CMP-insert
30
1sgE heart-hand-2sg all deit y stone and AG-teach teachers
Although we placed in your care all the deities of stone, and the teachers, the maestros,
13. aVnque te entregamos todos los ydolos, y Maestros,
even though we surrendered to you all the idols and teachers
aca [750v] Beaxog lachij nettoo guina neto zaca lao
aca B-eaxog-lachij nettoo gui-na neto zaca lao
NEG CMP-dare-heart 1plE POT-speak 1plE POT.contradict
31
we dared not speak to contradict,
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14. no nos atrevimos a desirtelo
we did not dare say this to you
nijâque tipate yellaadia chij di chebi lachij nettoo cati canna teçi nata pa netoo
nijâque tipa-te yellaa-di-achij di-chebi lachij nettoo cati canna-te-çi na-ta-pa netoo
because strength-E NOM-HAB-fear HAB-be.frightened
32
heart 1plE when then
33
-E-only STA-pl-have 1plE
because of illness and fear, our hearts have a fright that we always have.
15. por el gran miedo que siempre hemos tenido,
due to the great fear we have always had.
naha diebilao nettoo naca loo xoçi xinaa netoo chela gosella xana daho Dios loy
naha di-ebi-lao nettoo n-aca-loo xoçi xinaa netoo chela go-sella xana daho Dios loy
now HAB-be.glad
34
-face 1plE STA-be-2sg father mother 1plE and CMP-send
35
lord great God 2sg
Now we are glad that you are our father and mother and that you have sent in our great lord God;
36
16. y ahora que Vemos que Eres nuestro Padre y que se a YmViado Dios
And now that we see that you are our father, and that God has been sent here,
diaca lachi gui tibi yadi animas que netoo
di-aca-lachi gui-ti-bi-yadi animas que netoo
HAB-be-heart POT-pl-wash-clean
37
souls POS 1plE
we want to wash our souls clean
17. queremos labar nuestros Almas
we wish to wash our souls
niaque cha lizoo tee yeto na yogoo y tollaa xihuij
niaque cha lizoo-tee y-eto na yogoo y.tollaa xihuij
for day instance-E POT-end indeed all sin evil
so that indeed it ends now, on this day and instance, all the evil sin,
18. para que se aCave de una vez el Pecado Antiguo
so that once and for all the ancient sin is finished,
etoo naca Go-lazaa cannate zi Seaglij bi-yeni nettoo chela xoçi xotao netoo
etoo n-aca Go-lazaa canna-te-zi S-eag-lij bi-ye-ni nettoo chela xoçi xotao netoo
REL STA-be CMP-turn then-E-only STA-go-straight CMP-FRE-make 1plE and father grandfather 1plE
which existed in ancient times, always and forever, [which] we often committed, and also our fathers
and grandfathers,
334 David Tavárez
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19. que siempre hemos cometido nosotros, nues
tros
Padres, y nuestros abuelos
that which we have committed, we, our fathers, and our grandfathers,
canna tesi benie y china xihui que Beselaho Siani lizoo
canna-te-si be-ni-e y.china xihui que Beselaho Siani lizoo
then-E-only CMP-do-3 labor evil POS Becelao many instance
for they always did the evil labor of Becelao many times.
20. ydolatrando muchas Veces
commiting idolatry many times,
dieaggoa nettooo Bitao diaca xonee y lao Bet.o quiag dieni yocho bi di lalag
di-eagg-oa nettoo Bitao di-aca-xone-e y.lao Be-t[a]oquiag di-eni y-ocho bi-di-lalag
HAB-go-carry 1plE child HAB-be-be.folded
38
-3 before deity stone HAB-make POT-be.rancid
39
CMP-pl-be.sickened
40
We take children to make a reverence before the deities of stone. Something fetid is made;
we were sickened.
21. y saCrificando Criaturas,
and sacrificing young children,
nijaque yellaa Cahuij que neto aca no zoa ala dihego loy yneza lij galag bita dia Cuina lo
nijaque yellaa-Cahuij que neto aca no zoa ala di-hego loy y.neza lij galag b-ita-dia-Cuina-lo
because NOM-dark POS1plE NEG PRO STA.stand until HAB-put
41
2sg road straight until CMP-arrive-strong
42
-self
43
-2sg
Because of our darkness there was no one until you placed the straight road, until you yourself
arrived;
22. porque hemos Vivido sin quien nos guia hasta que tu as Venido
because we have lived without someone to guide us until you came
bi chela ylo netio taho tee ytolla xihuij que Bezellaho y lao yeche que nettoo
bi-chelay-lo netio taho-tee y.tolla xihuij que Bezellaho y.lao yeche que nettoo
CMP-find
44
-2sg first great-E sin evil POS Becelao in town POS 1plE
you found the first great one, the evil sin of Becelao, in our town
23. que Cogistes la primera [753v] Ydolatria en nuestro Pueblo,
and caught the first idolatry in our town,
canna ba nezi cuinalo xana galag bitatia loy napa nettoo maestro dozetine netoo
canna ba-n-ezi-cuina-lo xana galag b-ita-tia loy na-pa nettoo maestro dozetine netoo
then PRF-STA-know
45
-self-2sg lord until CMP-arrive-strong 2sg STA-keep 1plE teacher doctrine 1plE
but you already know, lord: it was when you arrived that we had our teacher of the doctrine,
Idolatry Confession in Zapotec 335
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24. pero tanVien saves tu señ<?> que hasta que tu Veniste no hemos tenido maestro d<e>lengua
Castilla,
but know also, you, lord, that until you came, we did not have a teacher of the Castilian language
lahaya toctrina yella christiano chella aca bata gozoo bexoçi lachi nettoo
lahaya toctrina yella-christiano chella aca bata go-zoo bexoçi lachi nettoo
prayer doctrine NOM-Christian and NEG when CMP-stand priest heart 1plE
the prayers of the doctrine of Christianity. And there never has been a priest, a heart of ours;
25. que nos enseñaze la Doctrina Cr<?>tiana, y que tanpoco hemos tenido Padre
who would teach us the Christian doctrine, and neither did we have a priest
lalate zi cati bi lani cati dizi zee gona quehe
lala-te-zi cati-bi lani cati di-zi zee gona que-he
All
46
-E-only when-PRT feast when HAB-take STA.hang offering
47
POS-3
only when there is a feast, when he [the priest] receives his offering.
26. si no e<s> el dia de fiesta de la obension,
except for the holidays with emoluments,
catij nigate zi dileza netto gola la too
catij niga-te-zi di-le-za netto gola-la-too
when here-E-only HAB-be.accompanied
48
1plE in.ancient.times
49
Here we go along as in ancient times;
na-bani netoo canna zi catij xoçi xotaho netto Golazaa canna la diaca zi
na-bani netoo canna-zi catij xoçi xotaho netto Go-lazaa canna la di-aca-zi
STA-be.alive 1plE then-only time father grandfather 1plE CMP-turn then indeed HAB-be-only
we are living as in the times of our fathers and grandfathers in antiquity, it is thus, indeed.
27. Y asi hemos Viuido siempre como nuestros Antiguos,
and thus, we have always lived like our ancient ones,
guito yeche Juridicion laha. etaa nabani zihe cannate zi
gui-to yeche Juridicion laha. etaa na-bani-zih-e canna-te-zi
POT-one town jurisdiction thus REL STA-be.alive-only-3 then-E-only
All the towns of the jurisdiction, which always have been living thus,
28. y en toda la Jurisdicsion se a Vivido siempre asi,
and always, life has been lived thus throughout the jurisdiction
cati niga chala lala dioniyie [751r] y ticha goza que Bezellaho
cati niga ch-ala lala di-oniyi-e y.ticha go-za que Bezellaho
when here HAB-celebrate
50
all HAB-C-make-3 word CMP-go POS Becelao
when there are celebrations here; they all comply with the word [that] came from Becelao,
336 David Tavárez
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29. y an hecho las mismas Ydolatr<?>
and they have committed the same idolatries
la tieaghoa zihe Bitao
la ti-ea-ghoa-zih-e Bitao
for HAB-go-carry-only-3 child
for they only bring children.
30. y saCrifisios de Criaturas; OJO
and child sacrifices; NOTE [annotation added for the benefit of court officials]
lani niaque etoo bi tij gotixoghe netoo y lao lo
lani niaque etoo bi-tij go-ti-xogh-e netoo y.lao-lo
and because which CMP-be.placed
51
/sell
52
CMP-pl-pay
53
-3 1plE before-2sg
And because of that which was placed and paid to you,
31. y por lo que te hemos dicho,
and due to what we have said,
yeag xa coho Bennee gola si gola quilohe escuella
yeag-xa coho Bennee gola-si gola qui-lo-he escuella
POT.go-E POT.come.across people old-only old POT-be.placed-3 school
they would go and come across old people only, old ones; they were placed in the school.
32. topaste h[om]bres Viejos, que pusiste a la esCuela;
you came across old men, whom you placed in the school;
chella golala yaggoalo yellaa diniti lao
chella golala yag-goa-lo yellaa-di-niti-lao
and since
54
POT.go-carry-2sg NOM-HAB-[be.forgiven]
And since you brought the pardon,
33. y desde que tu nos llebaste la absolusion
and since you brought us the absolution,
goca netto laya dioni nettoo y leza gaca netto Benne lij christianos
go-ca netto laya di-o-ni nettoo y.le-za g-aca netto Benne lij christianos
CMP-take.in
55
1plE prayer HAB-make 1plE towards
56
POT-be 1plE people straight Christians
We adopted the prayers, and we wait to be true people, Christians.
Idolatry Confession in Zapotec 337
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34. Enpesamos a hazer Cristianos,
we have begun to be Christian,
lani catij ni dito xoa lapij lij netto y lao loy tolla que neto di diogo na yeni Bitao
lani catij ni di-to-xoa-lapij-lij netto y.lao loy tolla que neto di-diogo na yeni Bitao
and time DEM HAB-pl-confess-lift-straight 1plE before 2sg sin POS 1plE HAB-cut
57
indeed neck child
And at this time, we confess before you our sin: we indeed cut the necks of children,
35. y assi te Confessamos el Pecado de degollar Criaturas; OJO
and thus we confess the sin of cutting the necks of children, NOTE [annotation added for the benefitof
court officials]
yogoo xijniloo chela di tonaba neto yella diniti lao lao Dios lani ylao cuina Rey
yogoo xijni-loo chela di-to-naba neto yella-di-niti-lao lao Dios lani y.lao cuina Rey
all offspring-2sg and HAB-pl-request 1plE NOM-HAB-forgive before God and before self king
all of them your sons and daughters. And we request forgiveness before God, and before the king
himself.
36. todos tus hijos y pedimos Perdon a Dios Y al Rey
all your children; and we beg forgiveness of God and the king.
chela nezini neto napa loo y ticha Bea que biRey xana nettoo lani R.l Audiencia
chela n-ezi-ni neto na-pa-loo y.ticha Bea que biRey xana nettoo lani R[ea]l Audiencia
and STA-know-PREP 1plE STA-have-2sg word command POS viceroy lord 1plE and
And we know about the word of command you have from the Viceroy, our lord, and the Real
Audiencia
37. y como sauemos que tienes despacho. del ss[eñ]or ViRey, y de la Audiencia
And as we know you have a dispatch from the lord Viceroy, and from the Audiencia,
etoo belaba y ticha. xicha. huate y tichaa que netoo
etoo be-laba y.ticha. xicha. hua-te-y.tichaa que netoo
which CMP-read word native
58
AG-pass-word
59
POS 1plE
which our interpreter read in the Zapotec language.
38. que nos leyo en Sapoteco nuestro Ynterprete;
which our interpreter read to us in Zapotec,
chela nezi netto canna loy dieni ni chahuij xana nettoo ViRey lani yahui Audiencia
chela n-ezi netto canna loy di-eni-ni chahuij xana nettoo ViRey lani yahui Audiencia
and STA-know 1plE then 2sg HAB-hear-PREP well lord 1plE viceroy and palace Audiencia
As we know that it is you that the Viceroy, our lord, and the palace of the Audiencia hear well,
338 David Tavárez
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39. y que sauemos que a ti te oye Vien, el ss[eñ]
or
ViRey y la Au[dienci]
a
,
and [as] we know that the lord Viceroy and the Audiencia do listen to you,
ditotaa yo netoo ylao loo guinnaba lao yellaa di niti lao ytolla eto bieni nettoo
di-to-taayo netoo y.lao loo gui-nnaba-lao yellaa-di-niti-lao y.tolla eto bi-eni nettoo
HAB-pl-beg
60
1plE before 2sg POT-request-face NOM-HAB-forgive sin REL CMP-make 1plE
we beg of you to request a pardon for the sin which we committed,
40. te Rogamos que pidas nuestro perdon.
we beg you to request forgiveness for us
niaque ba di cabi lachi netto ylao Cuina Dios lani Cuina Rey
niaque ba-di-cabi-lachi netto y.lao Cuina Dios lani Cuina Rey
because PRF-HAB-confess-heart 1plE before self God and self king
aca bata etoo laza gui-to-xihuij netoo
aca bata etoo laza gui-to-xihuij netoo
NEG when REL turn POT-pl-be.wrong
61
1plE
because we have confessed before God Himself and the king himself to never sin once more.
41. porque ofresemos a Dios y al Rey, de nunca pecar
because we pledge to God and the king never to sin again.
chella dinaba netto ylao loo Sa g-unna-he netoo bixoçi Cura aca bata yeza he yeche que netoo
chella di-naba netto y.lao-loo Sa g-unna-he netoo bixoçi Cura aca bata ye-za-he yeche que netoo
and HAB-request 1plE before-2sg REL CMP-give-3 1plE father priest NEG when POT-go-3 town POS 1plE
And we request before you that they give us a priest. He will never leave our town.
42. y te pedimos que nos den Cura que nunca se Vaya de nuestro Pueblo
62
And we request that they give us a priest who never leaves our town,
Ban neziloo ba naca yeche Bee yeche xene yeche que nettoo guitoo Juridicion
Ba-nn-ezi-loo ba-n-aca yeche Bee yeche xene yeche que nettoo gui-too Juridicion
PRF-STA-know-2sg PRF-STA-be town right.hand
63
town large town POS 1plE POT-one jurisdiction
You already know our town is a right-hand town and a large town in all of the jurisdiction.
43. pues como saues es el Mayor de toda la Jurisdicsion;
for, as you know, [our town] is the main one in all the jurisdiction;
chiballa aca gapa netoo etoo niga noxa goze gonna yoo netoo
chiba-lla aca ga-pa netoo etoo niga no-xa go-ze go-nna yoo netoo
if-thus NEG POT-have 1plE REL here who-E CMP-offer CMP-see
64
house 1plE
If we do not have that here, someone who preserves our house,
Idolatry Confession in Zapotec 339
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44. y si no tenemos esto. y quien nos Cuyde
and if we do not have that, or someone who cares for us,
chela choo canna si maestro gotihe lahaya Doctrina yticha castilla
chela ch-oo canna-si maestro go-tih-e lahaya Doctrina y.ticha castilla
and HAB-be.in
65
then-only teacher POT-be.placed-3 prayer doctrine word Castilian
and there is always a teacher who would place the prayers of the doctrine in the Castilian language,
45. y siempre Maestro de Doctrina Christiana en Castilla;
a teacher of the Christian doctrine in Spanish [with us] always,
laa yeze niti Ylao nettoo niaque aca nezi chahui netoo niaque aca nezi nettoo
laa ye-ze-niti-Y.lao nettoo niaque aca n-ezi-chahui netoo niaque aca n-ezi nettoo
then POT-REP-lose-face 1plE because NEG STA-know-well 1plE for NEG STA-know 1pl
then, we will be lost again, because we do not know well, because we do not know
46a. nos bolueremos, a perder, porque no Sauemos
we will be lost again, because we do not know
catij zaa lij y tichaa yella-di eag lij-lachi [751v] yellaa-christiano
catij zaa lij y.tichaa yella-di-eag-lij-lachi yellaa-christiano
when STA.go straight word NOM-HAB-go-straight-heart NOM-Christian
when the words of the belief in Christianity are true.
46b. la Religion Catholica
the Catholic religion;
chela dinaba nettoo ylao loo guinnabalo catij niga y lao R.l Audiencia
chela di-naba nettoo y.lao-loo gui-nnaba-lo catij niga y.lao R[ea]l Audiencia
and HAB-request 1plE before-2sg POT-request-2sg time here before
And we request before you that you make a request there, before the Real Audiencia,
47. y te pedimos pidas esto tanVien a la R[ea]l Au[dienci]a,
and we ask that you ask this also of the Real Audiencia,
lani Cuaquio y tichaa na n-aca-xa golala bitaloo loy
lani Cu-aqui-o y .tichaa na n-aca-xa golala b-ita-loo loy
and POT-believe
66
-2sg word indeed STA-be-E since CMP-arrive-2sg 2sg
and that you believe these words that indeed exist: Since you arrived,
340 David Tavárez
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48. y que digas Como desde que tu Veniste
and that you say how, since you came,
aca bata e cha ni gani netoo y tolla xihuij que Bezellaho
aca bata e.cha ni ga-ni netoo y.tolla xihuij que Bezellaho
NEG when day DEM POT-make 1plE sin evil POS Becelao
there will never be a day in which we commit the evil sin of Becelao,
49. no hemos hecho mas el pecado de la Ydolatria
we no longer have committed the sin of idolatry
niaque cha lizoote si bita goa neto yogoo etoo si goti etoo si bana
niaque cha lizoo-te-si b-ita-goa neto yogoo etoo si go-ti etoo si bana
because day instance-E-only CMP-arrive-carry 1plE all REL POT.take CMP-be.dead REL POT.take POT.live
67
because, once more, we brought all that the dead and the living would receive,
50. y que te dimos las porquerias
and that we gave you the filthy things
bita goa netto y lao loo chela ba ti be segui loo yahuij yeha niga
b-ita-goa netto y.lao-loo chela ba-ti be-segui-loo yahuij yeha niga
CMP-arrive-carry 1plE before-2sg and PRF-EC CMP-burn-2sg palace plaza here
which we brought before you, and [which] you already burned in this palace and plaza
51. que quemaste en la Plaza
that you burned in the plaza
niaque Rey naca xoçi que yogoo nettoo lani gapa chijhe nettoo
niaque Rey n-aca xoçi que yogoo nettoo lani ga-pa-chij-he nettoo
because king STA-be father POS all 1plE and POT-keep-be.seated-3 1plE
because the king is the father of all of us, and he will guard us.
52. porque el Rey es nuestro Padre y nos a de Amparar
because the king is our father, and he will shelter us
canna yella dichebij que y tolla etoo natapa netoo
canna yella-di-chebij que y.tolla etoo na-ta-pa netoo
only NOM-HAB-be.frightened POS sin REL STA-pl-have 1plE
From the fear of the sin that we have
Idolatry Confession in Zapotec 341
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53. pues de el miedo, de nuestro pecado,
for, due to the fear issuing from our sin,
diacalachij yogoo xicoo xijniloo gazi guixij taho cheag to to nettoo niti-lao nettoo
di-aca-lachij yogoo xi-coo xijni-loo g-azi guixij taho ch-eag to to nettoo niti-lao nettoo
HAB-be-heart all POS-dog son-2sg POT-sleep wilderness
68
great HAB-go one one 1plE POT.lose-face 1plE
all your household members and children want to sleep in the wilderness; each of us would go, and
we would be lost.
54. nos hemos querido yr todos los hijos del Pueblo por esos Montes
we, all the children of the town, have wanted to leave for those mountains
Na nacaxa loy cannate zi dunnalo, ytichaa sîna lao nij neza lij
Na n-aca-xa loy canna-te-zi d-unna-lo y.tichaa sîna lao nij neza lij
indeed STA-be-E 2sg then-E-only HAB-say-2sg word wise before DEM road straight
Indeed, it is you who always says the wise words about this straight road,
55. y como tu nos as aConsejado tantas Veces
and as you have counseled us many times
niaque guinaho neto chi llj te eto naca nalij
niaque gui-na-ho neto chi-llj-te eto n-aca na-lij
because POT-say-2sg 1plE STA.sit-straight-E REL STA-be STA-straight
for you will tell us what sits straight, that which is straight.
56. el que Digamos la Verdad,
that we say the truth,
dienibee netoo yellabachij xene eto dionilo
di-eni-bee netoo yella-ba-chij xene eto di-oni-lo
HAB-hear-wind
69
1plE NOM-PRF-be.loved
70
large REL HAB-do-2sg
We hear about the great affection that you have,
chela loy di zolani lo neto diaca lani loo nettoo
chela loy di-zo-lani-lo neto di-aca-lani-loo nettoo
and 2sg HAB-stand-with-2sg 1plE HAB-be-with-2sg 1plE
and that you stand with us, you are with us,
57. Viendo que nos quieres mucho; Y que tu nos defiendes
seeing that you love us very much, and that you defend us,
niaque naha yogoote di toxoba lapij netoo ylao lo chela dinao netoo y lao lo
niaque naha yogoo-te di-to-xoba-lapij netoo y.lao-lo chela di-nao netoo y.lao-lo
because now all-E HAB-pl-be.placed-lift 1plE before-2sg and HAB-say 1plE before-2sg
thus, we confess everything before you and we say before you:
342 David Tavárez
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58. por eso te lo Confesamos y te desimos
hence we confess to you and tell you
canna Vita Bexoçi y lao yeche aca bata ditoxoalapij y tolla nigaa galag naha
canna V-ita Bexoçi y.lao yeche aca bata di-to-xoa-lapij y.tolla nigaa galag naha
only CMP-arrive priest in town NEG when HAB-pl-be.placed-lift sin here until now
one never confesses the sin here until now, when the priest arrived in town.
59. que quando el Padre yVa, al Pueblo, nunCa hemos Confesado este pecado,
that we would never confess this sin when the priest came to our town,
dialoy beluy loo yella aca no netoo gachi guichebij
dia-loy be-luy-loo yella-aca-no-netoo g-achi gui-chebij
HAB-show CMP-show-2sg NOM-NEG-PRO-1plE POT-fear POT-be.frightened
You show, and have shown, that not one of us will be afraid or be frightened,
60. hasta ahora que tu nos as dicho no tengamos miedo,
until now, for you have told us not to be afraid,
lani go naBee loy lao nettoo guito xoa lapij na lijçi ylao bixoçi gopa Betaho y tollaa
lani go-naBee loy lao nettoo gui-to-xoa-lapij na-lij-çi y.lao bixoçi go-pa Betaho y.tolla
and CMP-order 2 sg face 1plE POT-pl-be.placed-lift STA-straight-only before priest AG-keep deity sin
and you ordered us to confess only the truth, the sin, before the priest and deity keeper.
61. y que nos as mandado que Confesemos al Padre el Pecado;
and you have ordered us to confess the sin to the priest,
niaque dinnaba nettoo y lao lo guinnaba loo lao goque xana nettoo Señor obispo
niaque di-nnaba nettoo y.lao-lo gui-nnaba-loo lao goque xana nettoo Señor obispo
because HAB-request 1plE before-2sg POT-request-2sg before ruler lord 1plE Lord Bishop
For we request before you that you request before our ruler and lord, the Lord Bishop
62. Y asi te pedimos [754r] Pidas al Señor õbispo,
and thus we request that you request the lord bishop
guisellaahe yeche que netoo Bexoçi yella guitoxoa lapij yogoo netoo
gui-sellaa-he yeche que netoo Bexoçi yella-gui-to-xoa-lapij yogoo netoo
POT-send-3 town POS 1plE priest NOM-POT-pl-be.placed-lift all 1plE
that he sends our town a priest for the confession of us all
Idolatry Confession in Zapotec 343
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63. que nos embie Padre que nos Confiese a todos
that he sends us a priest who gives us confession
niaque yeyadi yexij yogoo Animas que nettoo Dios guixog xillaaho
niaque ye-yadi ye-xij yogoo Animas que nettoo Dios gui-xog-xillaa-ho
because POT-clean POT-wash
71
all souls POS 1plE God POT-pay-riches-2sg
in order to clean and wash all of our souls. God will pay you with riches.
64. para que nos labe. nuestras Almas y Dios te lo pagara;
so that he may cleanse our souls, for God will repay you.
[752r]
lani yogoo nettoo xijnilo nitaa netoo xana xoggo
lani yogoo nettoo xijni-lo n-itaa netoo xana xoggo
and all 1plE child-2sg STA-be 1plE lord behind
nitaha loo naseni nayeni lo yogoo nettoo
nitaha-loo na-seni na-yeni-lo yogoo nettoo
STA.be.sheltered
72
-2sg STA- entrust.oneself
73
STA-be.seen
74
-2sg all 1plE
And we all, your children, we are behind you, lord, you shelter us; all of us entrust ourselves to you
and are seen by you.
65. Y todos tus hijos que estamos deBajo de tu Amparo
and all your children, who are under your shelter ,
etoo lizoo dieze naba netoo Misericordia lao xana deho Dios lao Rey
etoo lizoo di-eze-naba netoo Misericordia lao xana-deho Dios lao Rey
REL instance HAB-REP
75
-request 1plE mercifulness before lord-1plI God before king
Once again, we request mercifulness before God, lord of us all, and before the king
66. Volvemos a pedir misericordia, a Dios, al Rey.
we ask again for mercifulness from God and the king,
niaque naa dibequi netoo lao guichij niga yogoo firmas queni nettoo
niaque naa di-bequi netoo lao guichij niga yogoo firmas que-ni nettoo
because now HAB-place 1plE on paper here all signatures POS-3 1plE
as we now place all of our signatures on this paper.
67. y asii y todos
and hence we all sign this paper
y goote nettoo yeche San Juan Yalalag Se yo pa gheyoa nettoo guichi niga y lao loo
y.goo-te nettoo yeche San Juan Yalalag Se-yopa gh-eyoa nettoo guichi niga y.lao-lo
CMP-tell.account
76
1plE town PRM-hurry
77
POT-carry.load
78
1plE paper here before-2sg
We told this account at the town of San Juan Yalalag. We hasten to carry this paper before you.
344 David Tavárez
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68. delante de ti
before you.
don Gonzalo de Aquino alcalde Jacinto de Celis alcalde
Sebastian Solis rexidores felipe de s[an]tiago rexidor fran[cis]co martin Rexidores
fran[cis]co her[nan]des Rexidores seuastian ximenes alguacil mayor Baltasar de los Reyes
Seuastian m[a]r[ti]n
Jua[n] martin P[edr]o de aquino Nicolas Cano
fran[cis]co ximenes Juan martin grabiel de bargas
[cris]toua morales Bartolomen basquis
Ju[an] ylar Agustin de la crus matheo sanches
[cris]toua morales Domas de Aquino
Agustin Santiago [cris]toua morales fran[cis]co Santiago
Ant[oni]o hernandes escribano que yechi nij San Ju[an] Yalal<a>
Antonio Hernandes notary POS town DEM San Juan Yalalag
Antonio Hernandes, notary of this town of San Juan Yalalag.
Concuerda este trasumpto Con el Papel original, que debolui, al señor
Alcalde M[ay]or: de Cuia õrden
This trasumpto is in agreement with the original document, which I
returned to the lord Alcalde Mayor, and by whose order
Saque este trasumpto, el qual Va, Vien y fielm[en]
te
trasumptado Segun mi
legal sauer y entender y lo firme
I made this trasumpto, which has been translated faithfully and well,
according to my legal understanding and knowledge, and I signed it
en esta V[ill]a Alta de San Yldefonzo a Siete Dias del mes de Diziembre de
mil zetesientos y quatro a[ño]s Como Ynterprete gen[era]l deste jusgado.
Joseph Ramos.
in this Villa Alta of San Ildefonso, on the seventh day of the month of
December of 1704. As general interpreter of this court, Joseph Ramos.
Notes
Unless otherwise indicated, I am the author of all the translations in this article.
I thank Pam Munro for her comments on an earlier draft of this translation, Kevin
Terraciano and Lisa Sousa for a generous invitation to discuss it at a Zapotexts
seminar held at UCLA in 2010, and Aaron Broadwell for his comments during those
sessions. Followingthe lead of an influential collective translationof a Colonial Valley
Zapotec testament (Smith-Stark et al. 2008), my translation contains two transcrip-
tion lines. Line 1 transcribes the text without standardized word boundaries and with
Idolatry Confession in Zapotec 345
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abbreviations, and line 2 divides words into constituent morphemes, notes errors, and
resolves abbreviations. This translation is based in part on entries in two works edited
by the Dominican lexicographer Juande Córdova: the most authoritative dictionary
of a colonial Zapotec variant (Córdova 1578a), a searchable transcription of this
dictionary (Smith-Stark, Bogard, and López Cruz 1993), and the first published
Colonial Valley Zapotec grammar (Córdova 1578b).
1 For Northern Zapotec political organization, see Chance 1989: 123–50; for
internecine conflicts and court testimony, see Calvo 2010: 113–40; Sousa 2017:
106–8; for Dominican evangelization in Oaxaca, see Farriss 2018.
2 Archivo General de Indias (henceforth AGI), México 882, 746r–749r. The
Chinantec term Amuiquia, whose name includes the term ahm(a), “tree, plant”
(Skinner and Skinner 2000: 12), was also designated by Chinantecs with the
Nahuatl term pahtli piltzintli. For other Central Mexican healers investigated
for superstition, see Cruz Soto 1993; Lara Cisneros 2014; and Ruiz de Alarcón
1984.
3 This phrase sometimes includes the term “the manufacture,”quela-hue-zaa,
nominative-agentive-manufacture, where zaa is “to make with one’s hands,”as
glossed in Córdova 1578a: 215r, 286r. Even if the verb to-zaa-ya,“to draw
one’s blood”(367v) is an alternative gloss, “manufacture”is more plausible,
due to its Thomistic implications.
4 AGI México 882, 1148r–v; see Alcina Franch 1993: 125.
5 AGI México 882, 1514r–1515v; see Alcina Franch 1993: 85–86.
6 This retreat strategy was followed after an investigation into idolatrous prac-
tices in Lachitaa that divided the town in 1718; see Archivo Histórico del Poder
Judicial de Oaxaca, juzgado de Villa Alta (henceforth AHJO-VA) 184, Legajo
(henceforth L) 11, Expediente (henceforth E) 5, 1r–4r.
7 AHJO-VA Criminal 225, L13, E3; see Tavárez 2011: 256.
8 Córdova 1578a: 418v: vamonos juntos, “let us go together,”zàa-chào-no; see
also 422v.
9 See Reyes (1704) 1891: 37 for a discussion of the irregular first-peson plural
marker -to- or -t-, inserted before the verbal root.
10 Córdova 1578a: 39v: arrodillado ser, “to be on one’s knees,”ti-zòo-xibi-a.
11 Córdova 1578a: 169v: misericordia hazer, “to grant mercy,”te-zàa-làchi-a.
Long 1999: 198 : ch-za’laže’,“to wish to make a gift.”Bernardino Cano,
Zapotec consultant from Yalahui (pers. comm., July 2008) suggested the gloss
“he favored, he did a favor,”for be-zaa-lachi-e.
12 Tipa is glossed as “strong man’s force”(Córdova 1578a: 201v); “verve”(83v);
see Butler 2000: 91: ch-dip,“to have strength.”The term tipa-tee with the
emphatic -tee refers to a testator’s bad state of health in several Northern
Zapotec wills; it could mean “excessive force,”and may signal, in keeping with
Mesoamerican traditions, a worrisome imbalance.
13 Córdova 1578a: 3v: abreuiado ser. vide disminuyr, “to be abbreviated, to
diminish,”ti-huìni-a. Pacheco de Silva [1687] 1752:110v: ree-lla-zi ri-huini-ta,
“I regret with all my heart.”
14 Butler 2000: 163, le-,“right away, immediately”; an adverbial affix.
15 Córdova 1578a: 275v: mucho, “much, many,”ciàni.
16 Córdova 1578a: 84r: concertados ser assi, “to come to an agreement,”te-xija;
quela-hue-xija chahui is glossed in 84r as “agreement among litigants.”
346 David Tavárez
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17 Córdova 1578a: 85r: confessar la fe, “to confesst the faith,”to-xóba-lij-a.
18 Butler 2000: 264: “indeed,”na.
19 Córdova 1578a: 49r: auer miedo, “to be afraid,”te-àache-a.
20 Butler 2000: 6: “when,”bat.
21 Butler 2000: 112: “to dare,”ch-eyaxje; CMP: b-eyaxje.
22 See Foreman 2004 for an analysis of -ni in Macultianguis Zapotec as a verbal
preposition that licenses an argument that receives the dative case. I thank Pam
Munro for suggesting this analysis of -ni.
23 Butler 2000: 426: “to hear,”ch-ene.
24 Córdova 1578a: 87v: conocer confessando, “to learn about through confes-
sion,”ti-càbi-a.
25 For another example of xi-tolla and a plural possessive, see Pacheco de Silva
[1687] 1752: 33r, lalaa-bi Cuina-e r-o-nitti lao Xi-tolla-reheo,“and he forgives
the sins.”
26 Córdova 1578a: 310v: perdonados ser, “to be forgiven,”ti-nijti lào.
27 López and Newberg 2005: 5: “to carry,”oa’.
28 Feria 1567: 57r: qui-nnî-to qui-topa laya ni-tij,“you will say and gather these
prayers,”glossed as rezad muy a menudo estas oraciones,“say these prayers
frequently.”
29 AHJO-VA Civil 29, L3, E4, 46v: zaballazi,“although.”
30 Butler 1980: 74, CMP: gw-lo’o-bo,“to insert.”
31 Córdova 1578a: 322v: porfiada ser vna cosa ...otratarse assi en contradicion,
“for something to be stubborn, or to be treated with contrariness,”ti-záca-láo.
32 Córdova 1578a: 43v: assombrado estar, “to be frightened,”ti-chíbi-a.
33 Solamente un punto de tiempo, “only a single moment in time,”gati-ci. Juan
Francisco Torralba, Arte Zaapoteco, Newberry Library, Chicago, Illinois, Ayer
MS 1699, 42v–43r (1800).
34 Butler 2000: 94: “to be content, rejoice,”ch-ebei.
35 Córdova 1578a: 153r: embiar adelante, “to send forward,”gati-ci,ti-xéla.
36 Ramos’s translation renders this phrase as an antipassive construction. Alter-
native: “our great lord God sent you.”
37 Butler 2000: 414: “to wash,”ch-yib. Córdova 1578a: 56v: blanquear o limpiar,
“to whiten or clean,”t-o-ni-yàti-a.
38 Córdova 1578a: 359r: reuerencia ser hecha, “for a reverence to be made,”t-aca-
xoñi-a; Córdova 1578a: 316v: plegado ser, “to be folded,”ti-xoni-a; Córdova
1578a: 370v: “salutation,”quela-xoñij.
39 Córdova 1578a: 30r: “to be rancid,”tò-ocho-a; Córdova 1578a: 217r: heder
como quiera, “to give out a strong smell,”tó-ocho-a.
40 Butler 2000: 132: “to make someone sick,”ch-la’ale; CMP: b-la’ale.
41 Butler 2000: 121: “to put in,”ch-go’o.
42 Butler 2000: 215: -dia’,“tough, strong”; see also Butler 1980: 264.
43 See Reyes (1704) 1891 for a discussion of cuina. Here, cuina may function as an
honorific, as yobi sometimes does in Colonial Valley Zapotec. I thank Pam
Munro for this observation.
44 Córdova 1578a: 213v: hallado ser, “to be found,”ti-chèla; CMP: pi-.
45 Córdova 1578a: 87v: conocer los beneficios, “to know about the gifts,”t-ecij-a
páa-nèza.
46 APJO-VA Civil 29, L3, E4, 16r: tzela lala goree nabania,“and that all the time of
my life . . .”
Idolatry Confession in Zapotec 347
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47 Córdova 1578a: 367v: sacrificio, “sacrifice, offering,”cóna.
48 Córdova 1578a: 82r: compañero ser, “to be a companion,”ti-le-çàa-ya.
49 Butler 2000: 238: “in ancient times,”gwlal-te.
50 Butler 2000: 52: “to be celebrated,”ch-alə.
51 Córdova 1578a: 319v: puesto ser, “to be placed,”ti-tij.
52 Butler 2000: 42: “to sell merchandise,”CMP: be-tə’.APJO-VA Civil 60, L4,
E14: 12r: biti Ju[an] lopes,“that Juan sold.”
53 Córdova 1578a: 297v: pagar deuda, “to pay a debt,”ti-quíxe-a, CMP: coti-;
Butler 2000: 428: “to pay,”ch-yixjw.
54 Córdova 1578a: 393v: tanto quanto, “since the time that,”colaala. Long and
Cruz 2000: 234: gwlal,“during that time, while (in the past).”
55 Butler 2000: 73: “to take (in),”ch-ca’a. For laya as “prayer,”see Feria 1567: 57
in note 28 of this article. Zapotec scholar Ricardo Ambrosio (pers. comm.,
November 2021), interprets goca netto laya as gwkaa nhetu lhai,“we selected
this prayer.”
56 Butler 2000: 69: “to await,”ch-on lez. Alternative: Córdova 1578a: 105v,
“near,”le-çáa-ni.
57 Córdova 1578a: 115v: degollar, “to behead,”t-o-tògo-yàni-a.
58 In the Caxonos variant, ticha xicha means “the native language, the Zapotec
language”(Ricardo Ambrosio, pers. comm., July 2008).
59 Córdova 1578a: 194v: faraute de lenguas, “interpreter,”hue-tè-xi-ticha.
60 Butler 2000: 444: “to beg,”ch-atə’əyoi. APJO-VA Civil 228, E15, E6, 28r: eto
go-tayo-e laoh-a,“that which he begged me for.”
61 Córdova 1578a: 306r: peccar generalmente o errar, “to sin, in general, or to
err,”ti-xihui-a.
62 Note on margin: piden Cura perpetuo,“they ask for a permanent priest.”
63 Córdova 1578a: 257v: mano derecha, “right hand,”pèe.
64 This expression is a couplet that splits the two components of an expression
glossed as “to preserve,”Córdova 1578a: 88v: conseruar Dios las cosas en su
ser, “for God to preserve things in their state,”ti-nna-ze-a.
65 Butler 2000: 158: ch-o’o,“to be in, be present.”
66 Butler 2000: 57: “to believe, think, pity,”ch-aque; dubitative: gu-aque.
67 Butler 2000: 63: “to live,”POT: əban. Alternative: Córdova 1578a: 235v:
intangible cosa sancta, “untouchable, sacred thing,”na-pàana.
68 Córdova 1578a: 69: campo generalmente, “field, countryside, in general,”lao
quixi.
69 Córdova 1578a: 289r: oyrse lo que suena lexos, “to hear what resounds far
away,”n-ièni-pèe.
70 Córdova 1578a: 25r: amado ser, “to be loved,”ti-chij-a; Córdova 1578a: 55r:
bien querer, “to love or esteem well,”te-chij-làchi-a.
71 Córdova 1578a: 334r: purgarse de peccado, vide limpiarse, “to be purged of
sin, see to be cleansed,”te-xée te-yáti anima; see also Córdova 1578a: 56v,
99r.
72 The verb ti-nijta-ya is glossed in Córdova 1578a as “to be defended, sheltered”
(115r); “to be placed inside”(267r); “to be favored”(195r).
73 Córdova 1578a: 162v: encomendarse a alguno, “to entrust oneself to some-
one,”ti-zeni-a.
74 Córdova 1578a: 428r: visto ser vno, “for one to be seen,”ti-èni-a.
75 The repetitive is -ce- according to Reyes (1704) 1891.
348 David Tavárez
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76 Butler 2000: 89: ch-de,“to recount,”CMP: gw-de.
77 Córdova 1578a: 34r: apresurarse, “to hurry,”ti-yòpa-ya.
78 Córdova 1578a: 250v: lleuar la carga que truxe, “to carry the load I brought,”
t-eyòa-ya.
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