Greenhouse Tomato Production for Sustainable Food and Nutrition Security in the Tropics

Abstract

Greenhouse vegetable cultivation offers one of the optimistic approaches to ensuring sustainable food and nutrition security in the tropics. Although greenhouse vegetable production is known to be costly, this system of production is gaining popularity and contributes to sustainable tomato production with improved fruit quality and productivity, which results in higher economic returns. Among vegetable crops, tomato is the most cultivated under this system. A study was conducted to identify suitable soilless media for regenerating tomato cuttings from axillary stem of tomato plants and to assess the agronomic performance of the regenerated cuttings under greenhouse condition. The tomato cuttings were raised using 100% rice husk biochar, 100% rice husk, 100% cocopeat, 50% biochar +50% cocopeat, 50% cocopeat +50% rice husk. Two tomato hybrid varieties (Lebombo and Anna) were used. Cuttings from axillary stems were compared with those raised from seed. A 2 × 2 factorial experiment was arranged in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with four replications. From the study, 100% rice husk biochar was found to induce root development in stem cuttings of tomato. However, no significant differences in yield and fruit quality were found between plants raised from seed and those from stem cuttings.

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
Chapter
Greenhouse Tomato Production
for Sustainable Food and Nutrition
Security in the Tropics
Peter AmoakoOfori, StellaOwusu-Nketia,
FrankOpoku-Agyemang, DesmondAgbleke
and Jacqueline NaalamleAmissah
Abstract
Greenhouse vegetable cultivation offers one of the optimistic approaches to
ensuring sustainable food and nutrition security in the tropics. Although greenhouse
vegetable production is known to be costly, this system of production is gaining
popularity and contributes to sustainable tomato production with improved fruit
quality and productivity, which results in higher economic returns. Among vegetable
crops, tomato is the most cultivated under this system. A study was conducted to
identify suitable soilless media for regenerating tomato cuttings from axillary stem
of tomato plants and to assess the agronomic performance of the regenerated cut-
tings under greenhouse condition. The tomato cuttings were raised using 100% rice
husk biochar, 100% rice husk, 100% cocopeat, 50% biochar +50% cocopeat, 50%
cocopeat +50% rice husk. Two tomato hybrid varieties (Lebombo and Anna) were
used. Cuttings from axillary stems were compared with those raised from seed. A 2
× 2 factorial experiment was arranged in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD)
withfour replications. From the study, 100% rice husk biochar was found to induce
root development in stem cuttings of tomato. However, no significant differences in
yield and fruit quality were found between plants raised from seed and those from
stem cuttings.
Keywords: greenhouse, tomato production, food and nutrition security, tropics
. Introduction
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) is a flowering plant belonging to the Solanaceae
family, also known as Nightshade. It is one of the most popular vegetable crops
grown in the world due to its fruit quality—taste, color, flavor and nutritional
content [1]. Tomato fruits can be consumed in different forms; either fresh, par-
tially cooked or processed. Tomatoes provide carotenoids, flavonoids, phytosterols,
vitamins, and minerals which are essential in human nutrition. Carotenoids are the
most abundant in tomatoes with the most common one being lycopene, followed

Tomato - From Cultivation to Processing Technology

by beta-carotene, gamma-carotene, lutein, phytoene, and a few other minor carot-
enoids [2, 3] which have anti-cancer properties [4, 5]. It is also a great source of
carbohydrates, fiber and a small amount of vitamin A, vitamin B complex (thiamin,
riboflavin, and niacin) and vitamin C [6] and is also rich in iron, copper, phospho-
rus, manganese and potassium [7].
According to the statistical agency of the Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations (FAOSTAT) (2020), the world’s total tomato production is esti-
mated at 186,821 million tonnes with a cultivated area of about 5,051,983 hectares.
In comparison, there has been a 3.35% increase in production from 180,766 million
tonnes in 2019 to 186,821 million tonnes produced in 2020. China is the leading
producer of tomatoes in the world accounting for about 34.67%. Egypt ranked fifth in
global tomato production contributing 3.6% whiles leading the tomato production in
Africa estimated at 6731.22 million tonnes cultivated on an area of 170.862 hectares.
In addition to Egypt, other North African countries with both tropical and temper-
ate conditions including Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco accounted for about 2.39%
of the world’s tomato production. Among the West African countries, the leading
producers, Nigeria and Cameroun produced 3693.72 million and 1.246.65 million,
respectively, whiles Kenya produced 1056.18 million to lead tomato production in East
Africa [8]. In Ghana, according to the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA),
tomato production is estimated at 420,000 tonnes in 2019 cultivated on 47,000
hectares [9, 10].
The rapid increase in tomato consumption in the tropics is one of the factors
influencing emerging production practices and strategies to meet local and export
demands. Thus, many tropical countries have expanded their tomato acreage to meet
local needs and, in some cases, to generate foreign exchange due to the increased
importance of tomatoes in food and nutrition security. Several different produc-
tion systems have been used successfully in different parts of the world to produce
tomatoes. For instance, in the tropics, particularly in Africa, the open field cultivation
system is mostly adopted whereas, in the developed countries, there is a massive
shift to controlled environment systems [11]. Tomato cultivars with a determinate or
semi-determinate growth habit are typically grown in open fields which are usually
for fresh consumption. This system is also distinguished by the use of either direct
sowing or transplanting where a nursery is established. Currently, transplanting is
commonly practiced since it ensures good stand establishment, uniformity, reduced
weed competition, and improved survival rate and yield compared to direct sowing
[12]. Nonetheless, open-field tomato seedlings tend to be weaker and have a lower
rate of transplant survival, resulting in low yields [13]. Other constraints such as
biotic (high incidence of pests and diseases) and abiotic stresses (such as drought and
high temperature) pose serious threats to open-field tomato production [14]. Root-
knot nematodes (including Meloidogyne incognita, M. javanica and M. arenaria) are
soil-borne pathogens that cause yield losses of about 30% in tomatoes in the tropics
[5]. Thus, they cause stunted growth making the tomato plants more susceptible to
soil-borne fungal (such as Fusarium wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum) and bacterial
diseases (such as bacterial wilt caused by Ralstonia solanacearum) [5]. Several studies
on grafting techniques to combat these soil-borne root-knot nematodes and fungal
diseases have resulted in the identification of potential rootstocks such as Solanum
torvum, Solanum macrocarpon, and Solanum aethiopicum [15] that confer tolerance
to these soil-borne problems. However, due to the high cost of producing grafted
seedlings in large quantities, grafting is not widely used in large-scale production in
the tropics [16]. Furthermore, open-field tomato cultivation exposes the plants to a

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Greenhouse Tomato Production for Sustainable Food and Nutrition Security in the Tropics
variety of stinging and sucking insects, such as whitefly, thrips, and aphids, which
cause moderate to severe physical damage as well as contribute to the transmission of
viruses [5]. High temperatures observed in open-field tomato production in the trop-
ics cause heat stress [17]. Tomato is an extremely sensitive crop to heat stress, which
can lead to total yield loss [18]. A slight increase in night temperature especially can
decrease pollen viability and female fertility thereby impairing fruit set and conse-
quently yield reduction [19].
Increased tomato consumption [20] combined with unfavorable climatic condi-
tions necessitates the development of urgent strategies to boost production whiles
improving fruit quality in the tropics. Open field tomato production is hampered by
climate change-related factors such as high temperatures, drought and high incidence
of pests and diseases. In recent years, greenhouse tomato farming has proven to be the
most efficient method of producing high-quality fresh tomatoes for both domestic
and international markets [1]. In addition, it provides the opportunity for year-round
production. Indeterminate tomato cultivars are usually used in this system, allowing
the harvesting period to be extended, thereby, increasing the tomato productivity and
revenue as well as improving the livelihood of farmers. This chapter discusses green-
house structures and systems, agronomic practices, postharvest handling, prospects
and challenges of greenhouse tomato production in the tropics and the use of axillary
stem cuttings as an alternative method of producing true-to-type tomato seedlings for
cultivation.
. Greenhouse structures
Greenhouse farming systems have been adopted in some African countries,
especially in Northern Africa (Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, and Tunisia), Eastern Africa
(Kenya, Ethiopia, Uganda, and Rwanda), Western Africa (Ghana) and South Africa.
In Northern Africa, the greenhouse system is mainly used for vegetable production
whiles that of Eastern Africa (for e.g., Kenya), is for flower production. Furthermore,
in Rwanda, South Africa and Ghana greenhouse system is mainly used for tomato
production [21]. In all these countries, the greenhouse specifications are dependent
on the availability of construction inputs, local climatic conditions and socio-eco-
nomic status [11]. Generally, the initial investment cost of greenhouse construction is
very high. Galvanized metals including steel or aluminum are the preferred construc-
tion material as they are durable and require less amount of material for construc-
tion thereby increasing light transmission (Figure ). Wood such as bamboo is an
alternative material (Figure ). Though it is less expensive, more wooden materials
are required to ensure a solid and firm structure. This, however, reduces light trans-
mission. Also, the cost of maintenance in using bamboo is relatively higher compared
to those constructed from metals [21].
High sidewalls in greenhouse construction are critical for maximizing the effec-
tiveness of natural ventilation in greenhouses with roof venting. The direct/diffuse
ratio in incident light, as well as the diffusion properties of covering materials [22,
23], greenhouse design, time of day, season, and location, all influence light transmis-
sion and spatial uniformity of light intensity inside the greenhouse [11]. To promote
plant growth and development, an ideal greenhouse ensures that light is evenly
distributed. Again, to ensure optimal light transmission in the greenhouse, the type
of covering material should be considered. These include; (1) a non-waterproof net
which provides partial shade and protection against insect permeability; (2) a plastic

Tomato - From Cultivation to Processing Technology

film for protection against insects and rains and (3) a glass which is more durable and
effective than plastic films. Glass is mostly used for high-tech greenhouses [21]. In
most greenhouses in Africa, side nets are fixed to provide natural ventilation (Figure ).
Circulation fans (chimney) (Figure ), misting/fogging and hosing (Figure ) can
also be used to regulate/manage the climatic conditions in the greenhouse. In addi-
tion, shade screens/nets are also used to reduce the intensity of solar radiation in the
greenhouse (Figure ) [21].
. Greenhouse agronomic practices
Good greenhouse crop management practices serve as a gateway for ensuring
sustainable production, increasing yield and high fruit quality, concomitant with
increased income generation. Before plant establishment; raising vigorous and
healthy seedlings, greenhouse fumigation media selection and sterilization, fertiga-
tion and irrigation, etc. need to be considered. In addition, other recommended
Figure 2.
Greenhouse of Institute of Applied Science and Technology (IAST), University of Ghana built from bamboo.
Figure 1.
Greenhouse of West Africa Center for Crop Improvement (WACCI), University of Ghana built from galvanized
metals including steel or aluminum.

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Greenhouse Tomato Production for Sustainable Food and Nutrition Security in the Tropics
Figure 3.
Fixing of side nets (indicated with the arrow) to provide natural ventilation.
Figure 4.
Circulation fans (chimney) are fixed on greenhouses of IAST to regulate the climatic conditions in the greenhouse.
Figure 5.
Misting/fogging and hosing (blue arrow) are used to regulate the climatic conditions as well a shade net (red
arrow) is used to reduce the intensity of solar radiations in the greenhouse.

Tomato - From Cultivation to Processing Technology

greenhouse cultural practices such as plant spacing, pruning, topping, training/trel-
lising and hormone application and pollination should be performed.
. Tomato varieties and propagation
The cultivation of tomatoes in the tropics is solely by using seeds; either open-
pollinated (OPV) or hybrids. Hybrid seeds of tomatoes are the most suitable planting
materials because of their vigor and high yielding potential [24]. Since greenhouse
cultivation is done in a limited area, indeterminate hybrid tomato varieties are
cultivated [11]. For instance, in Ghana, hybrid tomatoes such as Cobra, Anna F1,
Lebombo, Kwando, Jaguar, Gamharr, Jarrah, Eva, Ranja, and Sodaja are being intro-
duced by seed companies for greenhouse cultivation. Several greenhouse screenings
and evaluations of exotic tomato lines are being carried out to identify adaptable high
yielding types with excellent fruit quality. However, cultivating these hybrid tomatoes
in the tropics could be very expensive and as such, vegetative propagation of tomatoes
could be a viable option for producing true-to-type tomato hybrid planting materials
[25] to ensure sustainable production.
A study was conducted to identify a suitable soilless medium for regenerating tomato
seedlings from axillary stem cuttings and to assess the agronomic performance of the
regenerated seedlings under greenhouse condition. Cuttings (12–15cm long) from
mature tomato plants were taken and raised using 100% rice husk biochar, 100% rice
husk, 100% cocopeat, 50% biochar + 50% cocopeat, 50% cocopeat + 50% rice husk. A 2
× 2 factorial experiment arranged in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with four
(4) replications was used. Treatments consisted of two factors; two tomato hybrid variet-
ies (Lebombo and Anna) and planting materials (cuttings and seeds). Seedlings were
also raised using 100% rice husk biochar. Seedlings and rooted cuttings were sown and
transplanted 28days respectively into pots (22× 25cm) half filled with 100% cocopeat.
The study identified rice husk biochar (Table ) as a suitable medium for generating vig-
orous and healthy tomato stem cuttings obtained from pruned axillary shoots of tomato
varieties, Lebombo and Anna F1 (Figure ). Further evaluation using tomato plants
generated from seeds and stem cuttings indicated that there were no significant differ-
ences in yield (Tabl e ) and fruit quality (Table ). Hence, vegetative propagation via
axillary stem cuttings could be used as an alternative method of raising tomato seedlings
in the tropics. Seed companies and tomato nursery production operators can collaborate
to leverage this method to supply tomato seedlings at affordable rates to ensure sustain-
able greenhouse tomato production in the tropics.
. Substrate and sterilization
Plant roots are contained within a porous rooting medium called a ‘substrate’ or
‘growing medium.’ A suitable growing medium is required to provide root anchorage
and a favorable environment for healthy root development, [26]. Growing media
for greenhouse cultivation in the tropics comes in two basic types: soil- and organic-
based. Field soil is the main component of the soil-based media and is the most simple
and cheapest. However, it is associated with a high risk of soil-borne diseases such as
bacterial wilt [21]. On the other hand, organic materials such as composted waste,
peat, coconut peat/coir, sawdust, wood and bark are used to prepare the organic-based
media [27]. Peat moss, vermiculite, and perlite which are premixed blends of organic
and inorganic materials are commercially available. These products, however, are
costly and difficult to obtain locally in the tropics, especially in Africa. Agricultural

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Greenhouse Tomato Production for Sustainable Food and Nutrition Security in the Tropics
and municipal wastes, which are locally available, affordable, and environmentally
sustainable, should be investigated as alternatives to commercial products in the trop-
ics. A good soil-free substrate should have excellent chemical, biological and physical
characteristics with low nutrient content, low pH, a unique combination of high-water
retention capacity, high air space, lightweight, pest, and disease-free [28]. Cocopeat,
a waste product obtained from the mesocarp of coconut (Cocos nucifera) fruit is most
widely used in Africa and Asian countries such as the Philippines, Indonesia, India
and Sri Lanka, where lots of coconuts are produced [28]. It can be combined with rice
husk biochar and oyster shells. Although cocopeat is a better substitute for peat moss,
high levels of natural soluble salts, sodium, and chloride are present and could cause
osmotic stress to plants. As a result, to make these materials suitable for crop produc-
tion, they are buffered or flushed out to remove excessive salts [29]. Sterilization of
growing media is required before use, especially the locally prepared ones to prevent
the introduction of pathogens and weeds in the greenhouse. Heat sterilization is the
most common method (Figure ). Although the most popular and cheapest method
is solar sterilization, other improvised systems have been developed. Regardless of the
system, it is critical to ensure that the entire media is exposed to uniform and adequate
heat for efficient and effective sterilization [27].
. Plant spacing and density
Due to the high cost of greenhouse infrastructure, increasing plant density is
one strategy for maximizing the limited space [30]. However, it is also important to
Substrate Root
length
(cm)
Survival
()
Root
volume
(cm)
Shoot dry
weight
(g)
Root dry
weight
(g)
Total dry
weight (g)
Rice husk
biochar/
Lebombo
16.6 b 95.8 de 1.71 b 1.74 bc 0.26 ab 1.44 b
Cocopeat/
Lebombo
10.4 a 29.2 a 1.89 b 1.41 b 0.14 a 1.55 b
Biochar +
Cocopeat/
Lebombo
10.1 a 40.6 ab 1.66 b 0.96 a 0.15 a 1.11 a
Cocopeat + Rice
husk/Lebombo
13.0 ab 45.8 ab 1.55 b 1.35 ab 0.20 a 1.52 b
Rice husk
biochar/Anna
17.4 b 100.0 e 1.89 b 2.13 c 0.38 b 2.54 c
Cocopeat/Anna 10.4 a 50.0 abc 1.71 b 1.40 b 0.17 a 1.56 b
Rice husk
biochar +
Cocopeat/ Anna
10.7 a 83.3 cde 0.97 a 1.37 ab 0.14 a 1.51 b
Cocopeat + Rice
husk/Anna
10.6 a 72.9 bcd 1.58 b 1.45 b 0.20 a 1.62 b
Table 1.
Mean Root length, Survival plants per replication, Root volume, shoot dry weight, root dry weight and Total dry
weight. Means followed by the same letters within a column are not significantly different according to Fisher’s
Protected LSD at 5%.

Tomato - From Cultivation to Processing Technology

plant in rows at a recommended spacing (Figure ) to achieve an optimum yield. The
required spacing between tomato plants will ensure an even distribution of resources
such as water, nutrients, light, and air [31]. For example, there is more competition
for light due to the overlapping and shading of leaves when plants are closely spaced
[32]. The amount of light intercepted by the basal leaves could be drastically reduced,
lowering the plants’ photosynthetic efficiency. Consequently, the plants may be
Treatments Days
to 
flowering
Days
to 
fruiting
Total
number
of fruits
Fruits
per
plant
Fruit
weight
per
Plant
(g)
Yield
(kg/
ha)
Shelf
life
(days)
Variety
Anna 25 32 a 24 b 5 b 96.5 6431.0 5
Lebombo 27 34 b 21 a 4 a 9 7. 6 6506.0 5
P≤0.05 . <. . . . . .
Propagule
Seeds 32 b 37 b 23 597. 6 6503.0 5
Cuttings 21 a 28 a 22 496.5 6434.0 5
p≤0.05 <. <. . . . . .
Variety *
Propagule
NS . NS NS NS NS NS
Table 2.
Days to 50% flowering and fruiting, the total number of fruits, number of fruits per plant, fruit weight per plant,
yield and shelf life of tomato plants. Means followed by the same letters within a column are not significantly
different according to Fisher’s Protected LSD at 5%.
Figure 6.
Lebombo (A) and Anna (B) tomato seedlings raised from stem cuttings.

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Greenhouse Tomato Production for Sustainable Food and Nutrition Security in the Tropics
Treatments Fruit girth (mm) Fruit length (mm) Brix () Firmness (kg/lb) Pericarp
thickness (mm)
Juice volume
(cm)
pH Titratable
acidity
Variety
Anna 34.66 a 44.16 6.64 7.06 4.43 a 26.8 4.12 0.56 a
Lebombo 38.05 b 46.24 6.45 6.66 5.11 b 27.4 4.12 0.73 b
p≤0.05 <0.001 0.036 0.567 0.438 0.050 0.874 0.947 0.028
Propagule
Seeds 36.20 44.50 6.47 6.73 4.49 27. 8 4.13 0.58
Cuttings 36.51 45.90 6.62 6.99 5.05 26.4 4.10 0.71
p≤0.05 0.587 0.137 0.653 0.622 0.100 0.684 0.217 0.083
Variety * Propagule
Anna * seeds 34.59 43.63 7.02 b 7.51 b 3.75 a 26.4 4.12 0.71 b
Anna * cuttings 34.73 44.69 6.27 ab 6.61 ab 5.11 b 2 7.3 4.11 0.41 a
Lebombo * seeds 37.82 45.37 5.93 a 5.95 a 5.23 b 29.2 4.09 0.71 b
Lebombo *
cuttings
38.28 47. 10 6.98 b 7.36 ab 4.99 b 25.6 4.14 0.75 b
p≤0.05 . . . . . . . .
Table 3.
Fruit girth, Fruit length, Brix, Firmness, Pericarp thickness, Juice volume, pH and Titratable acidity of tomato fruits. Means followed by the same letters within a column are not
significantly different according to Fisher’s Protected LSD at 5%.

Tomato - From Cultivation to Processing Technology

forced to trade off their energy for stem elongation and reduced assimilate transport
to developing fruits [31], thereby, causing yield reduction and poor fruit quality [33].
There have been reports of great increases in tomato yield and yield components
when recommended plant spacing was used [33–35]. A recent study by Nkansah et al.
[36] suggested plant spacing of 0.2×1.3m for greenhouse tomato production.
. Irrigation and fertigation
Adequate water supply to plants is essential for various metabolic and physiologi-
cal processes such as photosynthesis, nutrient transport, and cell expansion and
development [27]. In the tropics, water for greenhouse production can be obtained
from rivers, ponds or reservoirs, rain, groundwater (boreholes), and municipal
sources (tap water). Unfortunately, water quantity, quality and seasonal availability
are not guaranteed in most tropical environments. A good water should be free from
pests (such as pathogenic bacteria, fungi, weeds and pesticide contamination) and
high concentrations of dissolved salts and toxic ions (heavy metals) [27]. As a result, a
thorough biological and chemical analysis of water for greenhouse tomato production
Figure 8.
Tomato plants planted in rows at a recommended spacing.
Figure 7.
Dry heat from a flame used for the sterilization of growing media.

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Greenhouse Tomato Production for Sustainable Food and Nutrition Security in the Tropics
is required as this can affect plant health, growth and development. The chemical
property, for instance, is useful for the formulation of nutrient solutions.
In the tropics, the manual irrigation system is the cheapest but does not give preci-
sion in terms of the quantity of water and nutrients applied. Gravitational fertigation
in combination with drip irrigation is the commonly adopted method. The water tank
is elevated (Figure ) to allow water and nutrients to flow naturally [37]. Water and
nutrients can be reused by using a recirculation system [11]. Water recirculation, on
the other hand, increases the risk of spreading soil-borne diseases, necessitating the
use of a disinfection unit (UV or heat treatment) [38] which can be costly. Another
means of supplying water and nutrients is using a computerized system with sensors
and a pre-programmed fertigation regime (Figure ). This system, however, is reli-
ant on a constant supply of electricity, which is a major challenge in the tropics [21].
. Pruning, topping and training/trellising
Tomato cultivars are divided into two categories based on their growth habits:
determinate and indeterminate. Determinate tomatoes grow in a bush-like manner,
Figure 9.
Water tanks are elevated above the level of the field to allow for the natural flow of water and nutrients.
Figure 10.
Water and nutrients are applied using a computerized system with sensors and a pre-programmed fertigation regime.

Tomato - From Cultivation to Processing Technology

reaching a fixed mature size characterized by synchronized flower formation and
fruit production. On the other hand, indeterminate tomatoes grow in a vine-like
manner, continuing to grow throughout the growing season and thus, having con-
tinuous flower and fruit formation [39]. The indeterminate tomato cultivars are used
in greenhouse tomato cultivation [11]. Tomato vines are pruned by removing the
stem suckers (Figure ). These are stem branches or side shoots that emerge from
the leaf axils which are the junctions between the main stem and the true leaf. If not
pruned, these suckers will grow into full shoots with leaves, flowers, and fruits, and
even regenerate new suckers. When suckers are young and small, they can be pinched
or cut using pruners such as knives, scissors and secateurs. In any of these pruning
approaches, it is better to ensure decontamination either by using an alcohol-based
sanitizer or washing with soap to prevent the spread of pathogens [40]. Pruning can
be done on weekly basis to improve or ensure efficient air circulation/aeration [41].
In addition, pruning helps to prevent the diversion of assimilates from the developing
fruits thereby, improving tomato fruit quality [40, 42].
Another important greenhouse technique is topping (Figure ), which involves
cutting or pinching off the terminal bud to break the apical dominance [43]. This
technique is critical because tomato cultivars for greenhouse cultivation are indeter-
minate types characterized by indefinite growth. Topping has been shown to improve
fruit quality and yield by causing assimilates to be redistributed to developing fruits
[44, 45]. In the Solanaceae family, topping improved yield and yield components in
eggplant [46], pepper [47] and tomato [36]. According to Nkansah et al. [36], tomato
yields were increased by topping at truss 2.
The main stem of tomato plants is positioned upright immediately after trans-
planting to keep the leaves and fruits from touching the ground [48], facilitate
pollination, maximize light interception of the younger leaves, and increase labor
efficiency in pruning and harvesting [11]. This method known as stem training/trel-
lising (Figure ) is necessary for indeterminate tomato cultivars. It entails securing
the main stem with a twine/rope suspended from a horizontal wire about 2.5–3.2 m
above the ground [11, 49]. Non-slip loops or clips are used to secure the twine’s tip
Figure 11.
Pruning of tomato vines by removing the stem suckers.

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Greenhouse Tomato Production for Sustainable Food and Nutrition Security in the Tropics
to the stem’s base. The twine is then neatly wound in two or three spirals around the
stem for each truss without damaging the stem [11].
. Hormone application and pollination
Heat stress is a major problem hampering tomato production in the tropics [50].
Poor fruit set occurs in greenhouse systems where the microenvironment is not
fully controlled or automated. Tomato is an extremely sensitive crop to heat stress,
which can lead to total yield loss. The optimal day and night temperatures for tomato
production are 21–29.5°C and 18.5–21°C, respectively. However, a slight increase in
night temperature especially can decrease pollen viability and female fertility thereby
impairing fruit set and consequently yield reduction [19]. Pollination and fertilization
must both be completed before the fruit set can occur (Figure ) [51]. Under heat
stress, however, these processes are disrupted, resulting in flower abortion and flower
drop [50]. Unfortunately, the molecular mechanisms underlying tomato fruit set are
unknown, despite the fact that exogenous application of auxin and gibberellin to the
Figure 12.
Topping tomato plants by cutting or pinching off the terminal bud.
Figure 13.
Trellising or training of tomato plants by securing the main stem with a twine/rope suspended above the ground.

Tomato - From Cultivation to Processing Technology

tomato stigma improved tomato fruit set. Bypassing pollination and fertilization, auxin
or gibberellin can stimulate tomato fruit development (cell division and expansion)
[51]. As a result, using these hormones can help increase greenhouse tomato production
by increasing fruit set and yield [52]. The coordinated mechanism of auxin, gibberellin,
and cytokinin has been investigated for the development of parthenocarpic tomato
fruits [53], which improves fruit quality. Although this may be labor intensive, the high
returns from increased productivity and improved fruit quality can compensate for this.
. Greenhouse pest and disease management
One of the reasons for the rise in greenhouse tomato production in the tropics is
the benefit of reducing pest and disease outbreaks, which can affect plant growth
and development, resulting in lower yields and poor fruit quality. To control pest
or disease outbreaks, an integrated pest management approach including cultural,
biological and chemical measures (Figure ) is used. Because prevention is the
best approach, ensuring good environmental practices is an important first step
[54]. Regular cleaning and washing of the greenhouse and its equipment with
disinfectant (such as bleach) and fumigation prior to the start of the production
cycle are examples of best practices. Another strategy is to keep a close eye on the
crops in the greenhouse in case of a pest or disease outbreak [55]. Pheromone traps
Figure 14.
Pollination and fertilization of tomato flowers before fruit set.

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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105853
Greenhouse Tomato Production for Sustainable Food and Nutrition Security in the Tropics
and sticky cards (Figure ), for example, are used to trap, detect, and determine
pest population thresholds of pests such as leaf miners, whiteflies aphids and thrips
[8, 55]. A comprehensive pest management guide for tomato production is available
[8]. Pruning, trellising, and proper plant density and spacing ensure good aeration.
Avoidance of wet floors by preventing irrigation water spillage helps to reduce the
creation of a microclimate that promotes disease outbreaks [55].
. Harvesting and postharvest handling
Harvesting of greenhouse tomatoes is usually done at the breaker of color or when
the fruit is orange-red, by handpicking. Thus, greenhouse tomatoes are typically
Figure 15.
Chemical application for the management of pest and disease in greenhouse vegetable production.
Figure 16.
Pheromone traps (A) and sticky cards (B) are used to trap, detect, and determine pest population thresholds in
greenhouses.

Tomato - From Cultivation to Processing Technology

harvested riper than fresh market field-grown fruit, making them more susceptible to
mechanical injuries due to their softer nature and shorter shelf life than mature-green
fruit. Greenhouse-grown fruit harvesting is done twice or three times per week as
it reaches the appropriate stage of fruit development [11]. Prior to temporary stor-
age, tomato fruits are sorted and graded. Grading allows a grower to serve different
qualities at different prices to different markets, such as a supermarket and a wet
market. As such, good packaging is required to reduce losses during transportation
[21]. Harvested tomato fruits are chilling sensitive. Breaker fruits can be stored at
10–12.5°C for a week whiles orange-red at 7–10°C for 3–5days [11]. Even though
greenhouse tomatoes are more expensive than field-grown fruits, they are primarily
produced for local consumption in the tropics. On the other hand, Northern African
countries (such as Egypt and Morocco) and South Africa, produce greenhouse
tomatoes for export to Europe [21].
. Prospects and challenges of greenhouse tomato production in the
tropics
. Prospects
In the tropics, greenhouse tomato production has the potential to create attractive
jobs for youth and women in particular [56]. Greenhouse training programs have
been introduced in West Africa, particularly in Ghana, to target entrepreneurs and
young graduates to learn how to grow vegetables in greenhouses [57].
The increased demand for greenhouse tomatoes, owing to their superior fruit
quality, benefits growers by earning appreciable income to improve their livelihoods
[58]. People in urban and peri-urban cities have gradually accepted and are willing
to pay more for greenhouse tomatoes, despite the fact they are more expensive than
those grown in the field [59].
Greenhouse tomato production supplements local tomato production, which is
primarily a field-grown system that is affected by biotic and abiotic factors. Thus, the
introduction of greenhouses in the topics has helped to ensure year-round tomato
production and supply of high-quality fruits, ensuring sustainable food and nutri-
tion security [60]. Also, there will be a constant supply of tomatoes to the processing
industries for various industrial activities.
In addition, the greenhouse tomato production system contributes to the economic
maximization of limited land and other resources [61]. This system, for example,
ensures efficient water and nutrient supply to the plants while reducing losses such as
leaching, which is common in field-grown systems. Also, unproductive lands, roof-
tops and concreted areas can be utilized for greenhouse tomato cultivation [62].
Another advantage of greenhouse tomato production is the complete control over
indiscriminate agrochemical (pesticides, fungicides and weedicides) application.
Strict adherence to greenhouse agronomic practices and integrated pest management
systems eliminates traces of these agrochemicals on tomato fruits, which are harmful
to human health [58]. This could promote the use of traceability systems to encourage
the export of greenhouse tomato fruits in order to generate foreign exchange to boost
tropical economies [63].
The introduction of greenhouses has opened up new areas in the tropics for aca-
demic and research work. To improve greenhouse tomato cultivation in the tropics,
researchers should look into areas such as greenhouse agronomic practices, breeding

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Greenhouse Tomato Production for Sustainable Food and Nutrition Security in the Tropics
for tropics-adapted greenhouse tomatoes, commercial adoption of grafting tech-
niques for soil-based greenhouse cultivation, development of tropical soilless media
and nutrient solutions, assessment and availability of raw materials for greenhouse
constructions and so on.
. Challenges
The initial cost of constructing a greenhouse is high which deters average income
entrepreneurs to venture into greenhouse tomato production [64]. In addition to
this, accessibility to credit facilities is difficult [65]. Lack of greenhouse technical
know-how has also hindered the adoption of greenhouse tomato production in most
tropical countries. In some areas, there are no greenhouse training centers for hands-
on training to fully equip trainees in greenhouse design, construction, repair and
maintenance and cultivation [66].
The unavailability of adaptable greenhouse tomato cultivation possess a major
challenge. There is a high influx of imported tomato hybrids into various countries,
however, some of these tomato hybrids are not adequately evaluated or screened
to identify the promising candidates for further evaluations and official release. In
addition, the available tomato hybrids are generally expensive for the local grow-
ers and may have fruit quality characteristics which are not preferred by the local
market [45].
There is also a lack of greenhouse cultivation inputs and important resources. For
instance, poor water quality and quantity prevent seasonal and year-round green-
house tomato cultivation. Also, the unavailability of quality soilless substrates is a
major challenge [58].
. Conclusions
In conclusion, greenhouse tomato production is a promising technology that can
ensure sustainable food and nutrition security in Africa. The selection of the proper
greenhouse structure and system as well as the adoption of the appropriate agro-
nomic practices and postharvest handling techniques would ensure enhanced tomato
production under greenhouse condition in the tropics. Our research findings point to
tomato cuttings as a viable source for raising planting material for tomato cultivation
in the developing countries. The yields and fruit quality obtained from the use of
seedlings versus stem cuttings were comparable.
It is therefore essential to encourage scientific research about greenhouse produc-
tion in Africa to foster its adoption. Greenhouse tomato production has the potential
of creating jobs and increasing income generation thereby improving the livelihood
of the people in the greenhouse tomato value chain.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Tomato - From Cultivation to Processing Technology

Author details
Peter AmoakoOfori1, StellaOwusu-Nketia2, FrankOpoku-Agyemang2,
DesmondAgbleke2 and Jacqueline NaalamleAmissah2*
1 Institute of Applied Science and Technology College of Basic and Applied Sciences,
University of Ghana, Accra, Ghana
2 Department of Crop Science, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of
Ghana, Accra, Ghana
*Address all correspondence to: jnamissah@ug.edu.gh
© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0),
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided
the original work is properly cited.

Greenhouse Tomato Production for Sustainable Food and Nutrition Security in the Tropics
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.105853

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