Self-efficacy

Abstract

Self-efficacy is a person’s belief in his or her capability to successfully perform a particular task or attain a targeted outcome. Together with the goals that people set and their habits, self-efficacy is one of the most powerful motivational predictors of how well a person will perform at almost any endeavor. Self-efficacy is a strong determinant of effort, persistence, and strategizing, as well as subsequent training and job performance. Besides being highly predictive, self-efficacy can be developed to harness its performance-enhancing benefits. After outlining the nature of self-efficacy and how it leads to performance, well-being, and other work-related outcomes, we will discuss the measurement and sources of self-efficacy. We then will consider whether it is possible to have too much self-efficacy and conclude by outlining a range of initiatives that managers can take to foster the development of their employees’ self-efficacy.

Full text

The SAGE Encyclopedia of Industrial
and Organizational Psychology, 2nd
edition
Self-Efficacy
Contributors: Peter A. Heslin, Ute-Christine Klehe & Lauren A. Keating
Edited by: Steven G. Rogelberg
Book Title: The SAGE Encyclopedia of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 2nd
edition
Chapter Title: "Self-Efficacy"
Pub. Date: 2017
Access Date: May 18, 2017
Publishing Company: SAGE Publications, Inc
City: Thousand Oaks
Print ISBN: 9781483386898
Online ISBN: 9781483386874
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781483386874.n481
Print pages: 1402-1406
©2017 SAGE Publications, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
This PDF has been generated from SAGE Knowledge. Please note that the pagination of
the online version will vary from the pagination of the print book.

Self-efficacy is a person’s belief in his or her capability to successfully perform a particular
task or attain a targeted outcome. Together with the goals that people set and their habits,
self-efficacy is one of the most powerful motivational predictors of how well a person will
perform at almost any endeavor. Self-efficacy is a strong determinant of effort, persistence,
and strategizing, as well as subsequent training and job performance. Besides being highly
predictive, self-efficacy can be developed to harness its performance-enhancing benefits.
After outlining the nature of self-efficacy and how it leads to performance, well-being, and
other work-related outcomes, we will discuss the measurement and sources of self-efficacy.
We then will consider whether it is possible to have too much self-efficacy and conclude by
outlining a range of initiatives that managers can take to foster the development of their
employees’ self-efficacy.
Nature of Self-Efficacy
Because self-efficacy pertains to specific tasks, people may simultaneously have high self-
efficacy for some tasks and low self-efficacy for others. For example, a manager may have
high self-efficacy for the technical aspects of his or her role, such as management
accounting, but low self-efficacy for other aspects, such as dealing with employees’
performance problems.
Self-efficacy is more specific and circumscribed than self-confidence (i.e., a general
personality trait that relates to how confidently people feel and act in most situations) or self-
esteem (i.e., perceived self-worth), and therefore it is generally more readily developed than
these two concepts. Furthermore, self-efficacy is a much stronger predictor of how effectively
people will perform a given task than either their self-confidence or self-esteem.
How Self-Efficacy Affects Performance and Well-Being
Having high self-efficacy leads people to set difficult goals, work hard to attain them, and
persist in the face of setbacks, as illustrated by many great innovators and politicians who
were undeterred by repeated obstacles, ridicule, and minimal encouragement. Thomas
Edison, believing that he would eventually succeed, reputedly tested at least 3,000
unsuccessful prototypes before eventually developing the first incandescent lightbulb.
Abraham Lincoln exhibited high self-efficacy in response to numerous and repeated public
rebukes and failures before his eventual political triumph. Research has found that self-
efficacy is important for sustaining the considerable effort that is required to master skills
involved in diverse activities including public speaking, losing weight, and becoming an
effective manager.
When learning complex tasks, high self-efficacy prompts people to strive to improve their
assumptions and strategies rather than look for excuses, such as not being interested in the
task. High self-efficacy improves employees’ capacity to collect relevant information, make
sound decisions, and take appropriate action, particularly when they are under time pressure.
Such capabilities are invaluable in jobs that involve, for example, dealing with irate customers
when working in a call center or overcoming complex technical challenges in minimal time. In
contrast, low self-efficacy can lead to erratic analytical thinking that undermines the quality of
problem solving—a key competency in an increasingly knowledge-based society.
In a dynamic work context wherein ongoing learning and performance improvement are
needed, high self-efficacy helps individuals react less defensively when they receive negative
SAGE Reference
The SAGE Encyclopedia of Industrial and Organizational Psychology,
2nd edition
Page 2 of 7

feedback. In areas where self-efficacy is low, people often see a negative outcome as
confirming the incompetence they perceive in themselves and lower their standards, thereby
further reducing their self-efficacy, effort, and subsequent performance.
Among managers, those with high self-efficacy for their managerial role seek and act on
improvement-oriented input from their employees. By contrast, low managerial self-efficacy
leads managers to be (a) defensive about their managerial competency and (b) disinclined to
encourage employees to provide improvement suggestions, as well as to (c) negatively
evaluate employees who provide such suggestions and to (d) be reluctant to duly consider or
implement those improvement suggestions. Over time, the adverse performance implications
can be substantial.
As people often become anxious or depressed when they perceive themselves as unable to
manage aversive events or achieve what they highly value, self-efficacy also predicts stress
and occupational burnout. Specifically, low self-efficacy can foster a sense of helplessness
and rumination on one’s self-perceived limited capability to learn how to cope with the
demands at hand. The relevant form of self-efficacy for managing such disruptive inner life
dynamics focuses on the ability to manage one’s debilitating thoughts and emotions. Applying
this self-management ability can be a challenge that disrupts a person’s focus and thus
performance on his or her primary task.
Measurement of Self-Efficacy
Because self-efficacy is task specific, there is no single, standardized measure of self-efficacy.
Rather, measures must gauge an individual’s self-assessed capacity to either (a) achieve a
certain outcome on a particular task (outcome self-efficacy), (b) engage in the behaviors likely
to lead to a certain desired outcome (process self-efficacy), or (c) manage oneself to engage
in these behaviors (self-regulatory self-efficacy). An outcome self-efficacy scale in the domain
of job search might include items such as “I believe I can get a new job within 4 weeks” and “I
believe I can get a new job with a starting salary of at least $95,000,” with response anchors
ranging from not at all confident to extremely confident. A process self-efficacy scale for job
search would focus on items such as “I believe I can network effectively with at least six
people during the next 4 weeks” and “I believe I can send out 15 résumés with tailored cover
letters during the next 4 weeks,” with response anchors similar to the outcome self-efficacy
scale.
Self-regulatory self-efficacy often underlies process self-efficacy and involves (a) managing
impediments and (b) mobilizing relevant means and resources. Self-efficacy, to maintain the
process of a daily health-promoting exercise routine, for instance, tends to be a function of
self-regulatory self-efficacy to handle various external (e.g., time pressures, family demands)
and internal (e.g., being tired, feeling depressed) impediments to doing so. Self-regulatory
self-efficacy is assessed in terms of confidence to effectively manage such potential
impediments to engaging in a targeted behavior, as well as to mobilize the means and
resources required to produce desired outcomes. In the domain of self-directed learning, for
instance, students’ self-efficacy to mobilize the required means and resources to support their
learning and academic progress may be evaluated by assessing their self-efficacy to create
environments that support their learning, to schedule and organize their academic activities,
to master efficient study strategies, to secure help from peers and teachers when needed,
and to motivate themselves to thoroughly complete their reading and assignments to the
required standards and within the designated time frame. The key point is that measures of
self-efficacy are most informative, predictive, and useful when they are tailored to focus on
SAGE Reference
The SAGE Encyclopedia of Industrial and Organizational Psychology,
2nd edition
Page 3 of 7

relevant, specific outcomes, tasks, and behaviors.
Sources of Self-Efficacy
There are three key sources of self-efficacy. The most powerful determinant of self-efficacy is
mastery experiences, followed by role-modeling and then verbal persuasion.
Mastery experiences occur when people taste success at performing at least portions of a
task. It serves to convince them that they have what it takes to achieve increasingly difficult
accomplishments of a similar kind. Self-mastery can be orchestrated by breaking down
difficult tasks into small steps that are relatively easy in order to enable initial success.
Individuals attempt progressively more difficult tasks regarding which constructive feedback is
provided and accomplishments celebrated, before they attempt even more challenging tasks.
Systematically building self-efficacy through mastery experiences thus entails structuring
situations that enable rewarding success and avoid repeated failure. For example, a person
who is learning to pilot an aircraft may be given many hours to progressively develop skill and
confidence in the separate component skills before attempting to combine them by flying
solo. Initial flying lessons are designed so that trainee pilots are challenged but also
experience efficacy-building successes during each session. Managers can help employees
to develop self-efficacy through mastery when they provide incrementally difficult challenges
and adequate resources for individuals to regularly encounter and celebrate successes as
they perform their work.
Role-modeling occurs when people observe others perform a task that they are attempting to
learn or vividly visualize themselves performing successfully. Role-modeling can provide
people with ideas about how to perform certain tasks and inspire their confidence so that they
can act successfully. It can also instill insights about how to avoid the mistakes of others, as
long as people have adequate self-efficacy to do so.
Effective role models approach challenging activities as an opportunity to learn and develop
their knowledge, skills, and effectiveness rather than as a test of their talent. They respond to
setbacks by exploring what can be done differently in the future. In short, good role models
demonstrate the development of skill, persistence, and learning rather than the defensiveness
and blaming that cause mistakes to recur and subsequent performance to decline.
Models are most effective at raising self-efficacy when they are personally liked and seen as
having attributes (e.g., age, gender, or ethnicity) similar to the individuals who observe them.
In one classic study, children developed greater arithmetic self-efficacy and performance after
watching a video of another student, rather than a teacher, demonstrate some arithmetic
operations. These dynamics should be considered when striving to identify an efficacy-
inspiring mentor.
Verbal persuasion builds self-efficacy when people are encouraged and praised for their
competence and ability to improve their effectiveness. Positive self-talk, underscoring that one
can persist and achieve one’s objectives, can also raise self-efficacy. Regardless of its source,
verbal persuasion is most likely to increase self-efficacy when it is perceived as credible and
emphasizes how success results from devoting sufficient effort to mastering acquirable skills,
rather than depending on inherent talent. Efficacy-raising feedback highlights how consistent
efforts have enabled improvements, as well as the progress made, rather than involving peer
comparisons or making reference to how far individuals have to go until their ultimate
objective is achieved. Effective verbal persuasion is reinforced with corresponding actions. For
SAGE Reference
The SAGE Encyclopedia of Industrial and Organizational Psychology,
2nd edition
Page 4 of 7

example, managers telling employees that they are capable but not assigning them any
challenging tasks tends to erode both employees’ self-efficacy and the manager’s credibility.
In contrast, having people draw up a progress chart before complimenting them on their
genuine attainments can be a potent way of raising their sense of what they can achieve.
Figure 1 illustrates some managerial initiatives that can help build employees’ self-efficacy via
these three pathways. Table 1 provides a self-assessment of how frequently managers
engage in related efficacy-building behaviors.
Figure 1 Managerial Actions That Increase Performance by Building Employees’ Self-
Efficacy
Source: Adapted from Heslin (1999).
Undermining Self-Efficacy
These initiatives for building self-efficacy contrast with the subtle though common messages
that erode self-efficacy. Such signals include consistently being assigned unchallenging
tasks, receiving praise for mediocre performance, being preferentially selected based on one’s
membership to a protected group rather than on merit, being treated indifferently for faulty
performance, or being repeatedly offered unsolicited help. Faultfinding and personal criticism,
by oneself or others, are particularly destructive because they undermine motivation to
explore and experiment, whereby individuals discover what they are actually able to achieve.
Although encouraging messages can raise self-efficacy, attempts at building self-efficacy
through verbal persuasion may easily degenerate into empty sermons unless they are
supported by efficacy-affirming mastery experiences.
Too Much of a Good Thing?
While high self-efficacy is generally advantageous, extremely high self-efficacy can lead to
excessive risk taking, hubris, and dysfunctional persistence. In most cases, however, the
resulting setbacks and failures that people experience soon recalibrate their self-efficacy to a
more realistic level. In general, the many benefits of high self-efficacy make it a worthwhile
attribute to cultivate. This is best done through the simultaneous and systematic provision of
mastery experiences, role-modeling, and verbal persuasion.
SAGE Reference
The SAGE Encyclopedia of Industrial and Organizational Psychology,
2nd edition
Page 5 of 7

Table 1 Managerial Self-Assessment: How Frequently Do You Build Employees’ Self-Efcacy?1
Rate how often you exhibit the following behaviors, where:
1 = Never, 2 = Occasionally, 3 = Sometimes, 4 = Regularly, 5 = Almost always
Manager Actions To what extent do you . . . Rating/5
Coaching → Enable employees to discern how to achieve their objectives? ____
→ Help novices to break complex tasks down into components to
enable them to experience initial success?
____
→ Provide feedback about effective and ineffective behaviors, rather
than an employee’s personal style?
____
→ Deal with “silly” questions or suggestions by tactfully helping
employees to explore their implications?
____
Participation → Enable your employees to establish or at least participate in
determining their goals?
____
→ Encourage participation in decision making, where feasible? ____
→ Involve employees in identifying and being assigned tasks that
will develop their abilities?
____
→ Seek input before making changes that will affect your
employees?
____
Demonstration → Personally role-model persisting in trying different strategies in
order to overcome challenges?
____
→ Walk the talk—do what you ask others to do? ____
→ Express enthusiasm, optimism, and not taking yourself too
seriously?
____
Mentoring → Provide opportunities that may result in your employees having
more experiences and expertise than you in certain areas?
____
→ Inquire about the learning experiences of your employees? ____
→ Make yourself available as a sounding board? ____
Inspiration → Express condence that your employees can perform well? ____
→ Establish a clear and exciting vision that your employees are
inspired to strive toward?
____
→ Leave your employees feeling stronger and more capable after
spending time with you?
____
Encouragement → Acknowledge achievements and progress as reecting employees’
efforts and abilities?
____
→ Make employees feel safe and supported when they have made
mistakes?
____
→ Applaud initiatives undertaken in order to improve performance? ____
Add up your scores to estimate how much you build the self-efcacy of your employees. How would your employees rate you on
these questions? Why not reevaluate yourself 1 month from now to gauge any improvement or decline in your behaviors aimed
at raising the self-efcacy of your employees?
1 This exercise is intended as a managerial self-development activity, illustrative of self-efcacy-building behaviors, rather than
as a tool for assessing managers to make selection, performance appraisal, or promotion decisions.
SAGE Reference
Page 6 of 7 The SAGE Encyclopedia of Industrial and Organizational Psychology,
2nd edition

Bandura, A. (2012a). On the functional properties of perceived self-efficacy revisited. Journal
of Management, 38(1), 9–44. doi:10.1177/0149206311410606
Bandura, A. (2012b). The role of self-efficacy in goal-based motivation. In E. A. Locke & G. P.
Latham (Eds.), New developments in goal setting and task performance (pp. 147–157). New
York, NY: Routledge.
Fast, N. J., Burris, E. R., & Bartel, C. A. (2014). Managing to stay in the dark: Managerial self-
efficacy, ego defensiveness, and the aversion to employee voice. Academy of Management
Journal, 57(4), 1013–1034. doi:10.5465/amj.2012.0393
Heslin, P. A. (1999). Boosting empowerment by developing self-efficacy. Asia Pacific Journal
of Human Resources, 37(1), 52–64. doi:10.1177/103841119903700105
Peter A. Heslin Ute-Christine Klehe Lauren A. Keating
http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781483386874.n481
10.4135/9781483386874.n481
SAGE Reference
The SAGE Encyclopedia of Industrial and Organizational Psychology,
2nd edition
Page 7 of 7
References