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How Elementary In‐School Play Opportunities Relate to Academic Achievement and Social‐Emotional Well‐Being: Systematic Review
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Play is essential for child growth and development, and may have academic and social-emotional implications. To understand the relationship between in-school play opportunities and academic achievement (AA) and social-emotional well-being among elementary school students, a systematic review of the current in-school play literature was conducted.
METHODS
Keywords were input across 7 search engines. After screening, 20 peer-reviewed publications related to play, AA, and social-emotional well-being met the inclusion criteria for this review.
FINDINGS
Across the included publications, recess was the only in-school play opportunity assessed. Overall, student behavior and social-emotional outcomes benefited from more recess while mixed results were found between recess participation and academic outcomes. However, more recess was not detrimental to AA.
CONCLUSION
The findings from this review support the need for recess as part of a whole child approach to education that may mitigate the negative outcomes of sitting through long periods of instruction. More research is needed on the AA and social-emotional effects of other types of in-school play opportunities (ie, centers, play stations, and other breaks). Findings from this review indicate that recess is a necessary part of the elementary school day.
... This study has merit because play allows children to challenge their bodies and develop strength, build relationships and social skills (e.g., conflict resolution and empathy), and expand their creativity (Elkind, 2008;Gray, 2017;Wallace & Russ, 2015) and has not been shown to detract from academic achievement (Dagli, 2012;Dills et al., 2011;Miller et al., 2022). Play is operationally defined as nongoal-oriented activities that can be structured or unstructured, include high or low physical activity (PA), utilize gross or fine motor skills, and are participated in by children for enjoyment (Burson & Castelli, 2022). Play is typically accrued during recess in the school setting but may take place during instructional time in the classroom or physical education, during transitions, or in other areas of the school day. ...
... In-school play allows students to release built-up energy and improve the cognitive function necessary for learning (Brusseau et al., 2011;Burson & Castelli, 2022;Gao et al., 2015). Classroom behavior and attention are improved with play breaks (Erwin, 2018;Jarrett et al., 1998;Pellegrini & Bohn, 2005). ...
... The focus groups were designed with the Investigate, Discuss, Estimate, and Aggregate protocol (Hemming et al., 2017) to improve repeatability and transparency and permit participants to discuss initial findings if desired. Open-ended, semistructured questions were created based on findings from a systematic literature review on in-school play opportunities (Burson & Castelli, 2022) and content experts' recommendations. ...
Purpose: The purpose of this study was to elicit salient information from K-5 teachers regarding their perceptions of in-school play. Play is not goal-focused and can be structured or unstructured, includes high or low physical activity, or utilizes gross or fine motor skills, and children participate in play for enjoyment. Method: K-5 teachers (n = 27) were asked questions based on the Theory of Planned Behavior during focus groups. Theory of Planned Behavior and Caring Theory themes were identified within and across groups with 34 codes across nine themes identified. Results: Teachers thought positively about in-school play. Play supported caring teaching, as relationships could develop and strengthen during playtime. The lack of administrative support and time was discussed as play barriers. Discussion/Conclusion: Perceptions of and desires to provide play conflict with the current educational models. An issue impacting the provision of effective, caring education has been identified. Studies on factors influencing teacher play practices are needed.
... No obstante, los escolares que eligen participar durante el recreo en AF y juegos sedentarios o de intensidad ligera también obtienen beneficios para la salud y el aprendizaje (Burston & Castelli, 2022;Grey, 2017). El juego en el recreo escolar se relaciona con el logro académico y el bienestar socioemocional de los niños (Burson & Castelli, 2022). La participación en AF en el recreo se ha relacionado con mayor atención, tiempo en la tarea y mejor comportamiento de los estudiantes en el aula. ...
... La participación en AF en el recreo se ha relacionado con mayor atención, tiempo en la tarea y mejor comportamiento de los estudiantes en el aula. Además, los programas de recreo mejoran las habilidades sociales, la función ejecutiva, la resiliencia, el autocontrol, así como las habilidades del aprendizaje socio-emocional, incluido el comportamiento inclusivo y la resolución de conflictos ( Barrenetxea-García, et al., 2024;Burson & Castelli, 2022). ...
La investigación sobre los procesos motivacionales y el bienestar de los escolares en el juego de recreo es escasa. Este estudio se propuso: a) examinar las diferencias relativas al curso y género en las necesidades psicológicas básicas (NPB), las regulaciones motivacionales, el índice de autodeterminación (IAD) y la autoestima global de los escolares en el juego de recreo, y b) estudiar las relaciones entre las variables a estudio y el valor predictivo de las NPB y el IAD en la autoestima según género. Participaron 446 escolares (M = 10.02; DE = 1.41) de 3º a 6º de primaria. Se realizaron un MANOVA, análisis univariados, correlaciones bivariadas y análisis de regresión jerárquico. Los resultados mostraron un descenso significativo en motivación intrínseca, regulación introyectada, regulación externa y desmotivación, así como un aumento del IAD en función del curso. Autonomía, relación y novedad fueron los principales predictores de la autoestima para los niños (26.8% de varianza), mientras que relación, competencia e IAD lo fueron para las niñas (34.6%). Los resultados apoyan el potencial del juego de recreo para proporcionar bienestar psicológico desde la teoría de la autodeterminación. Se discuten implicaciones para el diseño de intervenciones atendiendo a las diferencias de curso y género. Palabras clave: motivación autodeterminada, emoción, bienestar, juego, recreo. Abstract. Research on schoolchildren's motivational processes and well-being in recess play is scarce. This study aimed to: a) examine grade- and gender-related differences in the basic psychological needs (BPN), motivational regulations, self-determination index (SDI), and self-esteem among schoolchildren involved in recess play, b) to study the relationships between the variables under study, as well as the predictive value of BPN and SDI in self-esteem by gender. A total of 446 schoolchildren (M = 10.02; SD = 1.41) from 3rd to 6th grade of primary education participated. A MANOVA, univariate analyses, bivariate correlations and hierarchical regression analy-ses were performed. Grade-specific results showed a significant decrease in intrinsic motivation, introjected regulation, external regulation and amotivation, and an increase in SDI. Autonomy, relatedness and novelty were the main predictors of self-esteem for boys (explaining 26.8% of variance) while relatedness, competence and SDI were the main predictors of self-esteem for girls (34.6% of variance). Results support the potential of recess to provide psychological well-being to schoolchildren from self-determination theory. Implications for the design of grade- and gender-sensitive interventions are discussed. Keywords: self-determined motivation, emotion, well-being, play, recess.
... As school stakeholders seek to provide an effective learning environment for all students, understanding the impact recess has on school-age students will allow for informed, evidenced-based decisions. Previous reviews have focused on academic and social benefits (Burson & Castelli, 2022;Hodges et al., 2022). Our goal in this scoping review is to review and summarize the existing research findings as they relate to the impact recess has on school-age students in kindergarten through 8th grade, while identifying the types and sources of evidence as well as defining gaps in research. ...
... The goal of a scoping review was to provide a broad overview of an area of research without assessing for bias or quality of the included studies. This could be considered a limitation for scoping reviews, but a benefit to include studies from various disciplines with different methodologies and presents a broader perspective than previous reviews (Burson & Castelli, 2022;Hodges et al., 2022). Study strength, effect size, and design were not objectively considered as part of the inclusion or exclusion criteria but were narratively assessed. ...
... Researchers have clearly identified what constitutes a high-quality recess: a safe environment, adequate equipment, engaged adults, opportunities for student autonomy, and low levels of conflict . However, studies find that most schools (especially in North America) have low-to-moderate recess quality (Burson & Castelli, 2022;Coolkens et al., 2018). In particular, children of color, from lowincome households, in urban schools, and those with disabilities are more likely to experience poor quality recess (Global Recess Alliance et al., 2022;McNamara, 2021;Ozenbaugh et al., 2022). ...
... The majority of interventions introduce physical activity and are beyond the scope of this review. Overall, activity-based interventions can improve the enjoyment of recess and sometimes decrease sedentary or aggressive behavior (Burson & Castelli, 2022;Coolkens et al., 2018), but they can also reduce student agency and the development of social skills (Coolkens et al., 2018). A team of researchers led by McNamara (2017) has studied recess periods in vivo in order to better understand the function, purposes, and uses of recesses in Canadian schools. ...
Recess is an important and unique component of the school day, and yet there is a relative paucity of research on its impact on young children. Moreover, recesses are often perceived negatively by educators because they can detract from academic instructional time and, depending on the kind of play and interactions between students, may also be times of social conflict and, in some cases, exclusion and bullying. This article examines several facets of recess and its importance: it outlines what students do at recess and the social processes that take place, as well as challenges specific to recess time, and its impact on social-emotional learning. It then reviews what constitutes a high-quality recess and synthesizes scholarship on the effectiveness of recess interventions around the world. The article evaluates whether recess is ultimately a help or a hindrance to young children’s social-emotional development, and concludes with both policy and practice recommendations for educators.
... Numerous studies point to the academic, social-emotional, and learning benefits of recess to all children (Hodges et al., 2022;Burson and Castelli, 2022). Despite these benefits, there is a clear link between not just the quantity of recess interactions children have, but also the quality (Massey et al., 2021a). ...
The goal of this paper is to present, conceptually and empirically, a framing for inclusion grounded in the social network perspective: Relational Inclusivity (RI). This approach emphasizes the importance of interdependent student relationships that educators must attend to in order to create socially responsive learning communities. We center relational ties and dynamics across four social dimensions experienced by students: friendships, recess, academic support, and emotional connection networks. Using data from a Grade 7 class collected through the Social Network Analysis (SNA) Toolkit, we illustrate how student experiences vary across these four dimensions and how educators may attend to them. We argue that an RI approach necessarily shifts attention away from traditional individualized paradigms of achievement and towards the social dynamics of learning environments.
... Moreover, engaging in movement-based activities promotes taking risks, facing fears, building resilience, and overcoming challenges (Brussoni et al., 2020;Collin et al., 2021). It stimulates the creation of something new, encourages discovery and critical thinking (Campbell et al., 2018), and contributes to aspects of body perception, self-efficacy, self-esteem, and psychological well-being (Burson & Castelli, 2022;Méndez-Giménez & García-Rodríguez, 2024;Schulz, 2015). The movement also enhances skills such as negotiation, teamwork, and cooperation among peers (Schulz, 2015;Sohrabi, 2021), and fosters values like dialogue, respect for others, and adherence to rules (Sohrabi, 2021). ...
Introduction: Children’s motor development is growing, with several studies seeking to understand its process, causes, and effects. The field of entrepreneurship has also experienced significant growth. Objective: Recognizing the importance of both areas, this research aims to verify the relationship between a child's motor development and entrepreneurial traits. Methodology: This is an exploratory case study using mixed methodologies. 37 students from the 1st and 3rd grade participated in this study. The Test of Gross Motor Development - 2 was used to determine the children's motor development. To assess entrepreneurial traits in children, observation and audio recording were conducted in three contexts: structured play, enriched recess, and storytelling. The observation was based on a script constructed according to the literature review. Results: When relating motor development to entrepreneurial traits, it was concluded that children with better motor development in the total raw score and object control motor skills tend to be those in the 3rd grade and those with lower propensity for inverse behaviour of "Self-Confidence" and "Persistence/Resistance to Failure." It was also found that children with better raw scores in locomotion motor skills are also those who, in the context of recess, have a greater tendency to exhibit positive behaviour of "Risk-taking," such as considering risks before acting or not being afraid of failure. Conclusion: Schools should integrate entrepreneurial education and motor skill development into curricula to prepare students not just for jobs, but to take initiative, solve complex problems, and adapt to changing circumstances throughout their lives.
... Therefore, it is crucial to implement interventions that increase PA levels in school-age children and adolescents and bring them closer to the levels recommended by the World Health Organization (2020): at least 60 min of moderate to vigorous PA (MVPA) per day and a minimum of three weekly activities that strengthen the musculoskeletal system. School recess has a vital role in achieving these objectives by promoting active play and PA, making it an essential component of a comprehensive educational approach (Burson & Castelli, 2022). The evidence suggests that recess interventions can effectively increase MVPA levels (Parrish et al., 2020). ...
Recess provides an opportunity to promote physical activity among schoolchildren. There is limited research on the effects of specific recess interventions, such as moveable equipment, physical structures, or painting playground, on motivational and affective-emotional variables. The study investigated the impact of a recess intervention based on children’s play using their own self-made materials. The researchers examined how this intervention affected basic psychological needs (including novelty), motivational regulations, self-determination index (SDI), and mood states, such as fear, happiness, sadness, and anger in 219 schoolchildren from third to sixth grade. The multivariate analysis of variance and univariate analyses found a decrease in identified, introjected, and external regulations, amotivation, and fear and an increase in SDI by grade. Boys scored higher on autonomy, competence, external regulation, and anger while girls scored higher on happiness. SDI and novelty were predictors of happiness in boys while relatedness was the main predictor for girls. Relatedness negatively predicted anger in boys. SDI negatively predicted fear and sadness in both genders. These findings suggest that recess interventions should consider motivational and emotional differences by grade and gender to promote physical activity and well-being in schoolchildren.
... Es prioritario implementar intervenciones que aproximen a niños y adolescentes a los niveles de AF recomendados por la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS, 2020): al menos, 60 minutos al día de AF moderada o vigorosa (AFMV) y un mínimo de tres veces por semana de actividades que fortalezcan el sistema músculo-esquelético. El recreo escolar puede y debe formar parte de un enfoque educativo integral que influya en los niveles de AF de los niños y adolescentes en edad escolar (Burson & Castelli, 2022;Salas-Sánchez & Vidal-Conti, 2020). Las evidencias sobre las intervenciones de recreo escolar son prometedoras en su objetivo de aumentar la AFMV (Parrish, et al., 2020;Vicedo, et al., 2021). ...
Los programas de recreos activos han sido señalados como espacios ideales para proporcionar a los escolares beneficios físicos, cognitivos, emocionales y sociales. Este estudio se propuso examinar las percepciones de los docentes y de las familias acerca de la implementación de un programa de recreos activos durante un curso escolar que se basó en la construcción compartida de materiales por padres y estudiantado. Participaron 10 docentes de Educación Primaria (nueve mujeres y un hombre; Medad = 31.4 ± 5.56) y 14 miembros de familias (10 mujeres y cuatro hombres, Medad = 45 ± 2.44) procedentes de un centro privado del País Vasco. Se realizó un estudio cualitativo mediante entrevistas semiestructuradas. El análisis de datos por categorías se basó en reducción de datos, análisis descriptivo e interpretación. Los resultados mostraron seis dimensiones compartidas por docentes y familiares: Conocimiento del programa, Material autoconstruido, Efectos psicológicos, Efectos físicos, Socialización, y Obstáculos y facilitadores. Estos hallazgos arrojan la luz al apoyo de intervenciones de recreos activos con material autoconstruido, y convergen, casi en su totalidad, con los informados por el alumnado en estudios previos.
... Our national surveys of over 1300 children and adolescents aged 10, 14 and 16 undertaken in 2006 and 2017 shows that pupils overwhelmingly enjoy breaks, particularly the longer lunchtime period and this is unchanged over the past few decades (Baines & Blatchford, 2019;Blatchford, 1998;Blatchford & Baines, 2006). These times provide an important opportunity for children to have a brief enjoyable period away from the intensities of learning in class to relax, recharge, get some fresh air and to do something enjoyable of their own choosing in a safe and supportive context (Burson & Castelli, 2022;McNamara et al., 2018). ...
This talk will examine the role of school breaktimes in relation to the wellbeing of children and young people. 'Breaktime' or 'recess' is normally a break within the school day where children get to play and socialize with peers. However, there is little international understanding of the nature and position of recess in schools. There is little information about the activities that take place during these times and there are few statistics. Drawing on unique evidence from three national surveys in England and other countries there are signs that they are being eroded. However, there is also good evidence that these times are highly enjoyed and valued by nearly all children and that these times provide important opportunities in school to support children's wellbeing. Breaktimes are an important context for children to: develop relationships and friendships with peers, and engage in physical exercise and activities of their own choosing. These times also offer significant opportunities for the development of social and cognitive skills that are important for current and future wellbeing in terms of social, emotional and academic functioning. Breaktimes provide an important window into children's social and emotional lives and indicate the extent to which schools and countries are meeting children's right to play and recreational activities as advocated in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. Good quality school provision for breaktimes can be used to support children's wellbeing.
... A recent review of recess and social-emotional benefits underscores greater recognition of potential benefits of PA, particularly for elementary school students. 63,64 Only a few studies explored these types of secondary outcomes, so this topic could benefit from further study to outline the multidimensional impact of implementing a CSPAP during the school day. ...
Background:
There are many ways to increase physical activity (PA) during the school day as part of a Comprehensive School Physical Activity Plan. This article reviews policies and practices that can be used during the school day to increase PA for students.
Methods:
We searched systematic reviews for articles that met criteria (2010-2018, phase 1), followed by a search for individual articles addressing topics for which we did not identify a sufficiently relevant or recent review or to update an earlier review that concluded insufficient evidence (2010-2020, phase 2). We included 45 articles (45 studies, 54 interventions).
Results:
We grouped studies by intervention type: school-wide PA approaches to reach all students within the school setting (17), physical education (PE) interventions (13), and interventions related to recess (15). Few studies involved secondary schools or rural settings. Among 45 studies reporting PA behavior or fitness outcomes, 37 reported at least 1 improvement.
Conclusions:
PA policies, PE, and recess can help improve school health by increasing the PA levels of students.
... Similarly, a recent review of research on the effects of adding more recess time in elementary schools revealed consistent findings of improved social and emotional wellbeing with no loss and sometimes gain in academic performance. 25 Less well known and discussed, however, is evidence that children's play-like activity appears to be most satisfying and to fit most closely with children's own concept of play when it occurs away from adult oversight and intervention. ...
In this study, we enacted critical participatory action research (CPAR) within an online community of practice (CoP). The CoP was designed to build a community of outdoor play and learning (OPAL) practitioners. This paper describes how a cohort (n=18) of experienced Kindergarten to grade eight (K-8) teachers from across British Columbia shared their OPAL experiences and practice and the collective action taken. Regularly scheduled meetings over a six-month period resulted in dialogue that identified the need for quality resources that were accessible for all teachers. The concept of a website, developed for teachers by teachers experienced with OPAL, was initiated within the CPAR process. This article describes findings related to participation in a CPAR CoP, and the process of deciding upon and enacting shared action to support OPAL elementary school teachers.
El entorno del recreo escolar es reconocido como un contexto idóneo para promover la actividad física (AF) en toda la población escolar. Diversas estrategias han sido diseñadas para maximizar la AF de los escolares: dotar a los patios de estructuras físicas, capacitar al personal, pintar zonas de juego o proporcionar equipamiento y material movible/reciclado. Los resultados de investigación sobre esas intervenciones son prometedoras para aumentar la AFMV, pero no son concluyentes. Este estudio se propuso: a) examinar los niveles de AF de los escolares implicados en una intervención de recreo basada en el juego con material autoconstruido, y b) analizar las diferencias relativas al curso y género. Participaron 148 escolares (M = 10.98; DE = .79) de 4º a 6º de Educación Primaria. Se realizó un diseño cuasiexperimental con dos registros semanales (5 días escolares) de cada participante mediante acelerometría a lo largo de un cuatrimestre. Se ejecutaron análisis multivariantes de la varianza (MANOVA), tomando como variables dependientes los diferentes niveles de AF y, como factores fijos, el curso y el género. Se encontraron promedios de 10’46” y 24’52” de AFMV/día durante el recreo de mediodía y del almuerzo, respectivamente, lo que en total supone el 59.4% del tiempo recomendado. El nivel de AFMV disminuyó cuanto mayor era el curso. Los niños realizaron más AFMV y menos conductas sedentarias que las niñas. Los resultados avalan la eficacia de la intervención y sugieren importantes implicaciones para las escuelas promotoras de salud. Palabras clave: juego, salud, autoconstrucción de material, acelerometría, reciclaje. Abstract. The school recess environment is recognized as an ideal context for promoting physical activity (PA) in the entire school population. Various strategies have been designed to maximize PA among students, such as providing physical structures in playgrounds, training staff, painting play areas, or providing movable/recycled equipment and materials. Research results on these interventions are promising for increasing moderate- to vigorous- physical activity (MVPA) during recess but are inconclusive. This study aimed to (a) examine the students’ PA levels during a recess intervention with self-made materials, and (b) analyze differences in relation to grade and gender. A total of 148 students (M = 10.98; SD = .79) from 4th to 6th grade participated. A quasi-experimental design was conducted with two weekly records (five school days) for each participant using accelerometry over a cuatrimester. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was performed with different levels of PA as dependent variables, and grade and gender as fixed factors. Average levels of 10’46” and 24’52” MVPA/day were found during morning and lunchtime recesses, respectively, representing 59.4% of the recommended time. The MVPA levels decreased with year level. Boys engaged in more MVPA and fewer sedentary behaviors than girls. These results support the effectiveness of the intervention and suggest important implications for health promoting schools. Keywords: playground play, health, self-made material, acelerometry, recycling.
This essay, written as part of an invited address for the National Academy of Kinesiology’s 92nd annual meeting, with the overarching theme being “Honoring the Past, Celebrating the Present, Embracing the Future,” provides an assessment of the evolution of sport and exercise psychology, or what I refer to as the psychology of physical activity. Specifically, I examine the role that psychology of physical activity has played since the academy was established, with particular attention to the contributions of academy fellows. I then provide my reflections on the current status and critical issues for the psychology of physical activity. Finally, I offer some thoughts on future directions for the subdiscipline in the broader field of kinesiology and some thoughts on how the academy could advance the academic discipline of kinesiology.
Background
Recess provides a key physical activity opportunity for students in school, yet a wide range of recess requirements exist. To design optimal recess policies, the effect of recess on students’ educational outcomes must be better understood. Therefore, the purpose of this mixed-method systematic review is to identify and systematically evaluate research on the effects of recess on student educational outcomes, including behavior, cognitive performance and academic achievement.
Methods
A systematic search of the literature in ERIC (EBSCO), ProQuest Central, PsycINFO, Teacher Reference Center, MEDLINE Complete (EBSCO), and CINAHL Complete was performed through September 2022. Data was extracted from quantitative studies, and reported themes with exemplar quotes were extracted from qualitative studies. The Mixed Method Appraisal Tool (MMAT) was used to assess study quality.
Results
The search identified 932 articles, of which 13 were included in the review, including 8 quantitative and 5 qualitative studies. Eleven studies were conducted in the United States, and reported sample size of studies ranged from 12 to 11,624. Studies found mixed effects on student behavior, discipline referrals and academic achievement. Qualitative studies reported multiple benefits of recess including increased focus, improved problem solving and academic achievement.
Conclusions
Overall, evidence suggests positive benefits for behavior and either positive or null benefits of recess on academic achievement. However, evidence is limited by non-controlled study designs and diversity in outcome assessments. Additional quantitative evidence is needed to convince policymakers of the specific evidence supporting recess, but also to advise on the optimal recess policies and practices to improve student learning.
Background
A public mental health lens is increasingly required to better understand the complex and multifactorial influences of interpersonal, community and institutional systems on the mental health of children and adolescents.
Methods
This research review (1) provides an overview of public mental health and proposes a new interactional schema that can guide research and practice, (2) summarises recent evidence on public mental health interventions for children and adolescents, (3) highlights current challenges for this population that might benefit from additional attention and (4) discusses methodological and conceptual hurdles and proposes potential solutions.
Results
In our evidence review, a broad range of universal, selective and indicated interventions with a variety of targets, mechanisms and settings were identified, some of which (most notably parenting programmes and various school‐based interventions) have demonstrated small‐to‐modest positive effects. Few, however, have achieved sustained mental health improvements.
Conclusions
There is an opportunity to re‐think how public mental health interventions are designed, evaluated and implemented. Deliberate design, encompassing careful consideration of the aims and population‐level impacts of interventions, complemented by measurement that embraces complexity through more in‐depth characterisation, or ‘phenotyping’, of interpersonal and environmental elements is needed. Opportunities to improve child and adolescent mental health outcomes are gaining unprecedented momentum. Innovative new methodology, heightened public awareness, institutional interest and supportive funding can enable enhanced study of public mental health that does not shy away from complexity.
The methods and results of systematic reviews should be reported in sufficient detail to allow users to assess the trustworthiness and applicability of the review findings. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement was developed to facilitate transparent and complete reporting of systematic reviews and has been updated (to PRISMA 2020) to reflect recent advances in systematic review methodology and terminology. Here, we present the explanation and elaboration paper for PRISMA 2020, where we explain why reporting of each item is recommended, present bullet points that detail the reporting recommendations, and present examples from published reviews. We hope that changes to the content and structure of PRISMA 2020 will facilitate uptake of the guideline and lead to more transparent, complete, and accurate reporting of systematic reviews.
Background:
To date, there is scant literature that examines the recess context concurrent with, but separate from, levels of physical activity. The primary purpose of the current study was to examine how recess quality impacted physical activity levels, and how this was moderated by gender. A secondary purpose was to examine if differences in children's engagement in activities occurred between recess sessions scored as low- or high- quality.
Methods:
This was an observational study of children at 13 urban elementary schools in the U.S. Across the 13 schools, data were collected at 55 recess sessions, with 3419 child-level observations (n = 1696 boys; n = 1723 girls). Physical activity data were collected using Fitbit accelerometers, recess quality data were collected using the Great Recess Framework - Observational Tool (GRF-OT), recess engagement data were collected using the Observation of Playground Play (OPP), and basic psychological need satisfaction (BPNS) data were collected using a modified version of the BPNS for recess physical activity survey. Primary analyses were conducted using Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM) with children nested within recess sessions.
Results:
Gender moderated the relationship between adult engagement and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) (b = .012; 95% CI .001, .024), student behavior and MVPA (b = -.014; 95% CI -.021, -.007), and student behaviors and light physical activity (b = .009, 95% CI .003, .015). Both boys and girls engaged in more play during recess sessions scored as high quality on the GRF-OT. Children reported higher levels of basic psychological need satisfaction at recesses sessions scored as high quality on the GRF-OT.
Conclusions:
Results of the current study showed that the quality of the recess environment, and the interactions of both adults and students in that environment, need to be taken into consideration in future school-based recess studies.
A healthy school is one that fully supports a student’s academic, physical, emotional, and social well-being. Increasingly, state education policies are moving beyond a focus on academic mastery to include aspects of healthy schools. Despite a growing knowledge base that stresses important linkages among aspects of well-being, policies tend to address students’ physical health separately from their mental and emotional health, which are, in turn, both addressed separately from a school’s social and emotional climate. To date, reflecting the siloed nature of policies, no comprehensive analysis of state policies has covered all domains of healthy schools.
As part of the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation’s Together for Healthy and Successful Schools Initiative, Child Trends partnered with the Institute for Health Research and Policy at the University of Illinois at Chicago and EMT Associates, Inc. to review relevant state statutes and regulations enacted as of September 2017 and analyze their alignment with the Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child (WSCC) model of healthy schools. The WSCC covers 10 domains: health education; physical education and physical activity; nutrition environment and services; health services; counseling, psychological, and social services; social and emotional climate; physical environment; employee wellness; family engagement; and community involvement. Findings from this work are compiled in three products to help policymakers and advocates better understand the current landscape and consider the creation of policies that promote healthy schools
Recess is an integral part of the school day where children are afforded the opportunity to create and organize games, socialize with their peers, and explore nature. When implemented effectively, recess has the potential to offer significant academic, physical, and social benefits (London, Westrich, Stokes-Guinan, & McGlaughlin, 2015). However, the amount of time allocated to recess in elementary schools across the United States has significantly declined over the past two decades. A reduction in play time can be attributed to increased educational mandates, which have lead to vigorous and ongoing debates about the important role recess plays in elementary schools. Thus, this quantitative study examined the effect of recess on fifth grade students’ time on-task in an elementary classroom. Participants on- and off-task behaviors were observed and documented on a task frequency chart prior to and after recess. Findings from the study indicated that providing fifth-grade students with daily recess significantly increased on-task behaviors in the classroom.
"Play" is a word used commonly to refer to children's preferred activities and to some adult activities, and it is often said that play promotes learning. But what is play exactly, and what and how do children learn through play? This essay begins with a description of an evolutionary, practice theory of play by German philosopher and naturalist, Karl Groos, followed by a system of categorizing play according to the kinds of skills most obviously practiced: Physical/locomotor play, constructive play, language play, fantasy play, social play, and play with formal rules. Play is then defined as activity that (1) is self-chosen and self-directed, (2) is motivated by means more than ends, (3) is guided by mental rules, and (4) includes a strong element of imagination. These characteristics are elaborated upon to show how each contributes to play's developmental value. Two final sections describe the special developmental value of age-mixed play and deleterious changes in children's well-being that have accompanied the decline of play in recent decades.
In recent years, schools have tended to eliminate recess period and to devote more time to instruction in order to increase academic achievement. Using a nationally representative sample, this study examined reading scores of students who experienced different numbers of recess days in a week, and different number of times and length of recess in a day. Students' gender, race, family socioeconomic status, initial reading scores, and age were controlled. Findings showed no significant main effects of recess; however, students who were exposed to a 16-30 minutes recess period tended to perform better. An interaction effect of race and the length of recess was found. It was concluded that recess does not have a significant effect on reading achievement. In other words, it does not improve or hurt academic achievement, but provides an opportunity for children to be physically active, play and socialize just to be a child.
The need to understand where and how much physical activity (PA) children accumulate has become important in assisting the development, implementation, and evaluation of PA interventions. The purpose of this study was to describe the daily PA patterns of children during the segmented school-week.
829 children participated by wearing pedometers (Yamax-Digiwalker SW-200) for 5 consecutive days. Students recorded their steps at arrival/departure from school, Physical Education (PE), recess, and lunchtime.
Boys took significantly more steps/day than girls during most PA opportunities; recess, t(440)=8.80, P<.01; lunch, t(811)=14.57, P<.01; outside of school, t(763)=5.34, P<.01; school, t(811)=10.61, P<.01; and total day, t(782)=7.69, P<.01. Boys and girls accumulated a similar number of steps t(711) .69, P=.09 during PE. For boys, lunchtime represented the largest single source of PA (13.4%) at school, followed by PE (12.7%) and recess (9.5%). For girls, PE was the largest (14.3%), followed by lunchtime (11.7%) and recess (8.3%).
An understanding of the contributions of the in-school segments can serve as baseline measures for practitioners and researchers to use in school-based PA interventions.
Objective:
To assess the effect of a physical activity (PA) intervention on brain and behavioral indices of executive control in preadolescent children.
Methods:
Two hundred twenty-one children (7-9 years) were randomly assigned to a 9-month afterschool PA program or a wait-list control. In addition to changes in fitness (maximal oxygen consumption), electrical activity in the brain (P3-ERP) and behavioral measures (accuracy, reaction time) of executive control were collected by using tasks that modulated attentional inhibition and cognitive flexibility.
Results:
Fitness improved more among intervention participants from pretest to posttest compared with the wait-list control (1.3 mL/kg per minute, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.3 to 2.4; d = 0.34 for group difference in pre-to-post change score). Intervention participants exhibited greater improvements from pretest to posttest in inhibition (3.2%, 95% CI: 0.0 to 6.5; d = 0.27) and cognitive flexibility (4.8%, 95% CI: 1.1 to 8.4; d = 0.35 for group difference in pre-to-post change score) compared with control. Only the intervention group increased attentional resources from pretest to posttest during tasks requiring increased inhibition (1.4 µV, 95% CI: 0.3 to 2.6; d = 0.34) and cognitive flexibility (1.5 µV, 95% CI: 0.6 to 2.5; d = 0.43). Finally, improvements in brain function on the inhibition task (r = 0.22) and performance on the flexibility task correlated with intervention attendance (r = 0.24).
Conclusions:
The intervention enhanced cognitive performance and brain function during tasks requiring greater executive control. These findings demonstrate a causal effect of a PA program on executive control, and provide support for PA for improving childhood cognition and brain health.
Inhibitory control is the ability to suppress competing, dominant, automatic, or prepotent cognitive processing at perceptual, intermediate, and output stages. Inhibitory control is a key cognitive function of typical and atypical child development. This study examined age-related trends of Stroop-like interference in 3 to 12-year-old children and young adults by administration of a computerized Stroop-like big–small task with reduced working memory demand. This task used a set of pictures displaying a big and small circle in black and included the same condition and the opposite condition. In the same condition, each participant was instructed to say “big” when viewing the big circle and to say “small” when viewing the small circle. In the opposite condition, each participant was instructed to say “small” when viewing the big circle and to say “big” when viewing the small circle. The opposite condition required participants to inhibit the prepotent response of saying the same, a familiar response to a perceptual stimulus. The results of this study showed that Stroop-like interference decreased markedly in children in terms of error rates and correct response time. There was no deterioration of performance occurring between the early trials and the late trials in the sessions of the day–night task. Moreover, pretest failure rate was relatively low in this study. The Stroop-like big–small task is a useful tool to assess the development of inhibitory control in young children in that the task is easy to understand and has small working memory demand.
To examine the impact of state- and school district-level policies on the prevalence of physical education (PE) and recess in a nationally representative sample of US public elementary schools.
Analyses from annual, nationally representative, cross-sectional surveys of school administrators in the United States.
Data were collected through surveys conducted between February and June during the 2006-2007 through 2008-2009 school years. State laws and district policies were compiled annually by researchers at the University of Illinois at Chicago using established legal research techniques.
The sample size was 47 states, 690 districts, and 1761 schools.
State- and school district-level PE and recess-related laws.
Twenty minutes of daily recess and 150 min/wk of PE.
The odds of schools having 150 min/wk of PE increased if they were located in states (odds ratio [OR], 2.8; 95% CI, 1.3-5.7) or school districts (OR, 2.4; 95% CI, 1.3-4.3) having a law or policy requiring 150 min/wk of PE. Schools located in states with laws encouraging daily recess were significantly more likely to have 20 minutes of recess daily (OR, 1.8; 95% CI, 1.2-2.8). District policies were not significantly associated with school-level recess practices. Adequate PE time was inversely associated with recess and vice versa, suggesting that schools are substituting one form of physical activity for another rather than providing the recommended amount of both recess and PE.
By mandating PE or recess, policy makers can effectively increase school-based physical activity opportunities for youth.
It is common knowledge that physical activity leads to numerous health and psychological benefits. However; the relationship between children's physical activity and academic achievement has been debated in the literature. Some studies have found strong, positive relationships between physical activity and cognitive outcomes, while other studies have reported small, negative associations. This study was a comprehensive, quantitative synthesis of the literature, using a total of 59 studies from 1947 to 2009 for analysis. Results indicated a significant and positive effect of physical activity on children's achievement and cognitive outcomes, with aerobic exercise having the greatest effect. A number of moderator variables were also found to play a significant role in this relationship. Findings are discussed in light of improving children's academic performance and changing school-based policy.
This study examines the amount of recess that children 8 to 9 years of age receive in the United States and compares the group classroom behavior of children receiving daily recess with that of children not receiving daily recess.
This is a secondary analysis of a public-use data set, the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998-1999, third-grade data set. Children were categorized into 2 levels of recess exposure, that is, none/minimal break (<1 break of 15 minutes/day) or some recess. Some recess was further categorized into 5 levels on the basis of frequency and duration of recess. Child, parent, school, and classroom characteristics of those with and without recess were compared. The group classroom behavior was assessed by using the teacher's rating of class behavior.
Complete data were available for 10301 to 11624 children 8 to 9 years of age. There were equal numbers of boys and girls (boys: 50.3%). Children exposed to none/minimal break (30%) were much more likely to be black, to be from families with lower incomes and lower levels of education, to live in large cities, to be from the Northeast or South, and to attend public school, compared with those with recess. Teacher's rating of classroom behavior scores were better for children with some recess than for those with none/minimal break. This finding was maintained in multivariate regression analysis. However, among children receiving daily recess, the teacher's rating of class behavior scores did not differ significantly according to the level of exposure.
These results indicated that, among 8- to 9-year-old children, having > or =1 daily recess period of >15 minutes in length was associated with better teacher's rating of class behavior scores. This study suggests that schoolchildren in this age group should be provided with daily recess.
This Policy Statement was reaffirmed April 2023
Recess is at the heart of a vigorous debate over the role of schools in promoting the optimal development of the whole child. A growing trend toward reallocating time in school to accentuate the more academic subjects has put this important facet of a child’s school day at risk. Recess serves as a necessary break from the rigors of concentrated, academic challenges in the classroom. But equally important is the fact that safe and well-supervised recess offers cognitive, social, emotional, and physical benefits that may not be fully appreciated when a decision is made to diminish it. Recess is unique from, and a complement to, physical education—not a substitute for it. The American Academy of Pediatrics believes that recess is a crucial and necessary component of a child’s development and, as such, it should not be withheld for punitive or academic reasons.
BACKGROUND
A majority of research findings have focused on recess as instrumental to achieving minutes of physical activity rather than focusing on the psycho-social benefits associated with a high-quality recess environment. The purpose of the current study was to examine the relationship between recess quality and teacher-reported social, emotional, and behavioral outcomes in children.
METHODS
Data were collected from 26 schools in 4 different regions of the United States. Teachers (N = 113) completed behavioral assessments for randomly selected children in their classrooms (N = 352). Data assessors conducted live observations of recess using the Great Recess Framework—Observational Tool. A series of 2-level regression models were fit in Mplus v. 8.2 to assess how recess quality was associated with indicators of children's social, emotional, and behavioral health.
RESULTS
Recess quality significantly predicted executive functioning problems (b = −.360, p = .021), resilience (b = .369, p = .016), emotional self-control (b = −.367, p = .016), and a composite of adaptive classroom behaviors (b = .321, p = .030).
CONCLUSION
Results of the present study demonstrate that recess quality impacts child developmental outcomes. Schools should ensure there is adequate training and resources to facilitate a positive and meaningful recess for students.
School recess can provide social, emotional, and physical benefits for children. Yet, not all children experience recess the same, as inequity in access to recess and variability in the quality of recess exist. Researchers have yet to understand the long-term implications of recess experiences on adult well-being and physical activity behaviors. The purpose of this study was to explore the interrelationships between memories of recess, physical activity, and social-emotional well-being. A total of 514 adults between the ages of 19 and 79 (M = 45.56; SD = 15.62) were surveyed via Prolific, a web-based research platform. Participants were asked about their memories of recess enjoyment and recess exclusion, and current physical activity levels, physical activity enjoyment, social isolation, social role satisfaction, and sense of meaning and purpose. Structural equation modeling analysis showed that memories of recess enjoyment were associated with meaning and purpose (β = 0.138, p < .05) and PA enjoyment (β = 0.183, p < .05). Furthermore, retrospective recess exclusion predicted current social isolation (β = 0.266, p < .05) and was negatively associated with retrospective recess enjoyment (β = − 0.379, p < .05). Findings highlight the importance of childhood recess experiences and its impact on current physical activity behaviors, social isolation, and meaning and purpose later in life. Consistent with other research, early positive physical activity experiences, in the form of recess, appear to provide more assurances that one will engage in healthier lifestyle behaviors and more favorable psycho-socio-emotional profiles in adulthood.
Following recess, children's behavior typically improves and externalizing behavior decreases. We sought to determine whether multiple recess breaks and their timing leads to reduced discipline referrals. Participants included 607 elementary students who engaged in two 15-minute recess breaks each day. Discipline referrals were coded by type, time, and time elapsed after the most recent break. Findings revealed a complex picture of the role recess timing may play in decreasing discipline issues for children. As time elapsed, the odds of discipline referral increased for verbal disruptive and truancy-related behaviors. Results support multiple recess periods throughout the day, preferably every 90 minutes.
This study offers a look inside one school community. The school implemented Let Grow Play Club and a recently expanded 40-minute recess period. Data are from observations of children's play periods, child interviews, and teacher interviews. We argue that play has significant cognitive, emotional, and social benefits for elementary school children. Periods of play at school help students to focus, build friendships, improve mood, work cooperatively, and work through conflict without adult intervention. The study has implications for the expansion of play, including recess and programs like Let Grow Play Club, for all schools as a social justice issue.
Recess in the United States is decidedly limited in elementary schools, despite numerous research findings that support unstructured play as a vehicle for development across multiple domains. It is widely understood that recess breaks promote prosocial behaviors, physical activity, and attentiveness in class. However, few researchers in the United States have explored effects of multiple daily recess periods on teaching, learning, and behavior. In this investigation, we report findings from interviews with 17 teachers who provide four recess periods daily. We describe the LiiNK Project, inspired by European approaches that provide recess breaks throughout each school day. Findings from this study extend existing knowledge about benefits of recess by providing teacher accounts about how multiple recess periods affect students cognitively, socially, and emotionally. Furthermore, this research makes a new contribution to the literature by reporting how teachers maximize instructional time while increasing daily recess from 15 to 60 min. Implications for school leaders and teachers are shared.
BACKGROUND
The withholding of recess for disciplinary purposes has been acknowledged but studied on a limited basis. The perspectives of children have not been heard at all on this subject.
METHODS
Our paper draws upon semistructured child interviews, which were one activity within a multifaceted study. A subset of students was interviewed about recess and about the experience of having teachers who withheld recess.
RESULTS
Interviewees favored recess and other parts of school that allowed physical activity and social interaction over more sedentary, isolating parts of school. Many understood teachers' rationale for withholding recess; some thought it was helpful, up to a point. Others did not think it was solving the problems it was designed to address. They were skeptical it was having a beneficial effect on the small number of peers who lost recess regularly.
CONCLUSION
Most respondents showed deference to their teachers and were inclined to regard them as wise and fair. The data from these interviews indicated that many children experienced anxiety, regret, and sometimes resentment with regard to the practice of withholding recess. Many wished teachers could identify other means of discipline to address issues that led to losing recess. This study provides a valuable perspective that has been missing from the policy discussions about recess.
BACKGROUND: Public health concerns regarding childhood obesity and sedentary behavior make investigations of children's physical activity (PA) promotion crucial. School recess, a highly discretional time, plays a central role in shaping children's activity preferences.
METHODS: Participants included 40 children (30 girls, 10 boys) from fourth and fifth grades, categorized as low active during recess (<26% moderate-to-vigorous physical activity [MVPA]). Physical activity was measured via accelerometer (AcitGraph WGT3x+) and activity choice gauged through a self-report measure over a three-day period. To assess attitudes and perceptions of recess, individual interviews were conducted. Accelerometer data were analyzed into minutes and percentage of MVPA; interviews were transcribed verbatim and analyzed utilizing open and axial coding.
RESULTS: Participants were active for 18% of recess, choosing activities that were primarily individual-based. Interview data showed low active children attribute recess enjoyment to social interaction and time away from schoolwork as well as an intention to avoid other children who were unkind and/or caused social conflict.
CONCLUSIONS: This study supports the importance of gaining a child's perspective of their own behavior, particularly those children classified as less active. Findings add a unique contribution to school health research through an innovative, child-centered approach to explore perceptions of PA.
Background:
We examined the effectiveness of Peaceful Playgrounds™ (P2) to decrease antisocial behaviors (ASB) while increasing physical activity (PA) and prosocial behaviors (PSB) in elementary school children.
Methods:
A longitudinal, cluster-randomized design was employed in 4 elementary school playgrounds where students (third to fifth) from 2 intervention and 2 control schools were observed during recess periods. The intervention included environmental changes (eg, marked surfaces) and student education. Data were collected using systematic observations of youth behavior and semistructured interviews conducted with key informants. Mixed-effects regression models controlling for scans nested within days nested within schools estimated the interaction of measurement period and treatment condition on children's PA, PSB, and ASB. It was hypothesized that children in intervention, but not control schools, would demonstrate increased PA/PSB and decreased ASB.
Results:
Contrary to the hypotheses, intervention and control schools showed favorable changes for all dependent variables except for PSB, but 1 intervention and 1 control school drove these effects. Follow-up interviews indicated variability in implementation and lack of adherence to the control condition.
Conclusions:
P2 may promote increased PA during recess, but these results demonstrate the complexity of intervention implementation and the need for rigor when measuring intervention fidelity in real-world settings.
The mental effort requirements of free recall and the use of an organization strategy for recall were investigated in two experiments. Interference on a secondary task (finger tapping) was assessed to measure the mental effort requirements of the memory tasks. In a first experiment, it was found that comparable expenditure of mental effort resulted in better memory performance for adults and seventh-graders compared with third-graders, and for related lists compared with unrelated lists. In a second experiment, third- and seventh-graders were instructed to use an organizational strategy to remember a list of words. Although both third- and seventh-graders employed the organizational strategy and showed comparable expenditure of mental effort, this led to increased levels of performance only for the seventh-graders. The results suggest that when memory strategies are imposed on young children, what mental effort is expended on implementing the mnemonic reduces the amount of mental capacity available for other activities, resulting in only modest gains in memory performance.
Understanding the effects of acute exercise on executive function in prepubescent children may be important for the enhancement of school performance. This study assessed the effect of an acute bout of continuous (CONT) or intermittent (INT), moderate-intensity treadmill exercise on executive function in young children. Twenty healthy children, mean (SD); age: 8.8 (0.8) years; height: 140 (9) cm; weight: 36 (11) kg; boys: n = 9, performed a graded-exercise test to determine maximal oxygen uptake, and two 15-min submaximal bouts of treadmill exercise; protocols were either CONT or INT. During CONT, participants ran at 90% of gas exchange threshold. During INT, participants performed six consecutive 2.5 min blocks of exercise, which were designed to reflect children's typical activity patterns, comprising 45 s at a heavy intensity, 33 s at a moderate intensity, 10 s at a severe intensity, and 62 s at a low intensity. Participants performed the Stroop task before the submaximal exercise bouts and after, at 1-, 15-, and 30-min intervals. Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) measured cerebral perfusion and oxygenation. Regardless of condition, Stroop performance was improved at 1 min after compared to before, 54.9 (9.8) s versus 57.9 (11) s, respectively, p < .01, and improvements were maintained until 30 min after. NIRS (oxyhemoglobin, total hemoglobin) explained a significant amount of variance in the change in Stroop performance for INT only (49%, p < .05). An acute bout of exercise, of either an intermittent or continuous nature, improves executive function in children, and effects are maintained for ≤ 30 min following exercise cessation. Accordingly, it is recommended that children should engage in physical activity during periods of school recess.
The role of play in human development has long been the subject of controversy. Despite being championed by many of the foremost scholars of the twentieth century, play has been dogged by underrepresentation and marginalization in literature across the scientific disciplines. The Oxford Handbook of the Development of Play attempts to examine the development of children's play through a rigorous and multidisciplinary approach. This book aims to reset the landscape of developmental science and makes a compelling case for the benefits of play.
BACKGROUND
Recess is a part of the elementary school day with strong implications for school climate. Positive school climate has been linked to a host of favorable student outcomes, from attendance to achievement. We examine 6 low-income elementary schools' experiences implementing a recess-based program designed to provide safe, healthy, and inclusive play to study how improving recess functioning can affect school climate.METHODS
Data from teacher, principal, and recess coach interviews; student focus groups; recess observations; and a teacher survey are triangulated to understand the ways that recess changed during implementation. Comparing schools that achieved higher- and lower-functioning recesses, we link recess functioning with school climate.RESULTSRecess improved in all schools, but 4 of the 6 achieved a higher-functioning recess. In these schools, teachers and principals agreed that by the end of the year, recess offered opportunities for student engagement, conflict resolution, pro-social skill development, and emotional and physical safety. Respondents in these four schools linked these changes to improved overall school climate.CONCLUSIONS
Recess is an important part of the school day for contributing to school climate. Creating a positive recess climate helps students to be engaged in meaningful play and return to class ready to learn.
The purpose of this research was to determine the effect of a recess break on classroom behavior, specifically working, fidgeting, and listlessness. A southern urban school district with a policy against recess granted permission for 2 Grade 4 classes to have recess once a week so that subsequent behavior on recess and nonrecess days could be compared. A multivariate analysis of variance with repeated measures and subsequent analyses of variance indicated that the 43 children, who were used as their own controls, differed on recess and nonrecess days, becoming more on task and less fidgety when they had recess. Sixty percent of the children, including all 5 of those with attention deficit disorder, and a balance of boys and girls benefited considerably. They worked more or fidgeted less (or both) on recess days.
Today's children experience a decreased amount of time at recess and fewer physical education (PE) classes throughout the school day. Breaks for physical activity limit class time for academics, potentially reducing learning. However, breaks may improve alertness and achievement. Using the Early Childhood Longitudinal Survey Kindergarten Class of 1998-1999, we evaluate how recess and PE in elementary school influence children's learning. We find no statistically significant or economically significant impacts of weekly recess or PE time on student learning for kindergarteners through fifth graders. For example, in kindergarten, adding an hour a week of recess reduces the average test score gain in reading by a statistically insignificant 0.01 standard deviations. An additional 49Â min per week of PE in kindergarten improves reading test score gains by a statistically insignificant 0.05 standard deviations. We find no statistical difference in the male and female students' response to recess and PE. Evidence suggests that recess and PE do not harm student outcomes.
In Experiment 1, preschoolers, first graders, and third graders were presented a list of pictures that included twice-presented items separated by varying numbers of intervening items. Performance on a subsequent recognition test improved as the spacing between repetitions increased, but the effect of spacing did not interact reliably with grade level. In Experiment 2a, we replicated the spaced-repetition effect in young children and found a similar effect in college students. In Experiment 2b, we varied the conditions under which lists were presented to college students and again found a spacing function that was comparable to that of very young children. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that spaced-repetition effects in recognition are produced by fundamental memory mechanisms that are operational at a very early age and which undergo little change with development.
In this within-subjects design field experiment children's behaviour in the playground was charted as a function of gender and time in the classroom immediately preceding playtime. Playground behaviour was also related to post-recess classroom behaviour. Twenty-three 9-year-old children were observed for 14 weeks. Classroom behaviour (i.e., task relevant behaviour on standardised seat work immediately before and after playtime) and playground behaviour (i.e., social and non-social exercise and sedentary behaviour) were observed. Time in classroom before playtime was manipulated so that there was a shorter and a longer confinement period. Results indicated that children were less attentive to seat work as a function of time and that longer confinement resulted in more exercise for boys and more social sedentary behaviour for girls. Social behaviour at playtime and post-playtime attention to seat work were significantly related. Results are discussed in terms of Novelty Theory.
To test the feasibility of creating a valid and reliable checklist with the following features: appropriate for assessing both randomised and non-randomised studies; provision of both an overall score for study quality and a profile of scores not only for the quality of reporting, internal validity (bias and confounding) and power, but also for external validity.
A pilot version was first developed, based on epidemiological principles, reviews, and existing checklists for randomised studies. Face and content validity were assessed by three experienced reviewers and reliability was determined using two raters assessing 10 randomised and 10 non-randomised studies. Using different raters, the checklist was revised and tested for internal consistency (Kuder-Richardson 20), test-retest and inter-rater reliability (Spearman correlation coefficient and sign rank test; kappa statistics), criterion validity, and respondent burden.
The performance of the checklist improved considerably after revision of a pilot version. The Quality Index had high internal consistency (KR-20: 0.89) as did the subscales apart from external validity (KR-20: 0.54). Test-retest (r 0.88) and inter-rater (r 0.75) reliability of the Quality Index were good. Reliability of the subscales varied from good (bias) to poor (external validity). The Quality Index correlated highly with an existing, established instrument for assessing randomised studies (r 0.90). There was little difference between its performance with non-randomised and with randomised studies. Raters took about 20 minutes to assess each paper (range 10 to 45 minutes).
This study has shown that it is feasible to develop a checklist that can be used to assess the methodological quality not only of randomised controlled trials but also non-randomised studies. It has also shown that it is possible to produce a checklist that provides a profile of the paper, alerting reviewers to its particular methodological strengths and weaknesses. Further work is required to improve the checklist and the training of raters in the assessment of external validity.
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