Applications of nanotechnology to combat the problems associated with modern food

Abstract

Currently, modern lifestyle diseases (LSD) such as cancer, diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular and thyroid disease are commonly seen among people of different age groups. One of the root causes of this LSD is the type of food that we are eating. Staple crops like rice, sugarcane, vegetables and wheat are grown with the application of agrochemicals (e.g., glyphosate), traces of which are found in our food; after that, it gets ultra‐processed in factories; e.g., chips and snacks are fried using saturated fats (trans fat); sugar and wheat (derivatives bread, buns, cookies) are processed using toxic chemicals (bleaching agents). As a result, the nutritional value of food is compromised due to low dietary fiber content and synthetic additives – e.g., sucralose (artificial sweetener) – which promotes inflammation and weakens our immune system, causing our body to become sensitive to microbial infection and many other LSDs. To strengthen the immune system, people start taking synthetically prepared supplements and drugs for a prolonged time, which further deteriorates the body organs and their normal function; e.g., prolonged medication for hypothyroidism poses a risk of heart attack and joint pain. Nanotechnology solves the above problems in the food, nutraceuticals and agriculture sectors. Nanotechnology‐based naturally processed products such as nano‐nutraceuticals, nanofood, nanofertilizers and nanopesticides will benefit our health. They possess desirable properties such as high bioavailability, targeted delivery, least processing and sustained release. With the help of nanotechnology, we can get nutritional and agrochemical‐free food. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

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Received: 2 June 2022 Revised: 21 July 2022 Accepted article published: 23 July 2022 Published online in Wiley Online Library:
(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI 10.1002/jsfa.12146
Applications of nanotechnology to combat the
problems associated with modern food
Dravin Pratap Singhaand Gopinath Packirisamya,b
*
Abstract
Currently, modern lifestyle diseases (LSD) such as cancer, diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular and thyroid disease are com-
monly seen among people of different age groups. One of the root causes of this LSD is the type of food that we are eating.
Staple crops like rice, sugarcane, vegetables and wheat are grown with the application of agrochemicals (e.g., glyphosate),
traces of which are found in our food; after that, it gets ultra-processed in factories; e.g., chips and snacks are fried using satu-
rated fats (trans fat); sugar and wheat (derivatives bread, buns, cookies) are processed using toxic chemicals (bleaching agents).
As a result, the nutritional value of food is compromised due to low dietary fiber content and synthetic additives –
e.g., sucralose (artificial sweetener) –which promotes inflammation and weakens our immune system, causing our body to
become sensitive to microbial infection and many other LSDs. To strengthen the immune system, people start taking synthet-
ically prepared supplements and drugs for a prolonged time, which further deteriorates the body organs and their normal func-
tion; e.g., prolonged medication for hypothyroidism poses a risk of heart attack and joint pain. Nanotechnology solves the
above problems in the food, nutraceuticals and agriculture sectors. Nanotechnology-based naturally processed products such
as nano-nutraceuticals, nanofood, nanofertilizers and nanopesticides will benefit our health. They possess desirable properties
such as high bioavailability, targeted delivery, least processing and sustained release. With the help of nanotechnology, we can
get nutritional and agrochemical-free food.
© 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.
Keywords: lifestyle disease; agrochemicals; bioavailability; ultra-processed; nanomaterials
INTRODUCTION
With the start of this decade, the world is going through a critical
phase. First, the pandemic caused a significant loss to the world
economy, and many people lost their lives. Even developed coun-
tries, with all their facilities, could not handle the situation, so we
can imagine the conditions in developing and under-developed
countries. Not only the pandemic, but also many other challenges,
such as a rapidly growing population, scarcity of nutritional food,
unavailability of fertile land,
1
antibiotic resistance, excessive use of
chemicals in agriculture, global warming and lifestyle diseases
(LSDs; diabetes, cancer, thyroid, high blood pressure, etc.)
2
are
major challenges that the human population is facing. Here, we
will discuss the origin of lifestyle diseases due to the excessive
use of agrochemicals in agriculture practices and ultra-processing
of food.
We know that our health directly depends on the food that we
eat. Unfortunately, for a few decades, the quality and standard of
food have not been maintained due to the excessive use of agro-
chemicals in agricultural practices, followed by ultra-processing of
food, leading to the development of many LSDs among different
age groups. Agriculture and its products are valuable gifts of
nature to the world, but the existing culture of growing crops
using agrochemicals (synthetic chemical fertilizers and pesticides)
is a serious threat to the world; recent studies have shown that
hybrids and genetically modified crops have successfully led to
increased production but, unfortunately, their nutritional content
is not beneficial to health as it triggers the development of dis-
eases that are immune to antibiotics.
3
Food directly taken from
the field after cultivation might cause dangerous consequences
if it was grown using agrochemicals, which are known to be a slow
poison that drastically affects the cell signaling system in
humans.
4
The excessive use of these agrochemicals affects our
health and the surrounding environment by polluting water bod-
ies and reducing soil fertility by disturbing flora and fauna, creat-
ing a microbial imbalance that affects our health.
5
Once the crops are harvested, they undergo further ultra-
processing in the factories, which further deteriorates their nutri-
tional content. Here ‘ultra-processing of food’means those foods
that are extremely modified and typically contain saturated or
trans fat, a lot of added salt, sweetener (sugar or artificial sweet-
ener) and chemical additives like dyes, stabilizers, emulsions and
defoaming agents. Ultra-processed
6
food is dense in calories with
poor bioavailability,
7
and these foods are designed to be extra
tasty and profitable for the food manufacturing companies. Cook-
ies, chips, cakes and fast foods all fall into the category of ultra-
processed food, which leads to the development of several LSDs
*Correspondence to: G Packirisamy, Nanobiotechnology Laboratory, Centre for
Nanotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee 247667,
Uttarakhand, India. E-mail: gopi@bt.iitr.ac.in;genegopi@gmail.com
aNanobiotechnology Laboratory, Centre for Nanotechnology, Indian Institute
of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India
bDepartment of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology
Roorkee, Roorkee, India
J Sci Food Agric 2022 www.soci.org © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.
1

such as cancer, diabetes, kidney and liver dysfunction, gallstone
formation, heart diseases, cholesterol and hormonal imbalance.
8
Epidemiological studies authenticate that the global food proces-
sing move may be responsible for the obesity epidemic and
chronic disease problems worldwide; for example, the existing
mechanism proposes that ultra-processed foods might enhance
cancer risk through their obesogenic properties, along with expo-
sure to potentially carcinogenic compounds –for instance, partic-
ular food additives and neoformed processing contaminants.
9
Factory-made or chemically and synthetically processed food
may contain several nutritious vitamins, minerals, proteins, etc.,
but all of these are either non-bioavailable or transformed into
another non-nutritious form that causes severe harmful effects
to the body.
10
To fight against LSDs, people started focusing on
immunity build-up by feeding on synthetic nutraceuticals (con-
suming multivitamins and minerals) and drugs without knowing
their later side effects, probably after 10–15 years. There is a need
now to resolve these problems, as all these problems directly or
indirectly affect our health. Nanotechnology applications have
shown promising ways to resolve all these major health concerns
in the food and agriculture area. In this review paper, we have
deliberated over the health risks associated with ultra-processed
food and synthetic nutraceutical supplements; agrochemicals
and their impacts on health and environment; application of
nanotechnology in food and nutraceuticals and agriculture; and
draw conclusions. The PUBMED database was used to search
the following terms: agrochemicals; ultra-processed food; lifestyle
disease; nanofood; nanofertilizers; nutraceuticals. The main scope
of the review is categorized into three points: (i) introduction to
LSDs; (ii) cause of LSDs; (iii) how to combat LSDs using
nanotechnology.
ULTRA-PROCESSED FOOD AND SYNTHETIC
NUTRACEUTICALS SUPPLEMENT
Most of the multivitamin and mineral supplements consumed in
the form of tablets are synthetically prepared and are not easily
recognized and absorbed by the body; to enhance the potency
of these tablets they are mixed with ‘synthetics,’i.e., derivatives
of coal tar, which is potent carcinogen found in cigarette smoke.
11
The consumption of vitamin C, for example, in the form of ascor-
bic acid tablets, may produce genotoxins which can lead to
cancer,
12
and those athletes that are taking 1000 mg of ascorbic
acid show reduced tolerance towards antioxidant enzymes.
13,14
Similarly, other vitamin and mineral supplements have many side
effects that impact the liver and kidneys.
15
Many packaged foods,
multivitamin supplements and protein supplements are popularly
advertised as promoting good health, and the manufacturers
claim that their products provide immunity, protein, essential
amino acids, calcium, iron, etc., but their side effects go unnoticed;
there are many clinical studies on this topic, but unfortunately,
very few have reached the public domain. Recently, 60% of food
products of a food processing multinational company were found
to be of no nutritional value in their internal study. The well-
known pharma company was recently fined $2.1 billion for selling
asbestos-containing talcum powder, responsible for causing can-
cer. This product was sold in the market for more than two
decades ,and its hazardous effects are now visible. There are many
more examples that have been studied and companies found
guilty after one or two decades. Similarly, many trials have been
done on supplement tablets. It is exciting to note that there is
no scientific evidence that these supplements benefit the patient;
in many cases, they are equivalent to a placebo and nothing
more.
16
The most dangerous thing is that their side effects
become visible only after a period of time.
There is no scientific proof of beneficial effects of supplements
such as vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin E, zinc, iron, etc.
17
In contrast,
all the necessary nutrients, along with the cofactors and enzymes
found in fruits and vegetables, act synergistically and are readily
absorbed and recognized by the body.
18
One such example is Alz-
heimer's disease; it was found that feeding a low-sugar diet along
with natural fruits and vegetables was more effective than taking
these vitamins and minerals in supplement form; a natural diet
prevents the onset of Alzheimer's disease and slows down its pro-
gression, with no side effects.
19
This debate is between ‘synthetic
versus natural food or medicine’. There is much corroboration con-
firming that natural or integrated food acts in a holistic manner.
20
Thus, there is a prerequisite to develop integrated medicine that
contains all the essential things that mimic natural food exactly,
because accessibility to fresh fruits and vegetables is not possible
all the time and is very costly for most of the population. Nano-
technology will play a significant role in this field. To avoid the
harmful effects of synthetic medicine to the population, it should
be replaced by integrated food or integrated medicine. Another
crucial factor affecting the health of people is unhealthy, ultra-
processed, and refined food or unnatural food items, such as
‘refined sugar’and ‘vegetable oil’, which are processed at extreme
temperatures along with several hazardous chemicals and min-
eral oil, but receive the tag of ‘natural source’, which is cheating
on consumers’health. Such problems require an immediate solu-
tion. Consumption of ultra-processed food accelerates the pro-
cess of ageing by shortening the telomeres. Telomeres act as a
cap for chromosomes and minimize the loss of DNA in the course
of cell replication. Elevated intake of sugar, artificial sweetener
(sucralose, fructose) and saturated fat accelerate telomere short-
ening. Consuming ultra-processed food leads to obesity and such
people have reduced production of antioxidants and a greater
synthesis of proinflammatory cytokines.
21
One of the most widely
used compounds in food and drinks is sucralose (artificial sweet-
ener). Sucralose is a synthetic organochlorine sweetener that is
added to most of the world's packaged food and drinks, such as
cakes, buns, pastries, ice creams, cookies, chocolates, candies,
fruit, yoghurts and vegetable soups. All these food products are
ultra-processed and contain artificial sweeteners.
22
A study on
mice shows that intake of sucralose in drinking water made ben-
eficial bacteria pathogenic by increasing biofilm formation along
with the propensity of bacteria to stick, invade and destroy mam-
malian epithelial cells; it also altered the gut microbiota and asso-
ciated metabolites. In that way, this sucralose leads to
inflammation, promoting obesity and diabetes.
23
Trans fat also
falls into the category of ultra-processed food. It is used in making
French fries, chips, fried chicken, doughnuts, snacks, etc. Cooking
at elevated temperatures during frying increases the trans fat con-
tent. Trans fat is formed when hydrogen is added to the vegetable
oil, also known as partially hydrogenated oils. This trans fat is held
responsible for the rise in high cholesterol levels, which increases
the risk of heart and blood vessel disease.
24
A prime example is
‘refined sugar’, an unnatural substance processed using chemicals
such as sulfur dioxide, phosphoric acid, calcium hydroxide and
charcoal, bone ash and denaturation of all the natural substances
by heating at an extreme temperature.
25
These chemicals have
many side effects. Sulfur in sugar causes pneumonia, asthma
and bronchitis by creating airway obstruction. Sugar feeding
results in diabetes and obesity, accelerates ageing and heart
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disease, and interferes with immune function.
26
Sugar acts like a
slow poison that shows its hazardous results at the later stage of
life, although due to carelessness and toxic environment people
now become diseased at a younger age. Another food that is part
of our routine diet is ‘refined wheat flour’(called maida), con-
sumed in the form of biscuits, noodles, bread, naan/chapati, pan-
cakes, pizza, snacks, and momos. etc. All these foods contain a
high amount of ‘refined flour’.
27
The preparation of ‘refined wheat
flour’involves removing the bran and germ layer from the endo-
sperm. The endosperm is then milled into flour and bleached
using any of the following chemicals: benzoyl peroxide, chlorine
dioxide, potassium bromate, azodicarbonamide or calcium perox-
ide.
28
Alloxan, which is a potent chemical responsible for inducing
diabetes mellitus by destroying insulin-producing cells of the
pancreas,
29
is used as a softening agent for ‘refined wheat flour’.
30
Benzoyl peroxide has been used for more than 50 years as a
bleaching agent in wheat, cheese and whey processing; benzoyl
peroxide destroys the nutrient content of food and produces toxic
compounds after reaction with food components,
31
and destroys
vitamin A and vitamin B present in food.
32
Chlorine dioxide
destroys the vitamin A content during bleaching.
33
Potassium
bromate poses a toxic effect on kidneys and thyroid function
and increases cancer risk.
34
Gluten content in flour increases after
the bleaching process, which causes allergy and gluten intoler-
ance problems.
35
All the processed crops have very little or no die-
tary fiber content, such as wheat, rice and polished dal (pulses),
which negatively impact our health.
36
Due to low dietary fiber in
food, the cholesterol level rises, resulting in gallstone formation
[ and heart disease.
37
AGROCHEMICALS AND THEIR IMPACT ON
HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENT
The most crucial factor concerning the origin of expected diseases
is the excessive use of chemicals in agricultural practices. Poor soil
fertility, pests and microbial attack on growing plants and stand-
ing crops create a massive loss to farmers and, ultimately, an eco-
nomic loss to the world.
38
To boost crop production the ‘green
revolution’in 1967 was adopted, but that approach involved
excessive chemical fertilizers and pesticide usage,
39
which have
a long-lasting impact on soil fertility and the environment, and
are ultimately responsible for many LSDs. Drought and floods
are other significant problems that often occur and cause enor-
mous losses to farmers.
40
Agrochemicals have a direct impact
on humans and the environment. Deaths and chronic diseases
due to these pesticides number about 1 million per year world-
wide.
41
Farmers using these pesticides and workers in the indus-
tries exposed to these toxic solvents, raw materials and inert
carriers are at a higher risk. Consumers depending on pesticide-
treated crops are also prone to LSDs.
42
In India, 76% of pesticides
used are insecticides, compared to a global usage of 44%.
43
These
pesticides also eliminate microbes, insects and weeds that are
beneficial to plants.
44
Synthetic fertilizers have similar issues: adding large amounts of
fertilizers to the soil results in soil acidification and infertility, with
poor moisture absorption and water holding capacity. NPK fertil-
izer potentially can destroy the balance of nature in several ways.
When the nitrogen from NPK reaches water, it results in excessive
growth of plankton, and when this decomposes there is a massive
scarcity of oxygen, which poses a severe problem for the survival
of fish and other aquatic animals.
45
Nitrogen also adds to the
greenhouse effect and contributes to global warming.
46
Plants
only absorb 10–20% of total fertilizer added to the soil, while
the remainder is wasted and pollutes the environment.
47
It is then
converted to another compound and remains unavailable to
plants, polluting water bodies and groundwater,
48
which directly
causes harm to the human population and becomes another
source of LSD. Moreover, these fertilizers result in the rapid
growth of plants, resulting in crops having less nutritional value.
49
50–90% of N, P and K are lost from the soil.
50
Nitrogen is lost to the
atmosphere in the form of NH
3
or emissions as N
2
O or NO.
51
Phos-
phorus forms chemical bonds with other nutrients present in the
soil and becomes unavailable to plants.
52
Studies show that
chemical fertilizers inhibit the absorption of other micronutrients
in plants and crops deficient in zinc, iron, calcium etc.,
53
causing
severe diseases in humans such as methemoglobinemia, endo-
crine and nervous disorders and cancer.
54,55
Organophosphates and carbamates are widely used chemical
pesticides. Organophosphates include a wide range of chemicals,
e.g. malathion, parathion, glyphosate and tribufos. Carbamates
include aldicarb, carbaryl and oxamyl, etc. These pesticides have
drastic effects on health, and the environment.
56
Increased risks
of dementia and Parkinson's disease is associated with organo-
phosphate and carbamate poisoning;
57,58
these pesticides also
inhibit cholinesterase activity in mammals, triggering acute mus-
carinic manifestation.
59
Before sowing the crop, the use of glyph-
osate as a herbicide is a common practice by farmers, but the
mechanism by which glyphosate kills unwanted green plants is
by blocking the shikimate pathway, which is a biosynthetic path-
way used by plants, bacteria, fungi, algae for the biosynthesis of
aromatic amino acids.
60
Blocking the shikimate pathway results
in the death of all the microbes and beneficial plants, fungi and
algae.
61
Animals, including humans, cannot digest their food
completely without relying on microbes, but the gut microbiota
cannot tolerate glyphosate.
62
Human gut microbiota plays an
indispensable role in the development of the immune system,
63
promoting intestinal angiogenesis,
64,65
synthesis of vitamins
(K and B6),
66,67
fermentation of dietary fibers to produce short-
chain fatty acids,
68
fat storage
69
and modulation of the central
nervous system.
70
Thus, the presence of glyphosate in our food
and its use in agriculture have severe effects, which lead to the
development of many new diseases that were not so prominent
in the last 50 years, such as autoimmune diseases,
71
birth defects
in humans (e.g. spina bifida) and in cattle (e.g. short lower
jaw),
72,73
cancer, heart disease, high cholesterol, diabetes and thy-
roid disease.
74,75
There are different routes of agrochemical exposure in humans,
such as via food intake, inhalation and skin absorption, causing an
imbalance in antioxidant and oxidant enzymes, which leads to the
development of disease through oxidative stress. Similarly, stud-
ies have shown that obesity and agrochemical exposure are inter-
connected. Different mechanisms are available to explain the
effect of agrochemical exposure on obesity; for example, dichlor-
odiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) accumulates in the adipose tis-
sue, promoting abdominal obesity, risk of diabetes, and
imbalance of lipids such as cholesterol and triglyceride levels. In
addition, agrochemicals often bind to cell receptors to mimic
endocrine hormones, and they also alter hormone or cell signal-
ing; they interact with different receptors and protein molecules
such as nuclear receptors, estrogen receptors, androgen recep-
tors, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors, thyroid recep-
tors, steroid hormones, peptide hormones and histone
modification. In vitro reporter gene assays illustrate that 21 differ-
ent pesticides (e.g. mancozeb, atrazine) interact with the active
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isoforms of thyroid receptors (TR⊍1, TR⊎1, TR⊎2 and TR⊎3), which
exhibit agonist activity;
76
other pesticides, such as DDT and
methoxychlor, interrupt neurodevelopment and the thyroid sig-
naling process. Furthermore, agrochemical exposure affects the
process of steroidogenesis that takes place in the testis, ovary
and adrenal gland; for example, endosulfan (potential endocrine
disruptor and toxic insecticide) is known to decrease steroido-
genic enzyme and testosterone levels, resulting in reduced
weight of testis, sperm motility, viability and restrained spermato-
genesis.
77
These agrochemicals not only affect the normal physi-
ological functions of humans and animals but also disturb the
normal physiological activity and functioning of plants at the cel-
lular level, especially by reducing photosynthesis activity, retard-
ing growth and lowering crop yield. The possible mechanism
behind the reduced photosynthesis is suppression of electron
flow, inhibition of photophosphorylation, lipid solubilization,
change in conformation, or mechanical repercussions reported
in plants such as lettuce, alfalfa, citrus and maize.
78
Nowadays, most countries across the globe are shifting to
organic and natural farming. Most developed countries ban the
use of agrochemicals. The main objective of organic farming is
to employ biologically created pest controls and fertilizers
(manure and vermicompost) synthesized mainly from plant and
animal wastes. Currently, 162 countries practice organic farming
on 37 million hectares of land. An French Food Safety agency
(AFFSA) study showed that organically grown leafy vegetables
and tubers have more significant dry matter than food grown
with the use of agrochemicals.
79
While ‘natural farming’or ‘zero
budget farming’is very different from organic farming, natural
farming does not require ploughing, tilling, weeding or external
fertilizers, i.e. neither organic nor chemical fertilizers. In natural
farming, decomposition of organic matter (desi cow dung) by
microbes and earthworms is favored, which adds nutrition to
the surface of the soil itself. Organic farming is very expensive as
it requires organic fertilizers and manure in bulk; in addition,
ploughing, weeding and tilling are also required.
80
Green synthe-
sis or biological synthesis of nanomaterials achieves the require-
ment of organic farming. Extracts of plant parts such as leaves,
stems, roots, flowers and fruits, along with the microbes, could
be used as the core material for the synthesis of nanofertilizers
or nanopesticides. For example, zinc and copper nanofertilizers
have been synthesized by using basil plant extract, which is found
to be effective in the basil plant itself. Similarly, silver nanopesti-
cides were synthesized using Passiflora foetida or leaf aqueous
extract of Manilkara zapota, which was found to be effective on
Musca domestica.
81
NANOTECHNOLOGY APPLICATION IN FOOD
AND NUTRACEUTICALS AND AGRICULTURE
INDUSTRY
Health is a prime concern throughout the world. Nanotechnology
offers tremendous opportunities in food
82
and nutraceuticals pro-
cessing
83
and in agriculture
84
that can overcome the current
problems and have the potential to provide a stable and perma-
nent solution to these problems that are the root cause of
LSDs.
85,86
Preparation of integrated medicine
87
and less pro-
cessed food using nanotechnology from natural sources could
be easily recognized and absorbed by the body.
88
Consuming
food in a holistic form increases the bioavailability and helps
recovery from diseases without causing side effects.
89
Nanotechnology provides the stage to develop eco-friendly fer-
tilizers and pesticides from natural sources.
90
Nanofertilizer is one
made up of nanoparticle formulations to increase crop productiv-
ity. Nanofertilizers improve the nutritional quality of plants com-
pared to traditional fertilizers.
91
Nanofertilizers comprised three
classes: nanoscale fertilizers, nanoscale additives and nanoscale
coating fertilizers.
92
Nanoscale fertilizers are composed of nano-
particles that carry nutrients. Nanoscale additive fertilizers are
conventional fertilizers with nanoscale additives, and nanoscale
coating fertilizers are traditional fertilizers coated or loaded with
nanoparticles.
93
The required nutrients can either be coated with
a nanofilm or nanoemulsions or encapsulated using a nanopor-
ous material such as nanofiber (synthesized by a biopolymer);
similarly, specific species of microorganism (e.g., bacteria, fungi)
can also be encapsulated to decompose the organic matter into
a more straightforward form that can be readily bioavailable to
plants, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, sul-
fur and calcium.
94
Nanoparticles are also categorized on the basis
of their mode of action: controlled release fertilizers; control loss
fertilizers; quick-release fertilizers, pH release fertilizers, moisture
release fertilizers and nanocomposite fertilizers.
93,95
The con-
trolled release of nanofertilizers allows them to sustain in the soil
for a long time and prevents the frequent reapplication of fertil-
izers to plants; in that way, time and money can be saved; simi-
larly, control loss fertilizers overcome the loss of nutrients from
the agriculture field due to leaching, depending upon the require-
ment of the rate of fertilizer intake and pH conditions by plant
quick-release fertilizers; pH release fertilizers can be designed
using the nanotechnological approach; hygroscopic nanomater-
ial can be designed to make moisture release fertilizers that can
release the nutrients by sensing the humidity level present in a
particular geographical area; nanocomposite fertilizers use a
nanodevice that can deliver the macro- and micronutrient to the
soil in the desired amount.
95,96
Figure 1shows the various applica-
tions of nanotechnology from an agricultural perspective.
Nanopesticides such as Ag, Cu, ZnO and SiO
2
, along with bio-
polymers (e.g., cellulose, chitin, starch, gum), can give better
results if appropriately formulated along with the natural com-
pounds (e.g., phytochemicals and secondary metabolites) in com-
parison to agrochemicals that are toxic to human health as well as
to the environment.
97
50–70% of conventional pesticides are lost
in the form of leaching, mineralization and biotransformation.
Chemical pesticides disrupt the ecological balance by eutrophica-
tion and run-off; currently, the best remedy available to overcome
the drawbacks is nanoformulation of pesticides using nanotech-
nology, which will be beneficial to the ecosystem and human
health.
98
Various nanomaterials (such as carbon nanotubes and
metal oxides) are used with conventional pesticides and fertilizers
in making nanopesticides and nanofertilizers.
99
Sustained or con-
trolled release of pesticides over a prolonged period prevents the
run-off or excess release of pesticides; targeted delivery of pesti-
cides and incorporation of active compounds are advantageous
in plant defence.
100
All these nanoformulations show a good seed
germination rate, proper growth of plants and resistance to pests.
The position of nanotechnology in the food processing and
nutraceuticals industry is rising rapidly day by day. Nanotechnol-
ogy finds several applications in the food industry, such as food
packaging and processing as novel tools for detecting pathogens,
targeted delivery of bioactive compounds, and encapsulation of
minerals and vitamins.
101
There are four types of biodelivery sys-
tems for food: protein-based, carbohydrate-based, lipid-based
and hybrid systems. Usually, the amphiphilic delivery system is
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Figure 1. The multiple application of nanotechnology in agriculture: reviving soil health and enhance crop production using nanofertilizers; utilization of
nanopesticides for crop defense; nanomaterials for developing resistance in plants against flood and drought; nanosensors and computerized regulated
precise farming (reproduced from Shang et al.
93
with permission of the MDPI).
Figure 2. Schematic representation of nanoformulation of bioactive compounds prepared from natural source (reproduced from Nile et al.
117
with per-
mission from Springer Link).
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ideal for processing and delivering food, and such a delivery struc-
ture should be made up entirely of food-grade material. It should
be economically feasible and stable over a range of pH, tempera-
ture and light sensitivity.
102
Self-assembly-based micelle forma-
tion for nutraceutical formulations, nanoemulsions, biopolymeric
nanoparticles, nanofibers, nanogels, etc. can be used as a delivery
or encapsulation vehicle to carry functional or integrated food
that can work as a nutraceutical.
103
Figure 2is a schematic dia-
gram of bioactive component-loaded nanoemulsions sourced
from a vegetative crop; for example, vitamin D is a fat-soluble
compound, and its nanoformulation using micellar or liposome-
based structure can enhance its bioavailability.
104
Similarly, other
vitamins, antioxidants, coenzyme Q
10
and phytochemicals can be
encapsulated into nano-capsules to improve their bioavailabil-
ity.
105
There are several edible polymers available that can be
used for the nanoencapsulation purposes as the main compo-
nent, but polymer extraction from a natural source with minor
chemical processing should be preferred. Of all the available poly-
mers, cellulose is the most abundant polymer found in nature,
with zero side effects. It is significantly less reactive and readily bio-
degradable and has proven to be very cost-effective due to its easy
availability.
106,107
It is strictly recommended to have 25–38 g of fiber
per day from food and not from supplements. Food fortification is
essentially required for underdeveloped and developing countries;
deficiency of essential vitamins and minerals in food
(e.g., vitamin A, vitamin B complex, vitamin D, Fe, Zn, Ca, etc.) leads
to many diseases in children, pregnant women, older people and
birth defects in newborns.
108,109
Conventional nutritional supple-
ments have poor bioavailability and also have side effects. Plants
are a rich source of phytochemicals, nutraceuticals and secondary
metabolites, and possess the therapeutic property to fight against
chronic diseases.
110
For example, nano-encapsulation of vitamins
protects them against environmental conditions such as light and
temperature, and prevents them from losing their biologically active
compounds; in addition, nano-encapsulation enhances bioavailabil-
ity, shelf-life and controlled release; for example, lemon juice was
encapsulated in whey protein concentrate–pectin complex coacer-
vate, and then lyophilized to obtain solid nanocapsules.
111
Spray dry-
ing is another way to make the juice extract into solid or semi-solid
particles or nanoparticles. In spray drying, the liquid is atomized in
a hot gas current to obtain a dried powder; for example, Prunus nepa-
lensis juice (enzymatically extracted) was used for the synthesis of the
probiotic product by fermenting it with Lactobacillus plantarum.
112
Algal nanotechnology is another emerging branch and, according
to experts, it is considered a future food.
113
Refined sugar is ultra-
processed using hazardous chemicals, which makes it very
unhealthy. Nanotechnology-based sugar processing using nano
(e.g., CaO) and vegetative clarificants (e.g., okra, flax seeds, aloe vera)
are considered as a probable clarifier for making jaggery and raw
sugar.
114
Like sugar, there are many other ultra-processed foods that
are unhealthy and low in dietary fiber and responsible for several
health issues; in the future, nanotechnology will play a huge role in
resolving the major food issues.
DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY
There are plenty of challenges or threats in food and agriculture.
Broadly, these types of threats can be categorized into four main
areas: agrochemical, adulteration, ultra-processed (food) and non-
bioavailability threats. The consumption of ultra-processed, low-
dietary fiber and pesticide-containing food has been making the
world sick with common lifestyle diseases (e.g., diabetes,
hypertension, thyroid hormone imbalance, microbial imbalance,
autoimmune disease, cancer, high cholesterol, heart diseases,
constipation) over the past three decades and increasing the
dependence on medicines and synthetic food supplements. How-
ever, taking medication for a lifetime or a prolonged period is not
a solution and has many severe long-term effects on our kidneys,
liver, heart and gut. Keeping all these threats or challenges in
mind, some significant steps are required to address these issues
and find solutions to the challenges discussed above. We believe
that in the coming years these issues are going to become para-
mount, and nanotechnology –the emerging field in the food
and agriculture sector –will have a broad impact on society.
115
It is anticipated that the international market of nanotechnology
in food and agriculture will surpass the US $ 256 billion in 2030.
116
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
DPS is thankful to the Ministry of Education (MoE), Government of
India, for the fellowship.
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