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Citation: Silveira, P.; Morais, R.;
Petrella, S. A Communication Study
of Young Adults and Online
Dependency during the COVID-19
Pandemic. Societies 2022,12, 109.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
soc12040109
Academic Editors: Claudiu Coman
and Maria Cristina Bularca
Received: 10 June 2022
Accepted: 13 July 2022
Published: 19 July 2022
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societies
Article
A Communication Study of Young Adults and Online
Dependency during the COVID-19 Pandemic
Patrícia Silveira 1,2 , Ricardo Morais 1, 3, * and Simone Petrella 2,4,5
1
Faculty of Design Technology and Communication (IADE), Universidade Europeia, 1600-604 Lisboa, Portugal;
patricia.silveira@universidadeeuropeia.pt
2
Communication and Society Research Center, University of Minho, 4710-457 Braga, Portugal; spetrella@ucp.pt
3LabCom—Communication and Arts, University of Beira Interior, 6201-001 Covilhã, Portugal
4Faculty of Philosophy and Social Science, Catholic University, 4710-297 Braga, Portugal
5Centre for Philosophical and Humanistic Studies, Catholic University, 4710-297 Braga, Portugal
*Correspondence: ricardo.morais@labcom.ubi.pt
Abstract:
People use digital media and the Internet daily. The time that young people spend
connected to digital devices will increase as technology advances, which could have severe health
risks and behavioral dependence implications. In the context of the current pandemic, in which
socializing, studying, and working is changing, this question has become particularly relevant.
Therefore, we propose to investigate the perceptions of young university adults—understood as
generation Z—regarding their digital media practices, particularly during the pandemic, and to study
the consequences of a permanent connection to these formats on the development of an addiction to
the Internet. Our quantitative method approach applied questionnaires to a sample of 407 young
university adults studying in Portugal. Through this survey, we could target a specific user group,
quantify their consumption, and measure their online experiences. The results point to an increase
in dependence on the Internet during confinement. While it is true that carrying out academic
work is one of the reasons for this growth, it is noteworthy that the respondents sought the online
world in a significan way to pass the time and escape their routine. In addition, they confess to
experiencing some consequences of excessive use, such as sleep disturbances and adverse emotional
reactions—such as instabilities, depression, and nervousness—when not online. We conclude that the
pandemic has intensified online dependence. However, above all that, it is necessary to look at the
mental and general health consequences that this excessive use has brought, which may not be visible
or manifested by the youth in the short term, and may come to have consequences in the long term.
Keywords: generation Z; online dependency; pandemic; Portugal
1. Introduction
Recent studies have shown that Generation Z, born between 1995 and 2010, during
the emergence of the Internet and new technologies, experience their daily lives whilst
permanently connected to online platforms and their contents [
1
]. The day-to-day of these
young adults is underscored by the presence of the new media, which has implications for
their personal, social, and professional lives. For developed societies, access to the Internet
and digital platforms is widespread. For example, over 3.7 million individuals have Internet
access in Portugal, according to PORDATA [
2
]. There is an upward trend based on the
growth witnessed since 1997, when there were only 88,670 people with Internet access.
Commenting on the Portuguese case, Simões et al. [
3
] stated that access to the new media
has increased significantly in recent years, particularly at home, where the media online
practices mainly concern leisure (social media, videogames, and music). These findings
can carry over to other European countries such as Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Ireland,
Italy, Spain, and Romania [4].
Societies 2022,12, 109. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc12040109 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/societies
Societies 2022,12, 109 2 of 24
Young adults are immersed in this digital and technological ecosystem, actively con-
suming these platforms—this carries ramifications in terms of behavior reformulation both
at a personal and social level. In a study [
5
] describing online activity metrics among 1824
Portuguese children and youths in order to assess their digital media practices and online
consumption, the authors concluded that the everyday lives of these users are characterized
by intensive online engagement. Furthermore, the study also stated that juvenile culture is
built around digital platforms. The authors also ascertained that almost 90% of youths go
online daily, mainly through laptops or mobile phones. In the collective context of social-
ization, mediated through the online world, these practices emerge mostly as recreational
(listening to music online, watching videos online, or engaging in social media). Internet
usage as a means to academic ends is not prominent.
Understanding these matters regarding children and youths is a consistent goal within
national and international academia [
3
,
4
,
6
–
9
]. However, there is a need to delve deeper
into the online practices of young people who are now coming into adulthood, and their
ramifications in their personal, social, political, academic, and professional contexts. Within
the scope of this issue, we consider that it would be exciting to research further the pos-
sibility of the excessive consumption of the Internet [
1
] as a cause of risk for the users’
health. The use of technology may have its advantages, at the cognitive and motor levels,
for example, and as a learning aid [
10
]. However, technological advances and the ease of
access to these platforms in developed countries tend to significantly increase the time that
young people are connected to these devices, which in turn may have profound health
implications regarding behavioral dependency [
11
]. Gómez-Galán et al. [
12
] state that
University students are heavy Internet users. In certain situations, addiction to online social
networks can result from depression, harassment, and anxiety, affecting their daily lives,
including their academic responsibilities.
This subject is more relevant in light of the historical moment we live in, provoked
by the pandemic, which forced people into isolation. This new lifestyle increased the use
of media to engage with family and peers, and also caused new work dynamics and the
redefinition of time, space, and the dynamic of media consumption in our hyper-connected
homes [13–17].
This research concerns the perceptions of young adults who are university students,
understood as belonging to generation Z, regarding their digital media practices in a pan-
demic context. Furthermore, the study approaches the consequences of the permanent
connection to these new formats, such as the risk of developing behavioral dependence
expressed through risk factors such as mood swings, intolerance, irritability and depression,
sleep disorders, loss of concentration, emotional fragility, and social isolation, among others.
Contextualizing the approach within Communication Studies, this study is based on strik-
ing a balance between the premises of Mass Communication Research. More particularly,
we examine the possibility that access to media and technology carries health risks as well
as those of sociocultural theories, shifting the attention from technology to audiences, and
emphasizing personal and contextual circumstances as determinant elements for the uses
and the understanding of these, and the potentially negative consequences thereof.
On the other hand, although several studies have already been carried out on the
negative impacts of social media use [
18
,
19
], other studies also highlight the importance
of more academic inquiries into social media use [
20
–
22
]. The new studies are necessary
because the “COVID-19 crisis is still actual and novel (...) publications on online addictive
behaviors are unbalanced and limited, depending on countries, and some conclusions are
speculative” [23] (p. 16).
Finally, these issues have significant implications from the point of view of digital
literacy, calling for the implementation of measures to develop skills that allow young
people to get the most out of technology and learn to manage their relationship with digital
tools more positively, reversing or preventing possible health consequences. In this context,
and highlighted by the potential adverse effects of the new pandemic, active intervention
is requested from the primary mediating contexts: the family, formal learning spaces, and
Societies 2022,12, 109 3 of 24
public health institutions and professionals working in psychology. This mediation can
hopefully be expressed through permanent monitoring and constructive and evaluative
awareness regarding the less-good adjuvant side of using the new media.
2. Generation Z: The Mundane, Technology, and Sociability
Generation Z includes all individuals born between 1995 and 2010, in the age of the
Internet and technology. The generation of digital natives was coined by Marc Prensky in
2001 in the On the Horizon journal. This generation is also known for its strong sense of
ethics and social responsibility, passion for travelling and discovering the world, online
social relationships, and difficulties in taking on work commitments and rules that limit
time and space. However, this group also faces work-related setbacks, as a product of the
transformations at the sociopolitical, geographical, and economic levels which are relevant
to organizations, respective operational models and employability policies. These issues
are reshaping their way of life, living the present, and planning the future. The Portuguese
National Institute of Statistics published a report titled “Young people in the labor market”
(“Jovens no mercado de trabalho” in Portuguese), in which it identified problems associated
with the experience of young people (aged 15 to 34 years) in terms of education and
employment. This analysis shows that qualification levels have gradually risen, i.e., the
number of young people pursuing higher education has increased. However, even if the
unemployment levels for this group have fallen, many still struggle to obtain their first job
and ensure job stability. The latter is a very worrying and prominent issue in the public
and political debate, where there is a clamoring for measures to help reduce uncertainty
and job insecurity. For this reason, we see, on the one hand, an increase in the number of
qualified young people choosing to leave their country of origin. On the other hand, we
see the possibility that those who stay will suffer repercussions in terms of physical and
mental health, with consequences for the family and social relationships, as has been noted
by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the European Agency for Safety and Health
at Work (OSHA).
In terms of access to and involvement with media and technology, young people
naturally see these platforms in their daily lives. They are used to having access to a world
of information like no other generation did, and are also qualified to help future generations
to use technologies while, at the same time, qualifying to be employed in organizations
with a solid commitment to this sector. “Transformed” by media and technology, this
generation, according to Prensky [
24
], has unique characteristics and digital literacy skills
acquired by the permanent use of platforms. However, from another perspective, which
we agree with, some authors are suspicious of the mechanistic approach characterizing
Prensky’s vision, and consider that the skills for the use of technology are not innately
acquired. Furthermore, these authors also consider that it is not enough to have grown up
with these platforms to develop digital skills.
Despite this apparent lack of consensus in the literature, it is undeniable that media
and technology increasingly occupy a place as agents of socialization from an early age, re-
configuring sociability and contributing, in their way, to the apprehension and assimilation
of aspects of the world. Although the concept of socialization is ambivalent and subject to
multiple debates [
25
], it is undeniable that it is a process of constructing the individual in
themselves and the world through appropriation, reinvention, and reproduction. Several
actors and contexts intervene. Moreover, in this context, from an early age, the media are
privileged elements in this journey. Studies have shown that the process of mediatization
marks the daily life of the new generations in such a way that an analysis of their worlds
that does not take into consideration the media in its most varied formats is insufficient
to understand how these generations appropriate reality and construct their visions of
themselves and the world. Therefore, the media function as knowledge networks of re-
ality [
26
], and as permanent references in growth, personal and social development, and
learning [27].
Societies 2022,12, 109 4 of 24
Inês Amaral [
28
] recalls that new technologies undeniably influence individuals’
and societies’ lives. They are networks with direct implications for the construction of
representations about the world and how we relate to it and others. The author advocates
that the development of the technological and digital world promotes the emergence of
new forms of culture, new social relationships, communities in virtual environments, and
new behaviors:
There is an online social revolution underway regarding the use and appropria-
tion of technology. People change their behaviors: they work, live, and think in
networks. (...) The social Internet is understood as all the interactive devices that
allow communication and interaction in a collective model and explore multiple
innovations that induce social and communicational change through technology.
(...) The Internet introduced and has been maximizing the communicational
paradigm of individualization. [28] (pp. 19–20)
In this sense, younger generations know and maximize experiences in virtual con-
texts, and are precursors of new social, geographical, economic, cultural, and educational
frameworks. They express new ways of being, learning, working, consuming, relating, and
living, feeding new paradigms and academic debates that seek to effectively understand
what these new groups are and how they know the world and place themselves in it.
Thus, we are talking about a group with particular characteristics that simultaneously
drive transformations in distinct generational groups and, in general, society. When we
look at the evolutionary path of media and technology, we see that television has been
a significant milestone in the transformation of children and teenagers’ socialization by
allowing contact with contents and realities that, until then, were not part of the children’s
world. Therefore, this medium is a mediating element of diverse and distinct facts that
children and youngsters did not know, and a reference in the process of self-understanding.
Although television continues to be an integrated medium in children’s daily lives, it
is still very present in the domestic space and offers content that these audiences appreciate.
The growth in access to and use of the Internet by children and young people is also
remarkable. In this regard, the EU Kids Online project, which involved several international
partners, sought to understand better these practices related to the Internet and the digital
world of children and young people. The project was developed to inform the European
Commission and create policies aimed at safer Internet use by children and young people.
Furthermore, the project showed that the Internet is integrated into these users’ lives,
providing various services (such as doing homework, watching video clips, and sending
instant messages, among others). From research conducted between 2006 and 2015, in
which researchers from 25 European countries (including Portugal) were involved in
collecting empirical data on the use that children and young people (9–16 years old) make
of the Internet [
29
], the national results show that these users access this platform very
often, and increasingly early.
Moreover, they are the ones accessing the Internet from their laptop computer the
most. The national policies implemented between 2008 and 2011 in Portugal are seen as the
leading cause. Moreover, the democratization of early Internet access may have contributed
to the fact that the first use of the network by children up to 10 years old is, on average,
among the highest in the European context [30].
However, we emphasize that the evidence on children’s early access to computers
and the Internet does not necessarily imply that the practices are homogeneous, or that
these users have equal skills in working with these tools. For this reason, we believe that
research must incorporate a set of personal and sociodemographic variables that may have
implications for access practices and online consumption.
3. The Internet and Digital Platforms in Young People’s Lives
Within the field of Communication Sciences, in research developed in recent years
on the relationship between young people and the Internet and digital platforms, there
are different ways of approaching the subject. On the one hand, there are the studies
Societies 2022,12, 109 5 of 24
closer to a mediacentric approach that emphasizes the Internet and—on the media and
digital platforms—delegating to a secondary place the users’ agency and their life contexts
as if these had little or no connection with the uses and meanings that are drawn from
the experience with the media [
24
]. On the other hand, socio-centric research focuses on
understanding the nature of interactions by considering a set of variables besides per-
sonal, social, and cultural circumstances [
30
–
34
]. From this perspective—and in particular,
regarding Internet access and use of this tool—studies show that although access and
use are widespread among younger people, the same cannot be said about the modes of
service and experiences, as they are affected by a set of variables and circumstances, from
the social origin and family morphology to the gender and age of users [
2
]. The authors
assume that users’ needs, preferences, acquired values and customs are also fundamental
to this involvement.
In recent decades, there have been a growing number of studies on access to the
Internet and social media and the nature of the uses of these tools [
30
,
35
–
38
]. The Pew
Research Center, a research and information center on behaviors, attitudes, and trends in
the life of American society and the world, periodically provides data on media use. In
a report published on 1 March 2018 [
39
], on the uses of the Internet and social media by
American young adults (18–24 years old), Snapchat, Instagram, and Twitter were pointed
out as the most popular platforms for this group, being accessed daily, and at various times,
mainly through mobile devices. Of these, 51% admit they would have difficulty giving up
these platforms, which decreases as the users’ age increases, indicating a predisposition for
less dependence. In another report from April 30 of the same year [
40
], with the same age
group, on the impact of the Internet and social media on society, the users provided positive
feedback regarding the presence of these platforms in their lives and the general context
of society. Of these, there is a tendency for those with higher education qualifications to
consider that the Internet impacts society positively. The reasons are mainly the ease and
speed of access to information and the possibility of connecting with family and friends
through digital platforms.
Overall, the younger generations have more Internet access than previous generations.
Of those, young adults with qualifications are more likely to access the Web and to prefer
digital platforms as part of their daily lives compared to those with lower qualification
levels [
41
,
42
]. These generational differences also stand out regarding the types of use and
preferences regarding digital media, with young adults favoring social media platforms.
Although the use of the network is part of the daily life of young people, particularly
in developed societies, it should be noted that this can translate into a set of practices with
implications for socialization and cultures. This also results in negative consequences for
the lives of these users when used in excess and in an unaware manner. Amaral et al. [
28
]
(p. 128) speak of an “umbilical relationship between digital consumption and socially
structuring practices for the formation of a youth culture”.
In recent decades, there has been a growing number of studies that have pointed
to the potential damage caused by Internet addiction [
12
,
15
,
17
,
43
–
48
], alerting us to the
importance of studying and preventing the consequences that can arise from excessive and
addictive Internet use. Such studies have defined addiction from a behavioral point of view,
based on man–machine interaction, passive or active, that can be considered excessive [
49
].
Such behavior interferes with daily life, bringing consequences to health such as sleep
problems, increased levels of anxiety, stress, depression, and low self-esteem—these end
up affecting family, social, and professional relationships [
50
,
51
]. In this regard, empirical
studies on Internet addiction highlight the impact of these factors on the performance
of essential functions in school and work settings, leading to a significant reduction in
academic and professional success rates [
52
]. Although there is consensus around the
associated risks of compulsive online behavior, Internet addiction is not unanimously
recognized within academia [
53
]. Controversies still exist regarding the factors at the
genesis of the addiction, the elements that compose it, and its path [54].
Societies 2022,12, 109 6 of 24
Likewise, Internet addiction presents different typologies, sub-typologies and nuances,
making it difficult to standardize the research [
55
]. At the national level, research on
the subject is still poorly developed compared to the international panorama, focusing
mainly on social media and online videogames [
2
,
56
]. However, studies have shown
that—despite affecting a small percentage of individuals—Internet addiction is a reality
that, in Portugal, mainly affects teenagers and young adults in school and university, thus
requiring intervention and the prevention of addictive behaviors in these contexts [43,57].
In this sense, the pandemic context in which we live carries increased risks for young
people who have seen their freedom and sociability become limited to their homes and
dependent on the online world. Several studies at the international level have crossed
the field of psychology and communication to analyze possible changes in media use
during the pandemic, focusing on the potential consequences of excess or a lack of qual-
ity
[12,14,15,17,45,57,58]
. Although these were sometimes preliminary studies of an ongo-
ing phenomenon, they allow us to identify risk factors and issues that require attention and
long-term investigation by the academic community and public health authorities. Faced
with the dissemination of the new coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, the containment measures
taken by world authorities involved physical isolation, distancing, quarantine, and remote
work. Such efforts, prolonged in time and sometimes with no end in sight, led several
international organizations to warn of the potential negative impacts on physical and
mental health, with the risk of exacerbating already existing issues [
59
,
60
]. Indeed, recent
studies state that extended confinement at home endorses reduced levels of physical activ-
ity, exposure to daylight, and social contact, in turn provoking increased levels of stress,
feelings of uncertainty and control, and an inability to engage in rewarding leisure activi-
ties [
61
–
63
]. At the same time, it favors greater media consumption, namely of social media,
platforms that allow the mitigation of the effects of isolation, whether for informational
and recreational purposes or to cope with feelings of loneliness and anxiety [14,64].
It is also important to note that, during the pandemic, we watched the attempt to
transition to distance learning all over the globe. However, in many countries, teachers,
students and universities were not prepared for such developments from technological and
pedagogical perspectives [
65
]. In fact, until 2019, in general, distance learning took place
only in specific situations and with different audiences [66].
An ever-increasing number of studies argued that teaching and learning in an online
environment are very similar to education and learning in traditional classes [
67
–
69
]. They
claim that online classes can be as effective as face-to-face classes, but only if they are well
designed, implying technical, administrative, and pedagogical competencies. Besides this,
as stated by distance education specialist Marguerite Koole, today, we know that many
aspects must be considered in the transition from face-to-face to online learning, such as
differences in space, social presence, self-presentation through technologies, and interaction
patterns [
70
]. In addition, we must consider that some characteristics of distance learning
may increase feelings of frustration and stress, such as limited internet access, the lack of
face-to-face interactions, and motivation [
66
]. Since the COVID-19 pandemic reconfigured
physical and social interaction, “(
. . .
) students may feel invisible, excluded, even when
participating via online technologies, and the designs of learning activities must take this
into consideration, especially during social distancing, when isolation affects all students,
regardless of age” [65] (p. 456).
An international quantitative study that aimed to evaluate internet addiction during
the pandemic [
45
] carried on with 2749 university students from seven countries (The Do-
minican Republic, Egypt, Guyana, India, Mexico, Pakistan and Sudan) found a direct
relationship between the pandemic and internet addiction, with a significant manifestation
in sleeping disorders. Moreover, the same study found that the university sector, smoking
history, and health status were significant predictors of Internet addiction. It should also be
noted that male participants scored higher on Internet addiction when compared to adults
and female participants. Participants with a smoking history and self-reported poor health
scored higher on Internet addiction.
Societies 2022,12, 109 7 of 24
Another piece of research carried out with students attending university education in
Spain by Gómez-Galán et al. [
12
] showed a high consumption of social networks during
the pandemic, with significant incidences of addiction. The study used a descriptive
and quantitative methodology to understand the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on
excessive Internet use. The results show numerous interconnected variables in the analysis
of social network addiction. The fact that addiction to any of the factors on the applied
subscale influences the rest of the elements is noteworthy. However, “Lack of personal
control in social networks” and “Excessive use of social networks” are the most relevant
data. Furthermore, it has been shown that there is a link between different addictions, with
the diagnostic criteria being the same for both substance addiction and addiction without
substances. Concerning the excessive use of social networks, the type of knowledge and
age are the leading causes.
Thus, if a pandemic involves emotional and social problems through a reshaping
of routines and relational dynamics, teenagers and young adults—who are the most
dependent on social contact with peers—may find themselves in a position of greater risk
to physical and mental health. In this context, and given the scarcity of studies at a national
level, researching the media uses and practices of Portuguese youth in a pandemic context
is an urgent matter [71].
4. Methods
4.1. Research Questions and Aims
Based on the issues previously mentioned, this study seeks to understand and analyze,
from the perspective of young adults attending college in Portugal, the nature of interactions
with the media, particularly the Internet, during the pandemic period. The specific aims
are as follows:
1.
To know the practices of the access to and use of media by young university students.
2. To identify and analyze the online practices of college students.
3.
To understand and analyze how Internet-related practices interfere with the daily lives
of young college students, particularly regarding the implication in their academic,
family, and social contexts.
4.
To understand whether and how online access habits and practices affect young
college students’ online dependence and lifestyles.
The text continues here.
4.2. Methodological Process
This study, which focused on the interactions between young university adults and
the Internet, was derived from an investigation during the pandemic, and took into account
studies that sought to assess Gen Z’s social media consumption and wellbeing during the
COVID-19 pandemic [
72
]. We conducted our quantitative study among 407 young adults
attending the European University, Lisbon, and the University of Beira Interior, Covilhã.
Both institutions are located in Portugal, with the former being a private higher education
college and the latter being a public institution.
Data collection occurred during the 2020/2021 academic year, specifically between
November 2020 and February 2021. During this period, because of the COVID-19 pandemic,
the Portuguese government decreed long periods of lockdown, resulting in people being
forced to stay inside their homes. Therefore, the attendance of teaching activities took
place primarily online, through the Blackboard tool. In this context, the questionnaire was
the data collection method for the empirical work. The survey was administered online
via Google Forms, targeting a non-probabilistic sample of young adults. Its use makes
it possible to obtain answers about “the when, where, who, how, and why of numerous
phenomena” [
73
] (p. 170), as well as being useful in analyzing a social phenomenon and
getting to know a population regarding ways of life, behaviors, values, and opinions. Its
use is efficient and recommended in order to understand certain aspects of social reality
Societies 2022,12, 109 8 of 24
and human behavior, allowing the retrieval of past information from the respondents. In
addition, it is suitable for almost any population group [73].
4.3. Creation of the Instrument
The questionnaire survey sought to answer questions that would allow us to identify
and characterize the habits of access to and consumption of the Internet, the ways of
appropriation of this tool, and the platforms and contents it provides for young adults
attending university education throughout the pandemic (2020/2021).
For the development of the questionnaire, different sources were considered, which
helped in the elaboration of the questions and the selection of the data to be collected.
Therefore, on the one hand, we considered the Internet Addiction Diagnostic Questionnaire
(IADQ) [
45
] and the version adapted to the Portuguese reality [
43
]. With this scale, we
tried to assess the degree of dependence and the different dimensions of addiction. On
the other hand, addiction and dependency on the Internet were considered whilst taking
into account media consumption habits, emphasizing the increasing role that social media
plays in the daily lives of young adults, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic [21].
The questionnaire, consisting of 46 open-ended and closed-ended questions, was
organized into three thematic axes. The first aimed to draw a sociographic portrait of the
respondents, characterizing them in terms of gender, age, nationality, background, family
background, and level of qualification. The second axis referred to online consumption
habits and behavior, seeking to obtain data on the modes of access and use of the media,
in general, and the Internet, in particular. The third thematic axis, related to the percep-
tion of dependence on the online world, sought to characterize the types of Internet use,
understand the routines associated with its consumption, and understand perceptions
about the implications of online consumption during the pandemic period. Regarding the
instrument’s conceptualization, the following tables present the dimensions defined by the
thematic axis (Table 1) and the indicators by dimensions (Table 2).
Table 1. Dimensions according to the thematic axis.
Thematic Axis Dimensions
(i) Sociographic portrait (a) Sociodemographic data
(b) Qualifications
(ii) Consumption habits and online behaviors (c) Media access and use
(iii) Dependency perception regarding the
online world (d) Online routines during the pandemic
Source: The authors.
4.4. Data Processing
After administering the questionnaire surveys, all of the material was supervised
in order to determine whether any questionnaires were not valid, and to make certain
data processing decisions. The final sample consisted of 407 valid questionnaire surveys
(
N = 407
). The data were processed using the IBM SPSS program, version 28. Initially, a
univariate analysis was carried out to distribute the frequencies, followed by a bivariate
analysis with the crossing of variables in contingency tables (crosstabs) in order to compare
and understand how socio-demographic variables and others relevant to the research
influence consumption habits and online behavior, and the perception of dependence
on the online world, among other aspects. The frequency and the good percentage are
considered in presenting the results, considering only the valid cases. Data considered
missing (canceled, lacking an answer, not applicable) are ignored.
Societies 2022,12, 109 9 of 24
Table 2. Metrics according to dimensions.
Dimensions Metrics
(a) Sociodemographic data
(b) Qualifications
- Gender
- Age
- Nationality
- Place of residence
- Composition of the household
- Level of education
(c) Media access and use
- Frequency of access to the different media
- Preferences about the different media
- Frequency of Internet access
- Frequency of online activities
- Frequency of access to social media
- Frequency of offline activities
- Frequency of Internet access during the pandemic
(d) Online routines during the pandemic
- Place of the Internet in daily life
- Implication of Internet use on interpersonal
relationships
- Frequency of Internet access compared to other
activities
- Perception of the feeling associated with excessive
online consumption
- Perception of the consequences of excessive
online consumption
- Implication of excessive online consumption for
health
The analysis provided in this research is by nature descriptive, as the intended pur-
poses of this study reside in first reading the data, organizing and describing it, and
highlighting differences, relationships, and patterns.
4.5. Sample Characterization
The study’s universe consists of 407 young adults attending college in Portugal, aged
between 18 and 30 years. In total, 73.5% of the respondents were female, and 26% were male.
Two respondents did not identify their gender. Most of the respondents (91.9%) were of
Portuguese nationality, and there were also respondents from Brazil, Angola, Mozambique,
Russia, and France. In total, 83% of the respondents lived with family members.
5. Results and Discussion
5.1. Social Habits and Media Practices
One of the aspects referred to in the questionnaire survey sought to assess activities
integrated into the leisure time of the respondents, with particular emphasis on the place
of the Internet and conventional media, such as television, radio, newspapers, books, and
videogame consoles.
Regarding conventional media, the data allow us to perceive that the newspaper
is the medium with which the interviewees spend less time. That, among the range of
other media they have at their disposal, is the one that least integrates their preferences,
followed, in increasing order, by videogame consoles, books, radio, television, computers
with Internet access, and smartphones with Internet access. Female respondents consume
more television, but the difference gets smaller as viewing time increases (to more than
three hours).
Female respondents read newspapers less than male respondents. Men listen to
the radio less than women, who listen for more than 1 h and between 2 and 3 h. The
videogame console is the medium consumed for more time by the respondents, with most
women only doing so for short periods, i.e., less than 30 min. The time spent with books
Societies 2022,12, 109 10 of 24
is significant among female respondents. The time spent on the computer without the
Internet is practically equal. As for computers with the Internet, women stand out in terms
of time spent on them, providing more data above the three-hour mark. Finally, as for
cell phones/smartphones, women dominate at all intervals, with men standing out when
consuming them for over three hours.
Internet consumption is thus the most significant media-related activity in the respon-
dents’ daily lives. In addition to being—compared to the other media listed—the only one
that meets consensus among all of the respondents, who admit that they access this tool
every day (99.8%), it is the one with which they spend the most time. This tool is mainly
used to carry out academic work, connect to social media, and socialize. There is a clear
preference among females for these online activities compared to males.
The data presented show that the percentage of the respondents who admit to spend-
ing more than five hours a day on the Internet is surprising; notably, 9% of the respondents
say they spend more than 12 h online (Figure 1). These first data on time spent online are
interesting because they help us to understand how the pandemic has transformed the
routines of students themselves, contributing to an increase in the number of hours spent
online, especially compared to what happened before the pandemic, as indicated by some
of the studies carried out [14–17,74,75].
Societies2022,12,xFORPEERREVIEW10of24
phones/smartphones,womendominateatallintervals,withmenstandingoutwhencon‐
sumingthemforoverthreehours.
Internetconsumptionisthusthemostsignificantmedia‐relatedactivityinthere‐
spondents’dailylives.Inadditiontobeing—comparedtotheothermedialisted—theonly
onethatmeetsconsensusamongalloftherespondents,whoadmitthattheyaccessthis
tooleveryday(99.8%),itistheonewithwhichtheyspendthemosttime.Thistoolis
mainlyusedtocarryoutacademicwork,connecttosocialmedia,andsocialize.Thereis
aclearpreferenceamongfemalesfortheseonlineactivitiescomparedtomales.
Thedatapresentedshowthatthepercentageoftherespondentswhoadmittospend‐
ingmorethanfivehoursadayontheInternetissurprising;notably,9%oftherespond‐
entssaytheyspendmorethan12honline(Figure1).Thesefirstdataontimespentonline
areinterestingbecausetheyhelpustounderstandhowthepandemichastransformedthe
routinesofstudentsthemselves,contributingtoanincreaseinthenumberofhoursspent
online,especiallycomparedtowhathappenedbeforethepandemic,asindicatedbysome
ofthestudiescarriedout[14–17,74,75].
Figure1.AveragehoursperdayspentontheInternet.
Ofthe407youngadultssurveyed,42%admittobeingpermanentlyconnected,as
showninFigure2.Thesmartphoneisthepreferreddevicethroughwhichrespondents
accesstheInternet(74.7%),followedbythelaptop(15.7%),thedesktopathome(8.6%),
thetablet(0.7%,correspondingtothreerespondents),andthedesktopattheeducational
institution(0.2%,correspondingtoonerespondent).
Figure2.Periodofthedaywhenyouspendthemosttimeconnectedinarow.
Wecanobservethatintermsoftimespentonline,thewomenfromoursamplede‐
clarespendingmoretimethanmen,with29.5%spending5to8h,whilstthemalere‐
spondents’majorityisat10.3%inthe1to4hperdayslot(Table3).Moreover,wecanalso
seethatthosefemalerespondentsdeclarespendingmorehoursonlinethantheirmale
Figure 1. Average hours per day spent on the Internet.
Of the 407 young adults surveyed, 42% admit to being permanently connected, as
shown in Figure 2. The smartphone is the preferred device through which respondents
access the Internet (74.7%), followed by the laptop (15.7%), the desktop at home (8.6%),
the tablet (0.7%, corresponding to three respondents), and the desktop at the educational
institution (0.2%, corresponding to one respondent).
Societies2022,12,xFORPEERREVIEW10of24
phones/smartphones,womendominateatallintervals,withmenstandingoutwhencon‐
sumingthemforoverthreehours.
Internetconsumptionisthusthemostsignificantmedia‐relatedactivityinthere‐
spondents’dailylives.Inadditiontobeing—comparedtotheothermedialisted—theonly
onethatmeetsconsensusamongalloftherespondents,whoadmitthattheyaccessthis
tooleveryday(99.8%),itistheonewithwhichtheyspendthemosttime.Thistoolis
mainlyusedtocarryoutacademicwork,connecttosocialmedia,andsocialize.Thereis
aclearpreferenceamongfemalesfortheseonlineactivitiescomparedtomales.
Thedatapresentedshowthatthepercentageoftherespondentswhoadmittospend‐
ingmorethanfivehoursadayontheInternetissurprising;notably,9%oftherespond‐
entssaytheyspendmorethan12honline(Figure1).Thesefirstdataontimespentonline
areinterestingbecausetheyhelpustounderstandhowthepandemichastransformedthe
routinesofstudentsthemselves,contributingtoanincreaseinthenumberofhoursspent
online,especiallycomparedtowhathappenedbeforethepandemic,asindicatedbysome
ofthestudiescarriedout[14–17,74,75].
Figure1.AveragehoursperdayspentontheInternet.
Ofthe407youngadultssurveyed,42%admittobeingpermanentlyconnected,as
showninFigure2.Thesmartphoneisthepreferreddevicethroughwhichrespondents
accesstheInternet(74.7%),followedbythelaptop(15.7%),thedesktopathome(8.6%),
thetablet(0.7%,correspondingtothreerespondents),andthedesktopattheeducational
institution(0.2%,correspondingtoonerespondent).
Figure2.Periodofthedaywhenyouspendthemosttimeconnectedinarow.
Wecanobservethatintermsoftimespentonline,thewomenfromoursamplede‐
clarespendingmoretimethanmen,with29.5%spending5to8h,whilstthemalere‐
spondents’majorityisat10.3%inthe1to4hperdayslot(Table3).Moreover,wecanalso
seethatthosefemalerespondentsdeclarespendingmorehoursonlinethantheirmale
Figure 2. Period of the day when you spend the most time connected in a row.
We can observe that in terms of time spent online, the women from our sample declare
spending more time than men, with 29.5% spending 5 to 8 h, whilst the male respondents’
majority is at 10.3% in the 1 to 4 h per day slot (Table 3). Moreover, we can also see that those
Societies 2022,12, 109 11 of 24
female respondents declare spending more hours online than their male counterparts. The
second category answered by women was 9 to 12 h, while the male respondents’ second
most answered category was between 5 and 8 h. Both the males and females of the sample
do not particularly distinguish a time of day in which they are connected, as most of the
females (32.7%) and males (8.6%) of our sample declare that they are constantly online.
For both genders in our sample, we can also observe that the second time of the day these
respondents spend online is the afternoon (17.2% females and 8.4% males).
Table 3. Average hours per day spent on the Internet and the periods thereof, by gender.
Gender Female Male Did Not Identify
299 (73.5%) 105 (25.8%) 2 (0.5%)
Average hours spent online:
Less than 1 h 0 (0%) 1 (0.2%) -
Between 1 and 4 h 71 (17.4%) 42 (10.3%) -
Between 5 and 8 h 120 (29.5%) 37 (9.1%) -
Between 9 and 12 h 77 (18.9%) 16 (3.9%) -
More than 12 h 25 (6.1%) 9 (2.2%) -
Does not know 6 (1.5%) 1 (0.2%) -
Time of the day most spent online:
Early morning 6 (1.5%) 1 (0.2%) -
Mornings 16 (3.9%) 3 (0.7%) -
Afternoon 61 (15%) 33 (8.1%) -
Night 70 (17.2%) 34 (8.4%)
Constantly online 133 (32.7%) 35 (8.6%) -
Does not know 13 (3.2%) 0 (0%) -
Total 407 (100%)
Source: The authors.
Regarding offline activities, such as playing sports, chatting with friends, hanging out
with family members, listening to music, travelling, and going to shows, the preferences
are for hanging out with friends and listening to music. In total, 40% of young adults
admit to hanging out and talking with friends often, and 21% do it daily. In total, 57%
of the respondents admit to listening to music every day. However, the percentage of
the respondents who mention walking around and hanging out with friends and family
relatively often during the pandemic is surprising (Figure 3). The responses of the young
people surveyed show some changes in offline activities, which is not surprising consid-
ering that quarantines and curfews multiplied during 2021, and many outdoor activities
were limited [
14
–
17
]. However, it is interesting to note that some activities are dominant
among young people, such as listening to music, a daily practice, which, according to a
report by one of the leading players in the area of sound, is increasingly emerging as a form
of stress relief. According to data from Culture Next, Spotify Advertising’s annual study, in
2021, 71% of Gen Zs used audio to reduce stress levels. Among millennials, there is also
the idea that audio can help promote mental health [
76
]. In this context, it is essential to
highlight the growth in the consumption of podcasts [
59
], which can help explain young
people’s responses.
Societies 2022,12, 109 12 of 24
Societies2022,12,xFORPEERREVIEW12of24
Figure3.Frequencyofperformingactivitiesoffline.
ThedataobtainedallowustoverifythatbeingontheInternetisthemostsignificant
media‐relatedactivityintherespondents’dailylives,togetherwithotheractivitiessuch
asbeingwithfriendsandlisteningtomusic.Theeverydaylifeoftheyounguniversity
studentsinthesurveyseemstobemainlyorganizedaccordingtoactionsthatgratifythem
andalignwiththeirpersonalchoicesandpreferences.
ItshouldalsobenotedthatthemainreasonsforusingtheInternet,inorderofim‐
portance,are,forthefemalerespondents,thefollowing:topassthetime/escapism;to
searchforinformationonpersonal/professionalmatters,tocarryoutresearchoncuriosi‐
ties,todoacademicwork,andtoaccesssocialmedia.Therespondents’reasonsareas
follows,alsoinorderofimportance:spendingtime/escapism,researchinginformationon
personal/professionalmatters,researchingcuriosities,doingacademicwork,andaccess‐
ingsocialmedia.ItisessentialtohighlightthattheInternetisdecisiveintheoccupation
oftimeforyoungpeopleduringconfinement,whichjustifiestheconcernidentifiedinthe
variousstudiesthatcarriedoutsimilaranalysesandmadepsychologicalwellbeingde‐
pendonthispermanentconnection[12,15,17,45,75].Thefactthattheyremainlockedfor
longerhasincreasedthetimetheyspendonline,alongwithnewsignsofpotentialde‐
pendence,suchassleepdisturbancesoranxiety,aswewillseelater.
5.2.RoutinesandOnlineConsumption
Inlinewiththedatamentionedintheprevioustopic,anotherquestionaskedisre‐
latedtotheassociationbetweenthepandemicandthefrequencyofInternetuse,with
88.0%oftherespondentsadmittingthatitincreasedduringthepandemicperiod,mainly
duetoitsrelevanceinthecontextofacademicactivitiesinlockdownperiods.However,
2.9%ofyoungadultsacknowledgenotknowingiftherewas,infact,anincrease.Intotal,
60%evenconsiderthatusingtheInternethasbecomemoreindispensablesincethepan‐
demic’sbeginning,although30.2%mentionthatitisjustasnecessary.
Whenweinquiredaboutthepossibleincreaseintheirinternetconsumptionduring
thepandemic,alloftherespondents,includingthosewhopreferrednottoidentifytheir
gender,agreedonsuchanincrease(88%ofthesample).Ontheotherhand,thedistribu‐
tionacrosscategoriesineachgenderisalsosimilarintermsoftheirneedforinternetcon‐
sumptionsincethebeginningofthepandemic,withbothfemaleandmalerespondents
deemingtheInternetmoreindispensable(61%ofthesample),andinsecondplace,choos‐
ing“sameasbefore”asanoption(30%ofthetotalsample)(Table4).Moreover,allofthe
gendersalsoagreethatthepandemicmadethemmoreinternet‐dependent,withmore
than65%ofthetotalsampleagreeingwiththatidea,againstlessthan23%ofthesample
denyingit.
Figure 3. Frequency of performing activities offline.
The data obtained allow us to verify that being on the Internet is the most significant
media-related activity in the respondents’ daily lives, together with other activities such
as being with friends and listening to music. The everyday life of the young university
students in the survey seems to be mainly organized according to actions that gratify them
and align with their personal choices and preferences.
It should also be noted that the main reasons for using the Internet, in order of impor-
tance, are, for the female respondents, the following: to pass the time/escapism; to search
for information on personal/professional matters, to carry out research on curiosities, to
do academic work, and to access social media. The respondents’ reasons are as follows,
also in order of importance: spending time/escapism, researching information on per-
sonal/professional matters, researching curiosities, doing academic work, and accessing
social media. It is essential to highlight that the Internet is decisive in the occupation of
time for young people during confinement, which justifies the concern identified in the
various studies that carried out similar analyses and made psychological wellbeing depend
on this permanent connection [
12
,
15
,
17
,
45
,
75
]. The fact that they remain locked for longer
has increased the time they spend online, along with new signs of potential dependence,
such as sleep disturbances or anxiety, as we will see later.
5.2. Routines and Online Consumption
In line with the data mentioned in the previous topic, another question asked is related
to the association between the pandemic and the frequency of Internet use, with 88.0%
of the respondents admitting that it increased during the pandemic period, mainly due
to its relevance in the context of academic activities in lockdown periods. However, 2.9%
of young adults acknowledge not knowing if there was, in fact, an increase. In total, 60%
even consider that using the Internet has become more indispensable since the pandemic’s
beginning, although 30.2% mention that it is just as necessary.
When we inquired about the possible increase in their internet consumption during the
pandemic, all of the respondents, including those who preferred not to identify their gender,
agreed on such an increase (88% of the sample). On the other hand, the distribution across
categories in each gender is also similar in terms of their need for internet consumption
since the beginning of the pandemic, with both female and male respondents deeming the
Internet more indispensable (61% of the sample), and in second place, choosing “same as
before” as an option (30% of the total sample) (Table 4). Moreover, all of the genders also
agree that the pandemic made them more internet-dependent, with more than 65% of the
total sample agreeing with that idea, against less than 23% of the sample denying it.
Societies 2022,12, 109 13 of 24
Table 4. Internet consumption, the pandemic, and internet dependency by gender.
Increase in Internet Consumption during the Pandemic
Female Male Did Not Identify
Yes 267 (65.6%) 89 (21.9%) 2 (0.5%)
No 24 (5.9%) 13 (3.2%) 0 (0%)
Does not know 8 (2%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%)
Internet More Indispensable since the Beginning of the Pandemic
Female Male Did Not Identify
More indispensable 186 (45.7%) 57 (14%) 1 (0.2%)
Less indispensable 30 (7.4%) 9 (2.2%) 0 (0%)
Same as before 83 (20.4%) 39 (9.6%) 1 (0.2%)
Consider that the Pandemic Made them More Internet-Dependent
Female Male Did Not Identify
Yes 200 (49.1%) 66 (16.2%) 2 (0.5%)
No 67 (16.5%) 24 (5.9%) 0 (0%)
Does not know 28 (6.9%) 16 (3.9%) 0 (0%)
Source: The authors.
However, it should be noted that 38% consider that the Internet is always essen-
tial to their lives. In comparison, 51% stress that it is necessary on some occasions, as
shown in Figure 4. Although most students believe that the Internet played a decisive
role during confinement, it is vital to highlight the percentage of the respondents who
think that it is essential in their lives. These responses are not directly related to its use
during the pandemic but rather as something more permanent, without which the students’
lives would not be the same, which helps to explain the preoccupation in terms of depen-
dence
[12,14,15,17,45,61]
. These answers also allow us to understand that the pandemic has
only worsened a situation that had already occurred previously. Thus, we can understand
how important it is to find solutions that help solve Internet addiction, which is a more
structural problem.
Societies2022,12,xFORPEERREVIEW13of24
Table4.Internetconsumption,thepandemic,andinternetdependencybygender.
IncreaseinInternetConsumptionduringthePandemic
FemaleMaleDidNotIdentify
Yes267(65.6%)89(21.9%)2(0.5%)
No24(5.9%)13(3.2%)0(0%)
Doesnotknow8(2%)0(0%)0(0%)
InternetMoreIndispensablesincetheBeginningofthe
Pandemic
FemaleMaleDidNotIdentify
Moreindispensable186(45.7%)57(14%)1(0.2%)
Lessindispensable30(7.4%)9(2.2%)0(0%)
Sameasbefore83(20.4%)39(9.6%)1(0.2%)
ConsiderthatthePandemicMadethemMoreInternet‐
Dependent
FemaleMaleDidNotIdentify
Yes200(49.1%)66(16.2%)2(0.5%)
No67(16.5%)24(5.9%)0(0%)
Doesnotknow28(6.9%)16(3.9%)0(0%)
Source:Theauthors.
However,itshouldbenotedthat38%considerthattheInternetisalwaysessential
totheirlives.Incomparison,51%stressthatitisnecessaryonsomeoccasions,asshown
inFigure4.AlthoughmoststudentsbelievethattheInternetplayedadecisiveroleduring
confinement,itisvitaltohighlightthepercentageoftherespondentswhothinkthatitises‐
sentialintheirlives.Theseresponsesarenotdirectlyrelatedtoitsuseduringthepandemic
butratherassomethingmorepermanent,withoutwhichthestudents’liveswouldnotbethe
same,whichhelpstoexplainthepreoccupationintermsofdependence[12,14,15,17,45,61].
Theseanswersalsoallowustounderstandthatthepandemichasonlyworsenedasituation
thathadalreadyoccurredpreviously.Thus,wecanunderstandhowimportantitistofind
solutionsthathelpsolveInternetaddiction,whichisamorestructuralproblem.
Figure4.DoyouthinktheInternetisindispensableinyourlife?
TheprimaryoccasionspointedoutbybothgenderswheretheInternetisindispen‐
sableisatworkandinacademiclife.WomenaretheoneswhoconsiderthattheInternet
hasbecomemorevitalsincethebeginningofthepandemic,andmenaretheoneswho
thinkithasremainedthesame.Thisindispensabilityaspectisevidentwhenbeingonthe
Internetbecomesapreferentialactivitycomparedtootheractivities,suchasbeingwitha
partnerorfriends,assomerespondents,particularlymales,admit.Inthisregard,even
though31.4%oftheyoungadultssurveyedarenotinaromanticrelationship,ofthose
whoare,andevenanotverysignificantpercentage(6.4%),admitthattheyoccasionally
Figure 4. Do you think the Internet is indispensable in your life?
The primary occasions pointed out by both genders where the Internet is indispensable
is at work and in academic life. Women are the ones who consider that the Internet has
become more vital since the beginning of the pandemic, and men are the ones who think it
has remained the same. This indispensability aspect is evident when being on the Internet
becomes a preferential activity compared to other activities, such as being with a partner or
friends, as some respondents, particularly males, admit. In this regard, even though 31.4%
of the young adults surveyed are not in a romantic relationship, of those who are, and
even a not very significant percentage (6.4%), admit that they occasionally prefer to be on
the Internet than with their partner. The same applies to being with friends (see Figure 5).
Societies 2022,12, 109 14 of 24
Although the percentage is low, these data point to other symptoms that end up being
associated with Internet addiction, such as a lack of self-esteem, or even depression [
55
,
75
].
Societies2022,12,xFORPEERREVIEW14of24
prefertobeontheInternetthanwiththeirpartner.Thesameappliestobeingwithfriends
(seeFigure5).Althoughthepercentageislow,thesedatapointtoothersymptomsthat
endupbeingassociatedwithInternetaddiction,suchasalackofself‐esteem,oreven
depression[55,75].
Intotal,48%oftherespondentsstatethattheyneverprefertoreplacethecompany
oftheirboyfriend/girlfriendwithInternetconsumption,and52%mentionthesameabout
friends.However,thedatapresentedshowthat,forsomerespondents,beingontheIn‐
ternetmayreplacetherelevanceofexpressiverelationshipswiththosewithwhomthey
maintainacloserelationship.
Figure5.Preferenceforbeingonlineoverbeingwithaboyfriend/girlfriendorgoingoutwithfriends.
Itshouldbenoted,however,thatthecreationofnewonlinefriendshipsdoesnot
seemtobesignificantforthemajorityoftherespondents(23.8%nevercreatenewrela‐
tionships,and41.0%doitrarely),although24.6%admittomeetingnewonlinefriends
occasionally,and7.4%doitfrequently.Intotal,2.2%,correspondingtoninerespondents,
recognizethattheyalmostalwaysestablishthesenewrelationships,andtworespondents
admittoalwaysdoingit.
Anotherrelevantdatapointshowsthepriorityofaccessingsocialmediaande‐mail
infavorofotheractivities.Intotal,37.8%oftherespondentsadmitthattheyfrequently
accessthesemediabeforeperformingothertasks,24.8%assumetheydoitalmostcon‐
stantly,and21.9%saytheyalwaysdoit,asshowninFigure6.
Figure6.Howoftenyoucheckemailand/orsocialmediabeforedoingotherthings.
Figure 5.
Preference for being online over being with a boyfriend/girlfriend or going out with friends.
In total, 48% of the respondents state that they never prefer to replace the company of
their boyfriend/girlfriend with Internet consumption, and 52% mention the same about
friends. However, the data presented show that, for some respondents, being on the
Internet may replace the relevance of expressive relationships with those with whom they
maintain a close relationship.
It should be noted, however, that the creation of new online friendships does not seem
to be significant for the majority of the respondents (23.8% never create new relationships,
and 41.0% do it rarely), although 24.6% admit to meeting new online friends occasionally,
and 7.4% do it frequently. In total, 2.2%, corresponding to nine respondents, recognize
that they almost always establish these new relationships, and two respondents admit to
always doing it.
Another relevant data point shows the priority of accessing social media and e-mail in
favor of other activities. In total, 37.8% of the respondents admit that they frequently access
these media before performing other tasks, 24.8% assume they do it almost constantly, and
21.9% say they always do it, as shown in Figure 6.
Societies2022,12,xFORPEERREVIEW14of24
prefertobeontheInternetthanwiththeirpartner.Thesameappliestobeingwithfriends
(seeFigure5).Althoughthepercentageislow,thesedatapointtoothersymptomsthat
endupbeingassociatedwithInternetaddiction,suchasalackofself‐esteem,oreven
depression[55,75].
Intotal,48%oftherespondentsstatethattheyneverprefertoreplacethecompany
oftheirboyfriend/girlfriendwithInternetconsumption,and52%mentionthesameabout
friends.However,thedatapresentedshowthat,forsomerespondents,beingontheIn‐
ternetmayreplacetherelevanceofexpressiverelationshipswiththosewithwhomthey
maintainacloserelationship.
Figure5.Preferenceforbeingonlineoverbeingwithaboyfriend/girlfriendorgoingoutwithfriends.
Itshouldbenoted,however,thatthecreationofnewonlinefriendshipsdoesnot
seemtobesignificantforthemajorityoftherespondents(23.8%nevercreatenewrela‐
tionships,and41.0%doitrarely),although24.6%admittomeetingnewonlinefriends
occasionally,and7.4%doitfrequently.Intotal,2.2%,correspondingtoninerespondents,
recognizethattheyalmostalwaysestablishthesenewrelationships,andtworespondents
admittoalwaysdoingit.
Anotherrelevantdatapointshowsthepriorityofaccessingsocialmediaande‐mail
infavorofotheractivities.Intotal,37.8%oftherespondentsadmitthattheyfrequently
accessthesemediabeforeperformingothertasks,24.8%assumetheydoitalmostcon‐
stantly,and21.9%saytheyalwaysdoit,asshowninFigure6.
Figure6.Howoftenyoucheckemailand/orsocialmediabeforedoingotherthings.
Figure 6. How often you check email and/or social media before doing other things.
5.3. The Pandemic and Online Dependency
In the previous topic, questions related to routines associated with Internet access
and use were addressed, focusing on the pandemic period. We now intend to identify and
understand how these online practices and access habits affect the respondents’ Internet
Societies 2022,12, 109 15 of 24
addiction and lifestyles. The results arising from the question about how often respondents
notice that they have been online for too long reveal that there seems to be some awareness
that the time spent on the Internet is excessive, as shown in Figure 7, as there is a significant
percentage of young adults who often and occasionally notice that they have been online
for too long.
Societies2022,12,xFORPEERREVIEW15of24
5.3.ThePandemicandOnlineDependency
Intheprevioustopic,questionsrelatedtoroutinesassociatedwithInternetaccess
andusewereaddressed,focusingonthepandemicperiod.Wenowintendtoidentifyand
understandhowtheseonlinepracticesandaccesshabitsaffecttherespondents’Internet
addictionandlifestyles.Theresultsarisingfromthequestionabouthowoftenrespond‐
entsnoticethattheyhavebeenonlinefortoolongrevealthatthereseemstobesome
awarenessthatthetimespentontheInternetisexcessive,asshowninFigure7,asthere
isasignificantpercentageofyoungadultswhooftenandoccasionallynoticethatthey
havebeenonlinefortoolong.
Figure7.Perceptionsandattitudesabouttimespentonline.
Thedatacollectedareinlinewithotherstudiesthatalsoidentifiedanincreasein
onlinetimeduringthepandemic,andsometimesalackofperceptionaboutstayingcon‐
nected[75].Ontheotherhand,thestudents’answersalsohighlighttheimportanceofthe
peoplearoundthem,namelyparents,indrawingattentiontoandregulatingtheirtime
online[75,77].However,despitetheperceptionofexcessivetimebeingspentonline,it
shouldbenotedthatonly22%oftherespondentsstatethatothersoccasionallyquestion
themduetothetimetheyspentontheInternet.Intotal,7%admitthatthishappensfre‐
quently;2%oftherespondents,statethatitoccursalmostconstantly,while1%statesthat
theyarecontinuallyquestionedduetothis.Intotal,39%oftherespondentsadmittoit
rarelybeingcalledtoattention,and29%mentionthattheyareneverasked.
Thesamplewasalsoaskedabouttheirgeneralawarenessoftheirrelationshipwiththe
online,with51%ofbothgendersagreeingthattheinternetissometimesindispensablefor
them,leavinglessthan5%ofthesampletodisagreewiththatstatement.Interestingly,female
respondentsdeclare,at23%,thattheyoftenrealizetheyhavebeenonlinefortoolong,whilst
themales’higherpercentagecorrespondsto“occasionally”,with12%(Table5).
Figure 7. Perceptions and attitudes about time spent online.
The data collected are in line with other studies that also identified an increase in online
time during the pandemic, and sometimes a lack of perception about staying connected [
75
].
On the other hand, the students’ answers also highlight the importance of the people around
them, namely parents, in drawing attention to and regulating their time online [
75
,
77
].
However, despite the perception of excessive time being spent online, it should be noted
that only 22% of the respondents state that others occasionally question them due to the
time they spent on the Internet. In total, 7% admit that this happens frequently; 2% of the
respondents, state that it occurs almost constantly, while 1% states that they are continually
questioned due to this. In total, 39% of the respondents admit to it rarely being called to
attention, and 29% mention that they are never asked.
The sample was also asked about their general awareness of their relationship with
the online, with 51% of both genders agreeing that the internet is sometimes indispensable
for them, leaving less than 5% of the sample to disagree with that statement. Interestingly,
female respondents declare, at 23%, that they often realize they have been online for too
long, whilst the males’ higher percentage corresponds to “occasionally”, with 12% (Table 5).
The data also show that the percentage of young adults who have a defensive attitude
or hide what they are doing online when asked about their activities is not very significant,
as seen in Figure 8.
Regarding the question “How often do you complain or get irritated when you are
online and are bothered?”, 54% of the respondents say that they never complain or get
irritated; 32% do it rarely; 11% assume they do it occasionally; 2% do it frequently; 1%,
assume they do it almost constantly, and one respondent does it consistently.
The data from the questionnaire survey revealed that even though some respondents
make an effort, albeit unsuccessfully, to reduce the amount of time they spend online
(Figure 9), 64% assume that they never try to hide the amount of time they spend online.
Societies 2022,12, 109 16 of 24
Table 5. Indispensability of the Internet and awareness of being online for too long by gender.
Consider Internet Indispensable for Their Life
Female Male Did Not Identify
Yes, always 109 (26.8%) 42 (10.3%) 2 (0.5%)
Yes, sometimes 155 (38.1%) 52 (12.8%) 0 (0%)
No 15 (3.7%) 4 (1%) 0 (0%)
Does not know 20 (4.9%) 7 (1.7%) 0 (0%)
Frequency to Which Respondents Are Aware They Have Been
Online for Too Long
Female Male Did Not Identify
Always 17 (4.7%) 3 (0.7%) 1 (0.2%)
Almost always 46 (11.3%) 10 (2.5%) 0 (0%)
Often 94 (23.1%) 21 (5.2%) 1 (0.2%)
Occasionally 90 (22.1%) 48 (11.8%) 0 (0%)
Rarely 39 (9.6%) 18 (4.4%) 0 (0%)
Never 13 (3.2%) 5 (1.2%) 0 (0%)
Source: The authors.
Societies2022,12,xFORPEERREVIEW16of24
Table5.IndispensabilityoftheInternetandawarenessofbeingonlinefortoolongbygender.
ConsiderInternetIndispensableforTheirLife
FemaleMaleDidNotIdentify
Yes,always109(26.8%)42(10.3%)2(0.5%)
Yes,sometimes155(38.1%)52(12.8%)0(0%)
No15(3.7%)4(1%)0(0%)
Doesnotknow20(4.9%)7(1.7%)0(0%)
FrequencytoWhichRespondentsAreAwareTheyHaveBeen
OnlineforTooLong
FemaleMaleDidNotIdentify
Always17(4.7%)3(0.7%)1(0.2%)
Almostalways46(11.3%)10(2.5%)0(0%)
Often94(23.1%)21(5.2%)1(0.2%)
Occasionally90(22.1%)48(11.8%)0(0%)
Rarely39(9.6%)18(4.4%)0(0%)
Never13(3.2%)5(1.2%)0(0%)
Source:Theauthors.
Thedataalsoshowthatthepercentageofyoungadultswhohaveadefensiveattitude
orhidewhattheyaredoingonlinewhenaskedabouttheiractivitiesisnotverysignificant,
asseeninFigure8.
Figure8.Attitudestowardstimespentonline.
Regardingthequestion“Howoftendoyoucomplainorgetirritatedwhenyouare
onlineandarebothered?”,54%oftherespondentssaythattheynevercomplainorget
irritated;32%doitrarely;11%assumetheydoitoccasionally;2%doitfrequently;1%,
assumetheydoitalmostconstantly,andonerespondentdoesitconsistently.
Thedatafromthequestionnairesurveyrevealedthateventhoughsomerespondents
makeaneffort,albeitunsuccessfully,toreducetheamountoftimetheyspendonline(Figure
9),64%assumethattheynevertrytohidetheamountoftimetheyspendonline.
Figure 8. Attitudes towards time spent online.
Societies2022,12,xFORPEERREVIEW17of24
Figure9.Howoftenyoutrytohideandreducethetimeyouspendonline.
Alsosignificantisthepercentageoftherespondents(33.7%),particularlymales,who
assumethattheiracademicperformanceisimpairedduetotheamountoftimetheyspend
online.Althoughthisisaminority,comparedtothepercentageoftherespondents(65.8%)
whosaythattheiracademicperformanceisnothinderedbecauseoftheirtimespenton
theInternet,itisstillaremarkablefigure.Inlinewithpreviousstudies,thesedataalso
highlighttheimportanceofreflectingontherelationshipbetweentimespentonlineand
academicsuccess[52].Thisproblem,whichemergedbeforetheCOVID‐19pandemic,
gainednewcontourstobediscussedduringquarantineandcurfewsbecause—whilst
closedathome—theInternetbecameessentialinorderforstudentstoattendonlineclas‐
ses.However,thisisalsothemomenttolookatthisdataandthinkabouthowwecan
balanceInternetuseincontextsliketheoneweliveduringthepandemic,inwhichthe
onlineisvitalfordistanceeducation[65,75].
Studentswerealsoaskedabouttheireffortsinreducingtheironlineconsumption
andhidingsuchconsumptionfromtheirentourage.Forfemalerespondents,thehighest
categorywas“rarely”(22%),consideringtheirattemptstoreducetheirconsumption,and
“occasionally”formales(9%).Asforthesecondtopic,respondentsmajorlyagreedthat
theynevertrytohidetheironlineconsumption,with64%denyinganyhidingacrossthe
sample(Table6).
Table6.Tryingtoreducetimespentonlinewithoutsucceeding,andhidingconsumption,bygender.
TryReducingTimeOnlinebutCannotSucceed
FemaleMaleDidnotidentify
Always5(1.2%)0(0%)0(0%)
Almostalways10(2.5%)4(1%)0(0%)
Often40(9.8%)6(1.5%)0(0%)
Occasionally84(20.6%)36(8.8%)2(0.5%)
Rarely89(21.9%)31(7.6%)0(0%)
Never71(17.4%)28(6.9%)0(0%)
TryingtoHidetheAmountofTimeSpentOnline
FemaleMaleDidNotIdentify
Always2(0.5%)0(0%)0(0%)
Almostalways2(0.5%)0(0%)0(0%)
Often5(1.2%)3(0.7%)0(0%)
Occasionally21(5.2%)6(1.5%)0(0%)
Rarely82(20.1%)24(5.9%)0(0%)
Never187(45.9%)72(17.7%)2(0.5%)
Source:Theauthors.
Figure 9. How often you try to hide and reduce the time you spend online.
Also significant is the percentage of the respondents (33.7%), particularly males, who
assume that their academic performance is impaired due to the amount of time they spend
online. Although this is a minority, compared to the percentage of the respondents (65.8%)
who say that their academic performance is not hindered because of their time spent on
the Internet, it is still a remarkable figure. In line with previous studies, these data also
highlight the importance of reflecting on the relationship between time spent online and
Societies 2022,12, 109 17 of 24
academic success [
52
]. This problem, which emerged before the COVID-19 pandemic,
gained new contours to be discussed during quarantine and curfews because—whilst
closed at home—the Internet became essential in order for students to attend online classes.
However, this is also the moment to look at this data and think about how we can balance
Internet use in contexts like the one we live during the pandemic, in which the online is
vital for distance education [65,75].
Students were also asked about their efforts in reducing their online consumption
and hiding such consumption from their entourage. For female respondents, the highest
category was “rarely” (22%), considering their attempts to reduce their consumption, and
“occasionally” for males (9%). As for the second topic, respondents majorly agreed that
they never try to hide their online consumption, with 64% denying any hiding across the
sample (Table 6).
Table 6.
Trying to reduce time spent online without succeeding, and hiding consumption, by gender.
Try Reducing Time Online but Cannot Succeed
Female Male Did not identify
Always 5 (1.2%) 0 (0 %) 0 (0%)
Almost always 10 (2.5%) 4 (1%) 0 (0%)
Often 40 (9.8%) 6 (1.5%) 0 (0%)
Occasionally 84 (20.6%) 36 (8.8%) 2 (0.5%)
Rarely 89 (21.9%) 31 (7.6%) 0 (0%)
Never 71 (17.4%) 28 (6.9%) 0 (0%)
Trying to Hide the Amount of Time Spent Online
Female Male Did Not Identify
Always 2 (0.5%) 0 (0 %) 0 (0%)
Almost always 2 (0.5%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%)
Often 5 (1.2 %) 3 (0.7%) 0 (0%)
Occasionally 21 (5.2 %) 6 (1.5 %) 0 (0%)
Rarely 82 (20.1 %) 24 (5.9 %) 0 (0%)
Never 187 (45.9 %) 72(17.7 %) 2 (0.5%)
Source: The authors.
Regarding the perception of the health consequences of excessive online consumption
and the feelings associated with it, among the various questions asked, the most significant
results obtained relate to the implication of excessive online use, especially at night, on sleep
quality. According to the results obtained, it is assumed that there is an association between
online consumption and sleep disorders for almost half of the young adults surveyed. In
total, 23.8% of the respondents acknowledge that they suffer from this disorder occasionally;
18.7% admit that they suffer from it frequently; 5.4% of the young adults suffer from it
almost always; and 1.2%, corresponding to five respondents, reveal that constant access
to the Internet always has an impact on their sleep disorders. In total, 27.5% indicate that
their sleep is rarely disturbed due to excessive Internet access, while 23.1% assume that
this never happens. These data also confirm results from studies made in other contexts,
and alert us to a relationship between the time young people spent connected during the
pandemic and their sleep problems [45,64].
Although it is less expressive than the results mentioned above, it is noteworthy
that the respondents admit that they experience negative feelings and adverse emotional
reactions, such as instability and nervousness, when they are not online. In this regard,
when confronted with the question “How often do you feel depressed, unstable, and
nervous when you are not online and feel good again when you are back online?”, the
data obtained show that the majority (60.4%) of the respondents never experience the
listed feelings. However, it is noteworthy that young adults admit to feeling adverse
emotional reactions when they are not connected, with greater relevance in the case of
women (Figure 10).
Societies 2022,12, 109 18 of 24
Societies2022,12,xFORPEERREVIEW18of24
Regardingtheperceptionofthehealthconsequencesofexcessiveonlineconsump‐
tionandthefeelingsassociatedwithit,amongthevariousquestionsasked,themostsig‐
nificantresultsobtainedrelatetotheimplicationofexcessiveonlineuse,especiallyat
night,onsleepquality.Accordingtotheresultsobtained,itisassumedthatthereisan
associationbetweenonlineconsumptionandsleepdisordersforalmosthalfoftheyoung
adultssurveyed.Intotal,23.8%oftherespondentsacknowledgethattheysufferfromthis
disorderoccasionally;18.7%admitthattheysufferfromitfrequently;5.4%oftheyoung
adultssufferfromitalmostalways;and1.2%,correspondingtofiverespondents,reveal
thatconstantaccesstotheInternetalwayshasanimpactontheirsleepdisorders.Intotal,
27.5%indicatethattheirsleepisrarelydisturbedduetoexcessiveInternetaccess,while
23.1%assumethatthisneverhappens.Thesedataalsoconfirmresultsfromstudiesmade
inothercontexts,andalertustoarelationshipbetweenthetimeyoungpeoplespentcon‐
nectedduringthepandemicandtheirsleepproblems[45,64].
Althoughitislessexpressivethantheresultsmentionedabove,itisnoteworthythat
therespondentsadmitthattheyexperiencenegativefeelingsandadverseemotionalreac‐
tions,suchasinstabilityandnervousness,whentheyarenotonline.Inthisregard,when
confrontedwiththequestion“Howoftendoyoufeeldepressed,unstable,andnervouswhen
youarenotonlineandfeelgoodagainwhenyouarebackonline?”,thedataobtainedshow
thatthemajority(60.4%)oftherespondentsneverexperiencethelistedfeelings.However,it
isnoteworthythatyoungadultsadmittofeelingadverseemotionalreactionswhentheyare
notconnected,withgreaterrelevanceinthecaseofwomen(Figure10).
Figure10.Attitudestowardsnotbeingonline.
Theresultsalsoshowthatthepercentageoftherespondentswhoassumethatthe
Internetisameansofescapefromeverydaylifeissimilartothatoftherespondentswho
donotconsiderit.
Inthisregard,asshowninFigure10,thedataobtainedalsoshowthat5%ofthe
respondents,withahigherincidenceoffemalerespondents,admitfeelingfrequentlyanx‐
iousuntiltheygobackonline;19%experiencethatfeelingoccasionally;3%realizefeeling
worriedaboutbeingoffline;and1%recognizethattheyalwaysfeelanxious.
Itshouldalsobenotedthatalthoughthepercentageoftherespondentswhoreveal
feelingworriedaboutwhatishappeningonlinewhentheyarenotconnectedisnotstatis‐
ticallysignificant,14%admittofeelingthisconcernoccasionally;5%assumefeelingit
often;1%mentionthatthisconcernmanifestsitselfalmostalways.
Although,accordingtotheresultspresented,onlineconsumptionmayhavelesspos‐
itiveconsequencesforthedailylifeoftherespondents,forexample,intermsofsleepdis‐
Figure 10. Attitudes towards not being online.
The results also show that the percentage of the respondents who assume that the
Internet is a means of escape from everyday life is similar to that of the respondents who
do not consider it.
In this regard, as shown in Figure 10, the data obtained also show that 5% of the
respondents, with a higher incidence of female respondents, admit feeling frequently
anxious until they go back online; 19% experience that feeling occasionally; 3% realize
feeling worried about being offline; and 1% recognize that they always feel anxious.
It should also be noted that although the percentage of the respondents who reveal
feeling worried about what is happening online when they are not connected is not statisti-
cally significant, 14% admit to feeling this concern occasionally; 5% assume feeling it often;
1% mention that this concern manifests itself almost always.
Although, according to the results presented, online consumption may have less
positive consequences for the daily life of the respondents, for example, in terms of sleep
disorders and experiencing adverse emotional reactions, the results of the questionnaire
survey show that a higher percentage of the respondents consider that using the Internet
has more advantages than disadvantages. On the other hand, most of the respondents
believe that the benefits and advantages of the Internet are equal.
Deeper into the survey, students were also asked if their academic performance could
be impacted by the time spent online. The vast majority of the sample disagreed with this
idea (66%), whilst only one-third (33%) agreed that their internet consumption impacted
their academic performance.
As for the consequences that may result from excessive internet use, the first category
chosen by female respondents was “real-life social isolation” (29%) and more excellent
knowledge and acquisition of information by their male counterparts (12%). We can observe
a more positively inclined view of such consequences by men, although the same category
reached second place for female respondents (28%) (Table 7).
In order of relevance, we can also highlight the consequences of excessive Internet use
for female respondents: social isolation, increased acquisition of knowledge and informa-
tion, and addiction to social media. The same results for male respondents highlight the
following consequences in order of relevance: acquisition of knowledge and information,
isolation, and addiction to social media. In order to understand these results, we must con-
sider that—in a pandemic context—students feel that there are many advantages, namely
following online classes and socialising in isolation. However, it is also essential to highlight
the perception of the potential isolation caused by addiction to the Internet [12,14,61–64].
Societies 2022,12, 109 19 of 24
Table 7. Impact on academic performance and consequences of excessive Internet use by gender.
Academic Performance Is Impacted Due to Time Spent Online
Female Male Did Not Identify
Yes, it is impacted 100 (24.6%) 37 (9.1%) 0 (0%)
No impact 198 (48.6%) 68 (16.7%) 2 (0.5%)
Consequences That May Result from Excessive Internet Use
Female Male Did Not Identify
Greater knowledge and acquisition of information 114 (28%) 49 (12%) 1 (0.2%)
Greater socialization (virtual life) 16 (3.9%) 0 (0%) 1 (0.2%)
Social isolation (real life) 118 (29%) 34 (8.4%) 0 (0%)
Addiction to social media 23 (5.7%) 7 (1.7%) 0 (0%)
Online gaming addiction 2 (0.5%) 2 (0.5%) 0 (0%)
Addiction to purchases of goods and services 3 (0.7%) 2 (0.5%) 0 (0%)
Sleep disturbance 11 (2.7%) 3 (0.7%) 0 (0%)
Anxiety 3 (0.7%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%)
Losing complete control (not being able to stop sharing
content and spending time online) 7 (1.7%) 1(0.2%) 0 (0%)
Other 1 (0.2%) 0 (0%) 0 (0%)
Source: The authors.
6. Conclusions
The data collected allow us to perceive that the Internet is a fundamental element in
the daily life of the respondents, with this importance intensifying during the pandemic.
This may be because, during the pandemic period, when the data collection took place, long
periods of lockdown were experienced, forcing the population to remain inside their homes,
thus reducing the possibility of travelling to outdoor spaces and carrying out activities in
the offline world. On the other hand, it should be noted that during this period, the model
of online education and remote work was adopted so that the respondents’ academic and,
in some cases, work activities took place over the Internet, as demonstrated by the results
obtained. Alongside this consumption, it should be noted that during the pandemic period,
there was also an intensification of dependence on the online, as demonstrated by the 65.8%
of the respondents who assumed that the pandemic made them more dependent on the
Internet, with particular prevalence in the case of female respondents.
We conclude, therefore, that during the pandemic period, the access to, time of use
of, and dependence on the Internet intensified. These data become more worrying when
it is verified that online consumption interferes with the health of users, namely in terms
of sleep disorders and the experience of adverse emotional reactions—such as instabil-
ities, depression, and nervousness—when not online, which dissipate when connected
once again.
Internet access is achieved through smartphones daily, especially at night, as this is a
privileged leisure time for respondents in their professional and academic activities during
the day. Instagram and WhatsApp are the preferred social media for these users, a data
point which is in line with other international studies [
66
,
67
]. It can even be mentioned that
the priority given to access to social media and email, to the detriment of activities in the
offline world, was visible in the results obtained. There is even priority in accessing these
platforms, to the detriment of other activities such as watching television, playing sports,
being with friends and family, listening to music, travelling, or going to shows. We recall,
in this sense, that 37.8% of young adults assumed that they often access the Internet before
doing other activities, and 21.9% even thought that they do it all the time.
In this sense, specifically concerning expressive relationships, there is a conclusion
that reveals that there were those who assume that, occasionally, they prefer to be online
than with their friends and partner, especially in the case of male respondents. This is
surprising data, showing that being on the Internet is, for some respondents, more relevant
than being in the company of people with whom they have built a relationship.
Societies 2022,12, 109 20 of 24
Despite the interference of the Internet in daily life—which, for almost all of the young
adults surveyed, is seen as a form of escape—at the same time, there is the perception
that its consumption may result in less favorable effects on the personal life of individuals.
However, significant numbers show an attempt to spend less time online and a specific
awareness that the time spent online can be excessive. The respondents reported that,
sometimes, they notice that they have been online for too long. However, only a tiny
percentage of the surveyed users admitted that attention is called to this by others due to
their time on the Internet.
Despite the less-positive effects of Internet use, more respondents associated the
Internet use with advantages than disadvantages. More significant was the percentage of
the respondents recognizing that the advantages and disadvantages of online consumption
are similar.
7. Limitations and Paths for Further Research
This research had some limitations, such as the small size of the study group, which
was constituted by a convenience sample of undergraduate students from Lisbon and
the Beira Interior regions. The subjectivity of the respondents in the online self-report
survey represents another critical point once the data collected are subject to method biases.
The type of analysis conducted, basically descriptive, can also be considered a limitation.
Nevertheless, the objective was to obtain a first reading of the data, not proceeding to
inferential analyses, correlations or the application of other statistical tests, as it is not our
goal to infer results from the sample to the population.
However, and although the results obtained are not representative of students attend-
ing higher education institutions in Portugal, the issues presented and discussed in this
exploratory article emphasize the need to develop more studies on the theme of Internet
addiction, with particular emphasis on the younger generations for whom the online world
is not only an essential element of their daily life and leisure time but also integrates a set
of socialization agents, with particular relevance for the way social representations about
the world are developed. At this level, there is a problem evident in this article and other
relevant studies in the areas of psychology and medicine, which concerns the consequences
that excessive Internet use can have on young people’s physical and mental health.
We also emphasize the need for communication studies to incorporate this theme,
making itself more robust in this area of knowledge, contributing to a field of analysis that
makes visible a holistic approach with repercussions for the transfer of knowledge between
academia and society, with relevance to the life contexts of the youngest. The studies of
audiences and media and digital literacy constitute an approach of particular significance
by incorporating not only scientific knowledge about the nature of the appropriation of
online contexts by the younger generations but also by designing strategies that are effective
in the development of skills that allow these users to maximize the benefits and minimize
the harms arising from the use of these media, thereby embodying a more critical and
healthy relationship, enhancing the positive side of these platforms. This is a relevant issue,
especially in cases like the COVID-19 pandemic. This can intensify the risks related to the
Internet and digital technologies.
Author Contributions:
Conceptualization, P.S. and S.P.; methodology, R.M. and P.S.; investigation,
P.S., S.P. and R.M.; writing—original draft preparation, P.S., S.P. and R.M.; writing—review and
editing, P.S., S.P. and R.M.; project administration, R.M.; funding acquisition, P.S. and R.M. All
authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding:
This research was funded by Universidade Europeia, Faculty of Design, Technology
and Communication—IADE. The translation was funded by LabCom—Communication and Arts,
University of Beira Interior.
Institutional Review Board Statement:
Ethical review and approval were waived for this study due
to the fact that survey participants are all over eighteen years old. The data were treated anonymously,
and students participated willingly and without coercion or legal obligation.
Societies 2022,12, 109 21 of 24
Informed Consent Statement: All of the subjects involved in the study agreed to participate in it.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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