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Chapter
Lesser Known African Indigenous
Tree and Fruit Plants: Recent
Evidence from Literatures and
Regular Cultivation Culture
Kayode PaulBaiyeri and KolawoleOlajide
Abstract
Indigenous plant species native to Africa have numerous uses. They have a long
and rich ethno-medicinal history with well-known native applications in differ-
ent African countries. The effects of these indigenous underutilized crops in local
traditional medicine differ. But they play an important role in enhancing food and
nutrition security of the population. Tropical plant species have economic potential as
they make great socio-economic impact on the livelihoods of rural dwellers. Despite
their economic, food and nutritional values, these plants are still underutilized and
have not been brought under regular cultivation culture due to inadequate informa-
tion about their food values and their agronomic requirements for cultivation. Their
potential values to the African food system could be enhanced if they are domes-
ticated and prevented from going into extinction. Thus, the potential implications
for long-term sustainable food security of these plants should not be neglected.
Therefore, there is the need to recognize and enable indigenous foods from the
indigenous plant species to serve as a key resource in ensuring healthy food systems
in Africa. The inherent potential of the following tropical indigenous plant species
African Walnut (Plukenetia conophora Muell Arg.), Saba (Saba senegalensis (A. DC.)
Pichon), Baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) and Kapok (Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn.)
are discussed in this review.
Keywords: forest resources, nursery management, fertilizer use, nutritional quality,
growth and yield
. Introduction
The extinction of plant species resulting from human activities throughout
the world has become a major concern [1]. Forest resources diminish as a result of
deforestation, which has negative impact on agriculture, medicine and economic
enterprises of man [1, 2]. Forest resources provide numerous goods and services to
man such as food, medicine, wood, fiber and energy, they were taken for granted in
Tropical Plant Species
the past because they were available almost everywhere but the situation has changed
due to adverse effects of human activities [3, 4]. Food insecurity remains a major
challenge in developing countries and insufficient nutrient intake causes severe
malnutrition affecting the populace [5].
Worldwide, the problem of food security leads to calorie deficit of more than
700,000,000 underfed people [6]. The valuation of edible fruits and vegetables
that are underutilized is one of the ways out of this impasse, a few examples of such
extinct fruit and vegetable species with potential to address global undernourishment
problems particularly those confronting the developing countries are Plukenetia
conophora, Saba senegalensis, Adansonia digitata and Ceiba pentandra. They are
potential sources of vitamins, minerals, antioxidants and phenols [7]. Indigenous
plant species are outstanding plants due to their numerous benefits. Many of them
are richer in protein and other nutrient contents [8]. They are good sources of macro
and micronutrients for human consumption; many indigenous fruits and vegetables
are characterized by a high nutritional value in comparison with global vegetables
like tomato and cabbage [9]. Notably, many are potential sources of vitamins and
macro and microelements with the ability to provide them to children and adult at
levels higher than those recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO)
[10]. Consumption of fruits and vegetables can improve health and prevent the risk of
developing chronic diseases including cancer [11]. Consuming adequate quantity of
food can be assured by utilizing nutrient-rich fruits and leafy vegetables accompanied
with staple food. Generally, indigenous plant species are important as food, medicine
and socio-economic value.
In spite of the numerous potentials of these indigenous crops, they have not been
cultivated like other tropical plant species in Nigeria as a result of lack of adequate
knowledge on their nutritional value, climatic requirement, fertilizer requirement
and agronomic practices. Crop yield is to a large extent, associated with its fertilizer
requirements, and maintaining the yield and quality of a newly introduced crop
involves suitable crop management practices to improve soil productivity [12, 13].
Soil amendment could be done using organic or inorganic fertilizer and may be
combined [14]. Therefore, investigating into food, nutritional, medicinal, climatic
and fertilizer requirements of these indigenous crops can provide evidence-based
information encouraging the cultivation of these wild species in order to remedy
food insecurity, improve the diet of the people and prevent the crops from going into
extinction. The information will also be useful to the food industries and pharmaceu-
tical companies.
. African walnut (P. conophora)
. Description
P. conophora Muell Arg. known as African walnut belong to Euphorbiaceae family
[15]. It is a climber that twines around cocoa and kola nut trees for support [16]
(Figure ). P. conophora is a small tropical flowering shrub, a woody perennial plant
6m – 18m long when it attains maturity stage; the stem can be as wide as 16cm and
turns dark gray as it ages, but it is green and glabrous at tender age [17]. The leaf is
simple, crenate and having serrated margin. They are spherical at the base with the
leaves arranged alternately [18, 19]. The seeds can be boiled and eaten as snacks [20].
Fruits not yet developed have green color but change from dark brown to black at
Lesser Known African Indigenous Tree and Fruit Plants: Recent Evidence from Literatures and…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104890
maturity [21]. The seed is white when cracked upon shell removal with a thin layer
between split halves. After eating the nut, the presence of chemical substances such
as alkaloids gives a bitter taste upon drinking water [22]. Walnut seeds are housed in
a pod having: one seed (single), two seeds (double), three seeds (triple), four seeds
(quadruple) and five seeds (quintuple) [23]. The walnut shells are usually black or
brown in color (see Figure ).
Figure 1.
Staked African walnut plants.
Figure 2.
African walnut capsules.
Tropical Plant Species
. Origin and distribution
Plukenetia conophora originated from tropical western and central Africa and it is
available in Nigeria, Cameroon, Congo, Central African Republic, Gabon, Niger, and
Sierra Leone [18, 24]. The African walnut is cultivated in Western and Eastern regions
of Nigeria [18]. It is found in Uyo, Akamkpa, Akpabuyo, Lagos, Akure, Kogi, Ajaawa,
Ogbomosho, Ibadan [25, 26], Ife, Ekiti and Osun State. In the South and cocoa pro-
ducing States in Nigeria, walnut is available [24, 27]. African walnut thrives on loamy
soils that are deep, fertile, moist and well drained. Walnut does well on silty clay and
loam soils [28, 29] and for optimum growth, walnut requires high solar radiation.
. Food and economic importance
P. conophora Muell Arg. is a multipurpose crop used for food, nutritional and
economic purposes in Africa. This plant is grown purposely for its nuts, boiled
in water and eaten as a snack [25]. In Nigeria, Sierra Leone and Ghana, the fruits
improve the livelihood of the rural people by providing income [30]. Extracted oil
from the nut is used in making wood varnishes, vulcanized oil for rubber, stand oil
and leather substitutes [31, 32]. Essential oils are usually extracted and used in food,
cosmetics, perfumes, soaps and drinks as flavor. It can also be used in treating skin
diseases and as remedy for cancer. Walnut peels (shell) combined with other materials
are used as filler in dynamite [33]. The shell can be included in catfish meal with no
negative effect on the performance and health status of the fish [34].
. Medicinal value
P. conophora have numerous ethno-medicinal uses among the African rural
populace. The leaves, root, bark and fruit are known for their medicinal values.
Walnut leaves are used to treat venous insufficiency, hypoglycemia, hemorrhoids,
indigestion, constipation, dysentery, diarrhea, syphilis, asthma, thrush, prolonged
and constant hiccups, pruritus, eczema, fungal and microbial infections, psoriasis
and parasitic skin conditions majorly among children, the elderly and immunosup-
pressed [35, 36]. African walnut can be used to expel worms; it can also treat rheu-
matism, kidney pain, cold, gout, cleaning of blood and abnormal menstrual bleeding
[37]. The succulent leaves are used as vegetable and for treating cancers growing in
the neck. They control inflammation of the gums and throat and mouth when used as
tea [33]. Brown dye is extracted from the husk and leaf which is used to manage hic-
cups [38]. The root is effective in the treatment of piles. It lowers the risk of develop-
ing cancer and it controls high blood pressure [37] and it can be used as an antidote to
snakebite, tonification of kidneys and strengthening of the back and knees [39]. The
bark can be used in tea as laxative, chewed to reduce toothache and to treat high blood
pressure while the root is used for frost bite and varicose ulcers [40, 41].
. Nutritional qualities
The seed and leaf of Plukenetia are good sources of nutrients that can ensure food
security and remedy malnutrition of the populace. Olajide et al. [42] evaluated the
variability in proximate quality traits of 10 accessions of Plukenetia conophora from
Southwestern Nigeria. They found that the seeds contained proximate contents and
established that location of seed collection significantly affected ash, crude fat, crude
Lesser Known African Indigenous Tree and Fruit Plants: Recent Evidence from Literatures and…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104890
fiber, dry matter, moisture content and nitrogen free extract, which suggests the
need for selection and also gives way to improvement program. Agbo and Baiyeri
[43] also reported variability in proximate and mineral qualities of five accessions of
African walnut, which probably suggests genetic diversity or more probably, could
be environmentally induced. Olajide et al. [42] also found that fresh and boiled
walnut is an excellent food material with the ability to combat food insecurity in
rural populace. They reported that the proximate composition in the nut include ash
(6.40 and 6.34%), crude protein (17.04 and 19.20%) crude fat (40.77 and 39.74%),
crude fiber (11.76 and 11.28%), dry matter (90.93 and 90.94%), moisture content
(9.07 and 9.06%) and nitrogen free extract (14.97 and 14.40%) for fresh and boiled
nuts respectively. Boiling positively influenced proximate qualities of African wal-
nut as it increased protein content and dry matter while it reduced ash, crude fat,
crude fiber, moisture content and nitrogen free extract. The proximate composition
of P. conophora shows that it contains carbohydrate (4.17%), ash (3.32%), protein
(29.14%), fat (54.14%) and various vitamin contents [44]. Suara et al. [45] reported
6.86% for moisture content, 11.78% for protein, 8.57% for total ash, 20.12% for
crude fiber, 1.56% for total fat and 51.8% for total carbohydrate. In addition, Olajide
et al. [46] evaluated the nutritional differences in 10 accessions of African walnut
obtained from Southwestern Nigeria as affected by collection center and processing
and the results suggested sufficient genetic variability in seeds of walnut obtained
from Southwestern Nigeria, emphasizing the possibility for selection. The nutritional
assessment of the seed revealed that the fresh and boiled seed contains iron (16.82and
24.59mg/kg), potassium (10781.0 and 10420.0mg/kg), magnesium (5076.0 and
4621.0mg/kg), phosphorus (162.7 and 229.7mg/kg), zinc (65.2 and 54.54mg/kg)
and sodium (729.2 and 718.2mg/kg). The results showed that processing had posi-
tively effect on iron, magnesium, phosphorus and zinc contents. Fresh seeds pos-
sessed higher quantity of zinc, potassium, magnesium and sodium compared to the
boiled seeds. Conversely, iron and phosphorus were more in boiled seeds. Enujiugha
[47] reported that walnut seeds contain mineral (465.95mg/100g of phosphorus,
57.37mg/100g of magnesium, 1.55mg/100g of iron and 6.84mg/100g of zinc).
Phytochemical contents revealed 0.243 and 0.31% of phenol, 0.0142 and 0.0179% of
phytate, 0.0851 and 0.0784% of tannin, 0.5419 and 0.5547% for alkaloid and 0.1396
and 0.1577% of glycoside for fresh and boiled nuts, respectively [48]. Concentration
of phytate, alkaloids, phenol and glycosides were more pronounced in boiled seeds
in comparison with the fresh nuts. On the other hand, higher value for tannin was
obtained in fresh seeds. Ekwe and Ihemeje [19] found tannins of 0.89mg/100g,
oxalate of 1.28mg/100g, phytic acid of 3.105mg/100g, trypsin inhibitors of
1.84mg/100g, saponin of 985.0mg/100g and alkaloid of 40.91mg/100g. However,
higher concentration of alkaloid of 2.670mg/kg and lower tannin of 0.56mg/kg were
recorded. Ayoola et al. [49] found that nutritional and elemental components are
more in the nuts than in the leaves. The phytochemical contents observed in the seeds
were also available in walnut leaves. The nut contained oil of 48–50%, the oil color is
golden yellow, the taste and odor resembles that of linseed oil [50].
. Climatic requirement
P. conophora is native to West Africa or Central Africa. It is abundant in Nigeria,
Congo, Ghana and Cameroon. It occurs in the rain-forest region and planta-
tions found at elevations from 250 to 1400m [51]. The plant thrives on fertile,
well—drained loam soils and can also grow on silt clay loam soils [29]. Generally,
Tropical Plant Species
subsistence farmers grow P. conophora around gardens and backyards in humid and
hot zones of tropical Africa [16]. It is also found in bottomlands, coves, rich wood-
lands and abandoned agricultural fields [52]. As a climber, the plant twines round the
host plant to the apex in order to trap sufficient sunlight.
. Cultivation
The plant thrives on deep, fertile, moist and well-drained loam soils [29]. The
African walnut is majorly grown for subsistence consumption in the humid and hot
regions of tropical Africa [16]. It does well in rich woodlands, fallow fields, bot-
tomlands and coves [52]. The plant twines round the host plant to settle at the apex to
receive more light from the sun, it may join trees to each other and hold a dead tree in
position until it decays. Flowering occurs from November to early January and fruit-
ing starts in February till September with the highest yield in July [16]. Walnut seed
takes about 4–6months to reach maturity stage [53].
. Fertilizer requirement
Prior to the introduction of inorganic compounds, soil fertility has been improved
through the breakdown of raw natural materials in the environment. This provided
the soil with the needed nutrients for crop growth from only organic matter and this
was enough in sustaining life [54]. Rob [54] noted that synthetic fertilizers do not
add to the humus content of soil nor substitute it. Growth and dry matter yield of
Amaranthus cruentus as affected by organic manure investigated by Daramola et al
[55] showed that soil amendment using organic nitrogen sources produced the tallest
plants, greater number of leaves, more branches and dry matter yield in comparison
with the control. Olajide [23] conducted a study on influence of four poultry manure
rates (0, 10, 20 and 30tha−1) on early growth of African walnut and reported that
morphological traits were positively affected with the application of PM at 10tha−1,
increase in PM beyond this rate resulted to a decline in growth of African walnut. The
decline in growth at 20tha−1 and 30tha−1 of PM indicated that adequate amount of
nutrients were released by the 10tha−1 of PM to complement the inherent nutrient in
the soil. Sufficient nutrient supply produced high quality and better nutritious plants
[56, 57]. As reported by Adebayo et al. [58], when manure is supplied at the required
quantity, plants tend to grow at their optimal potential.
. Saba (Saba senegalensis)
. Description
S. senegalensis (A. DC.) Pichon is a large woody liana with white latex [59],
from the Apocynaceae family [60]. The fruit is known as maad (Senegal), zaban
(Mali), malombo (Congo Basin), wèda (Burkina Faso) and côcôta (Côte d’Ivoire)
[61]. A climbing plant species that clings on other plants for support and growth
(Figures and ). Saba trees are upwardly mobile plant found in tropical West
Africa and the Western Sudan [62]. The plant can be grown in different ecologi-
cal zones with rainfall from 100mm to 1300mm per annum and an altitude
of 0–800m [63]. Saba can withstand bush fire and has the ability to suppress
Lesser Known African Indigenous Tree and Fruit Plants: Recent Evidence from Literatures and…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104890
weed (Figure ). The bark has a dark gray color [64, 65] and it can reach up
to 40 meters with the trunk above 40cm in diameter [64, 66]. S. senegalensis
fruit is a globulous envelope which contains seeds coated with yellow juicy pulp
[67] (Figure ). Juice from the fruit has become popular in urban areas of Côte
d’Ivoire, Mali, Guinée, Burkina Faso, Senegal and the Gambia. S. senegalensis fruit
has yellow pulp that is acidulous, tasty, sweet–sour when ripe and can be consumed
directly or processed into other products [60, 67]. The fruits are often traded in
towns and cities in most of the West African countries. In Nigeria, Mali, Burkina
Faso, Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire, clusters of the fruits are been sold like oranges along
the roadways. In Nigeria, the fruits of Saba are available from April to August.
Figure 3.
Saba senegalensis plants.
Figure 4.
Staked Saba senegalensis plants.
Tropical Plant Species
. Origin and distribution
S. senegalensis is native of Gambia, Ghana, Guinea and other African countries
[67]. It can thrive in different ecological zones having rainfall from 100–1300mm
annually, but mainly distributed along the river banks, open woodland and in rocky
hills [60, 62, 67]. It is found in the Sudan savannas as well as in the Guinean savannas
of Africa. It is a twining plant that normally needs staking. These areas are character-
ized by maritime trade winds with an average annual temperature range of 26–31°C,
a dry climate with considerable variations in humidity. Maximum of precipitation in
Figure 5.
Saba senegalensis flower.
Figure 6.
Saba senegalensis fruit.
Lesser Known African Indigenous Tree and Fruit Plants: Recent Evidence from Literatures and…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104890
these areas occurs in the month of August with rainfall lasting from 2 to 4months.
The average annual rainfall in these locations varied from 400 to 1200mm [68].
. Food and economic importance
S. senegalensis fruit can be eaten in various ways; fresh or seasoned with sugar, salt
or chilled [65, 67]. Saba fruit pulp is tart and pleasant to consume. In local communi-
ties, saba can be used to improve the taste of porridge made from cereals [59, 69]. The
fruit pulp can also be made into nectar, preserves, jams and jellies [70]. The inner part
of the shell is enveloped with superficial skin that can be eaten as chewing gum. The
leaves can be made into sauces and condiments [59]. The inner materials that envelop
the fruit pulp are dried and used to substitute lemon and tamarind [71]. Mechanical
extractor can be used to change the form, making it possible to produce a refined
puree that can be converted into different finished products like nectars, concentrated
bases, syrups and marmalades. Saba can be included in food products like yoghurt.
Saba fruits are highly cherished and highly prized in Africa, are the fruits are openly
hawked in cities which results to improvement in the economy of the rural farmers
[72]. The plant has the potential to suppress weeds and contributes to soil and water
conservation [73].
. Medicinal value
Saba has been used in herbal medicine with pronounced native applications.
Ethnobotany alludes that the leaves, roots and fruit have the potential of treating
certain diseases [74]. The fruits contained active compounds that could play a vital
role in preventing and treating metabolic diseases and certain vitamin deficiencies
[75]. Green fruits have the ability to fight against galactagogic, sterility and colic
[59]. Ripen fruits are antiscorbutic, anorexic, stimulating and tonic [76]. The green
fruits are preferred by the Fulani, which are prepared with salt; it is active in diuretic
drug [59]. In cases of food poisoning, the leaves can be used to reduce the effect, and
mashed leaves can as well be used in treating injuries [60]. When boiled, the vapor
released can be inhaled to reduce coughing and headaches [77]. It can also be used in
treating tuberculosis and pulmonary diseases; the leaves can prevent chronic head-
ache and vomiting [78]. The whit latex can be used to treat pulmonary diseases and
helps in fighting tuberculosis [68]. The powder from the dry root bark is effective in
wound healing [64]. The roots of saba are used in treating infertility in females and
skin burns. Root maceration, as a drink, is considered to be anti-hemorrhagic [59].
The latex is used as an adhesive in preparing poison for arrows. Saba leaves are made
into sauces and spices as an appetizer having salty taste.
. Nutritional qualities
The nutritional contents of the pulp are subject to very large variations, which are
obviously linked to the differences in climate, nature of the soil and various analyti-
cal methods employed [59]. S. senegalensis fruit have high nutritional composition
such as proximate, mineral, phytochemical and vitamin contents as established
by previous studies. It can improve nutrition and health of the household. Olajide
[23] evaluated the impact of four accessions on proximate, mineral, vitamin and
phytochemical contents of S. senegalensis fruit pulp from Kogi State, Nigeria. He
reported that ash content varied from 1.0–1.4%, percent carbohydrate values ranged
Tropical Plant Species
from 11.60–34.90%, fat content ranged from 0.2–0.3%, fiber was in trace amount,
moisture ranges from 63.6–86.5% and protein 0.09–0.18%. Oxalate value varied
from 14.0–18.4mg 100ml−1, phenol ranged from 11.2–13.4mg 100ml−1, saponin
varied from 0.4–2.5mg 100ml−1 and tannin ranges from 0.6–1.5mg 100ml−1. The
results also indicated that calcium ranged from 12.7–19.2mg 100ml−1, iron varied
from 0.02–0.08mg 100ml−1, potassium ranges from 0.1–0.3, phosphorus ranged
from 10.1–15.9mg 100ml−1 and zinc varied from 1.90–2.1mg 100ml−1. He also
found that vitamin B12 ranged from 0.05–0.07mg 100ml−1, vitamin B2 ranged from
0.7–4.8mg 100ml−1, vitamin B6 varied from 2.7–14.4mg 100ml−1, vitamin C ranged
from 34.3–66.9mg 100ml−1, while β-Carotene and vitamin E contents were 0.5 and
0.01mg 100ml−1, respectively. Like other fruits, saba has high amount of carbohy-
drates but the values varied widely (11–74.23g/100g) [60, 63, 70–72, 79, 80]. The oil
content is 0.2g/100g [81] and the crude protein values range from 0.8 to 0.3g/100g
[70, 79]. Boamponsem et al. [72] reported that S. senegalensis contains 47.5ppm of
magnesium, 810ppm of calcium and 357.5ppm of phosphorus. It also possessed
phenol (264.76mg/100g), phytate (31.18mg/100g), oxalic acid (381.33mg/100g)
and tannin (198.94mg/100g) [67].
Minerals such as calcium (51ppm), phosphorus (357.5ppm), magnesium
(47.5ppm) and potassium (152ppm) were present in saba fruit pulp [72] but very low
sodium content of <5ppm. Nafan et al. [62] documented that the fruit is a poten-
tial source of vitamin C ranging from 34.8 to 67.5mg/100g. With acidity varying
from 30 to 78.5meq/100ml; the acid taste of the fruit is high, hence the malic acid
of 47.2mg/100g [72]. According to Kini et al. [77] the fruit contains β-carotene
(1.559mg 100mg/100g). Saba fruit has high water content of 80% [79]. All these
components suggested that the fruits could supply the required nutrients and
improve the health of consumers.
. Climatic requirement
S. senegalensis can be found in West African countries and South Sudan [65, 72].
It can be seen growing along riverbanks [65], in woody savanna region and rocky
areas [61, 77]. These locations have maritime trade winds, annual temperature
of about 25–30°C and a dry climatic condition which varies in relative humidity.
Maximum rainfall occurs in August and lasts for 2 to 4months [70]. The species
survives in different ecological conditions having rainfall between 100mm to
1300mm per annum with an altitude of 0–800m [64, 65]. The plant is hardy and it
resists bush fire.
. Cultivation
Sales revenue for S. senegalensis fruits in Senegal are significant, accounting for 1/3
to 2/3 of farmers’ income [80]. Programs meant at increasing S. senegalensis produc-
tion and domestication are in place. Grafting of saba vine to encourage the domes-
tication and reduce the time of fruiting has been carried out [82]. There is limited
information or research work on fertilizer requirement for favorable growth of the
seedlings in the nursery and field for its domestication [83]. S. senegalensis is predomi-
nant in regions that have sandy-loam to sandy-clay-loam soils [84]. It is not known
whether physical and chemical properties of the soils are linked to the geographical
distribution of Saba.
Lesser Known African Indigenous Tree and Fruit Plants: Recent Evidence from Literatures and…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104890
. Fertilizer requirement of S. senegalensis
Food security, malnutrition and environmental degradation are being influenced
by low soil fertility, inappropriate use and poor nutrient management strategies.
Currently, there is dearth of information on the nutritional requirement and
domestication of Saba in Nigeria. In maintaining the yield and quality of new
crops, soil fertility management is of paramount importance [12]. The low fertil-
ity status of most tropical soils results in low crop production as most crops are
nutrient demanding. Inorganic fertilizer such as NPK has strong effect on plant
growth, development and yield [85]. Excessive use of NPK will result to loss of
soil fertility, which has adverse effect on agricultural productivity, soil degrada-
tion and even cause water pollution. Conversely, regular use of organic fertilizers
can improve organic matter content, water-holding capacity, enhance structure,
nutrient cycling, helps in soil conservation, increase cation exchange capacity and
encourage the activities of soil living organisms. Olajide et al. [86] evaluated early
growth pattern of four accessions of Saba (S. senegalensis) in response to seven
fertilizer rates (0tha−1, 20tha−1 of PM+200kgha−1 of NPK (20:10:10), 30tha−1
of PM, 30tha−1 of PM+100kgha−1 of NPK, 30tha−1 of PM+150kgha−1 of
NPK, 40tha−1 of PM and 50tha−1 of PM) in the nursery and found that fertilizer
application increased the growth traits measured compared to the control with no
fertilizer application. This could be linked to sufficient nutrient released by the
fertilizer that enhanced Saba growth. He further stressed that soil amendment with
50tha−1 of PM enhanced better growth of Saba seedling which indicates that this
amount is sufficient for plant growth and development. Olajide [23] examined the
effect of four PM rates (0, 10, 20 and 30tha−1) on early growth of Saba in the field.
He reported that soil amendment with PM at 20tha−1 positively influenced all the
growth attributes measured. When nutrients are supplied optimally, high quality
and better nutritious plants are produced [57]. Ndukwe and Baiyeri [13] found that
application of PM at 20tha−1 was optimum for the production of yellow passion
fruit in either the nursery or field.
. Baobab (Adansonia digitata)
. Description
Baobab (A. digitata Linn.) is a deciduous tree of the family Bombacaceae [87]. It
grows up to 20 to 30m tall with a diameter of 2–10m at adult age. The trunk is soft, it
has vast girth, reddish brown to gray smooth bark and possesses fibers used in mak-
ing rope and fish net [88]. The plant produces numerous branches, the lateral root
system can be up to 50m from the trunk (see Figures and ). The root end is tubular
while the taproot of the tree is shallow which does not grow beyond 2m depth making
them susceptible to storms [88]. The mature tree begins each season with the produc-
tion of simple leaves having 2 or 3 leaflets. The plant produces white, large, pendulous
flowers, and they appeared singly or paired in the leaf axils. The plant bears flower
towards the end of dry or prior to the commencement of rains usually after shed-
ding of leaves [89]. The fruit possesses outer shell, pulp and seeds (see Figure ).
The life span of baobab trees ranges from 200 to 300years and some can live beyond
1000years [89]. A. digitata has numerous uses, hence the name ‘tree of life and small
Tropical Plant Species
pharmacy’ as a results of its benefits including food, clothing, medicine, protection,
fiber, seeds, leaves and roots [90].
. Origin and distribution
Adansonia digitata is a tree originating from African savannah, Madagascar,
Australia and Arabia, of the family Malvaceae [90]. It is distributed in arid regions of
most countries of the Sahara. The trees are normally found in the thorn woodlands of
Figure 7.
Baobab plants at 4months after transplanting.
Figure 8.
Baobab plants pruned after 6months of transplanting.
Lesser Known African Indigenous Tree and Fruit Plants: Recent Evidence from Literatures and…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104890
African savannahs having low altitudes and 4 to 10 dry months yearly [90]. The tree
may grow alone, although it occurs in small groups, which depends on the nature of
the soil. Wherever baobab is found, it is majorly in the arid or semi-arid regions of
the world [91]. Baobab tree is seen in both settlements and in the wild. In Nigeria, the
baobab trees are widely found in North central States (Kogi, Benue, Niger and Kwara)
and Sudano-Sahelian parts of the country like Kano, Katsina, Sokoto, Zamfara, Kebi
and Jigawa States (Northwestern) and in the Northeastern (Yobe, Borno, Gombe,
Bauchi and Adamawa States) [91].
. Food and economic importance
Baobab is an important tree for the African countries [92]. Traditionally, the plants
have been used in many ways by people occupying the areas where they are available.
The fruit pulp plays a vital role in contributing to the diets of the local populace, and
it serves as seasoning material as well as appetizer [93]. When the pulp is soaked in
water, the liquid derived from it can be used in making drinks, it can also serve as
sauce for food, it can be fermented and used in local brewing [88, 93]. Recently, the
pulp has gained popularity and used as ingredient in making ice and other products
in urban centers [94–96], the pulp is made into juices and jams. The baobab fruit pods
can be burnt and the potash-rich salt obtained can be used for making soap [91]. The
European Commission has permitted the importation of baobab fruit pulp as new
type food for human use [97] which was approved as a food ingredient by the Food
and Drug Administration of the United States of America [98].
The seeds can be consumed fresh or dried, it can also be made into powder which
can be used to thicken soup, or roasted and made into a paste, or boiled, fermented
and then dried for use [87, 99]. The seeds can be pounded for the extraction of
Figure 9.
Baobab seed extraction.
Tropical Plant Species
vegetable oil used in soup preparation and it can be fermented into seasoning [94].
The oil extracted can also be used as fuel, cosmetic, medicine and for treating muscle
spasms, swollen veins, injuries and dandruff [100–102]. The seed is a potential source
of protein, and the roasted seeds are used to substitute coffee in Sudan and North
Africa [103].
Baobab leaves are important in traditional diets of the rural people as leafy
vegetables are rich in iron and vitamins. Young leaves are harvested, dried, made into
powder and used in making soup [87]. Fibers from the bark are used for weaving
bags, hats and mats [87]. The wood is light and whitish when dried and used for fuel
[104]. The tree provides shelter, clothing and material for hunting and fishing [94]. It
is a good source of dye and fuel. The roots, leaves, seeds and pulp are consumed and
it serves as a basic source of livelihood. Baobab trees provide shelter and it can store
water [94], with capacities of 1000 to 9000 liters per tree [105]. The products were
traded centuries ago being popular in Cairo markets in the sixteenth century [87].
. Medicinal value
Baobab possesses a lot of substances used for treating various diseases in African
traditional medicine [106]. In many medicinal uses the stem bark is ground for inter-
nal use and it is effective as a result of the presence of soluble and insoluble tannin
[107]. The plant parts are used treating diseases and specific uses that were docu-
mented includes the treatment of microbial infections, tuberculosis, malaria, anemia,
fever, diarrhea, toothache and dysentery [108]. The leaves and fruit pulp are used as
febrifuge and boosts the immune system [97, 109]. It is reported that baobab pulp is
used externally with buttermilk for relief from diarrhea and dysentery in India, and
also the fresh leaves are crushed and used to treat painful bruises [89]. In some West
African countries, the seeds, leaves, fruit pulp are major ingredients in beverages,
sauces and porridges [97, 107, 110].
. Nutritional qualities
Previous studies showed that baobab leaves are good sources of nutrients. Study
[23] that evaluated the effect of poultry manure application rates on nutritional
qualities of two accessions of baobab grown in Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria revealed
that ash ranges between 7.68–8.44%, carbohydrate varied from 51.70–58.50%, fat
ranged from 2.90–6.10%, fiber varied from 4.73–5.39%, moisture ranges from
7.40–14.10% and protein ranged from 14.25–18.29%. This author reported that
cyanogenic glycosides content obtained was 0.02mg/100g while flavonoids ranged
from 19.22–25.33mg/100g, oxalate varied from 36.70–66.70mg/100g, phenol ranges
from 50.00–146.00mg/100g, phytate ranged from 1.56–2.54mg/100g, saponin
varied from 0.09–0.10mg/100g and tannin ranged from 5.35–5.66mg/100g. The
concentration of phytate was within the tolerable limit of 5.72–9.22% [111] but
oxalate, phenol, saponin and tannin were above the tolerable limits of 5% [112], 2%
[113], 0.2% [114] and 3.3% [115], respectively. Since the leaves are not consumed raw,
the anti-nutrient contents may be significantly reduced by heat during the cooking
process. When plant parts are boiled in water, effects of poisonous anti-nutrients are
reduced, hence increasing their palatability [116]. Olajide [23] reported that calcium,
iron, iodine and zinc contents ranged from 89.70–98.10, 7.78–8.00, 7.83–8.44 and
0.90–0.93mg/100g, respectively. Value for vitamin B12 was 0.04mg/100g while vita-
min B6 varied from 0.54–2.28mg/100g, vitamin E ranged from 8.89–12.33mg/100g
Lesser Known African Indigenous Tree and Fruit Plants: Recent Evidence from Literatures and…
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and carotenoids ranges from 81.10–124.40mg/100g. The study also found that
poultry manure application rates significantly influenced moisture, iron, iodine, zinc,
vitamin B6, carotenoids and phenol contents in Baobab leaves. Baobab leaves contain
protein (13.6%), fat (2.71%), ash (4.08%), crude fiber (2.45%), (0.01%), moisture
(78.2%) and vitamin C (14.98mg/100g) [117]. Osman [118] observed that the seeds
possessed high quantities of fat, fiber, crude protein but low carbohydrate contents.
Consuming 20g can provide 15 to 34% recommended daily allowance of protein
for children; 60g can meet 27% of the recommended daily allowance for pregnant
women. Also, consuming 100g can supply about 22% recommended daily intake of
the energy for pregnant women and 29.4% recommended daily allowance of energy
for children [110]. Previous work of Arowora et al. [119] revealed 31.43mg/100g of
tannins, 124.36mg/100g of phenolics, 9.35mg/100g of alkaloids, 63.43mg/100g
of flavonoids and 14.63mg/100g of glycosides. Enoch et al. [120] reported that
baobab leaf contains sodium (0.870mg/l), magnesium (1.260mg/l), potassium
(4.118mg/l), calcium (0.780mg/l), iron (3.640mg/l) molybdenum (0.409mg/l)
aluminum (0.006mg/l), nitrogen (0.278mg/l) and phosphorus (0.162mg/l). Baobab
fruit contains α-carotene (0.17μg/g) and lutein (1.53μg/g) in dry weight [121]. Becker
[122] found riboflavin, thiamine and niacin content with respective values of 0.07,
0.04 and 2.16mg/100g dry weight.
. Climatic requirement
A. digitata is an enormous evergreen tree distributed across subtropical regions of
Africa such as South Africa, Botswana, Nigeria, Tanzania and Madagascar. The bao-
bab is also considered to be one of the oldest forms of life in Africa, some estimated
to be up to 3000years old [123]. The tree is restricted to hot, dry regions but lives
in various environments outside both the northern and southern edges of tropical
regions of Africa, more specifically outside latitude lines 16° N and 26° S [124]. Its
semi diverse stretch reaches biomes like scrub, woodlands, wooded savannah and
even semi-arid/semi humid tropical regions. A. digitata tree is usually seen in regions
with annual rainfall of 500 to 800m [125].
. Cultivation
Due to the medicinal, nutritional and cosmetic applications of baobab, it has
gained popularity and attracted the interest of a lot of pharmaceutical companies and
researchers in the past decade. As a result of the high demand for baobab products
in European Union and United States of America, the tree ought to be conserved,
treasured and domesticated in other parts of the world [126]. The plant is found in
hot, semi-arid regions, dry woodland and stony areas with low rainfall of 1500mm
per annum [94], it thrives on marginal soils but does well on well-drained, clays to
sandy soils, but not on deep sands, where it will be difficult for the plant to obtain
sufficient moisture and support [89]. In Africa, baobab is found at latitude 16° N
and 26° S, these areas do not have more than one day of frost in a year. It has slow
growth which could be as a result of low rainfall and low soil fertility. Assogbadjo
etal. [127] determined the perception and preferences of baobab products in Burkina
Faso, Benin, Senegal and Ghana, the study included women and men of different
ages. According to the survey, if the bark is easier to harvest, then the pulp and leaves
will be tastier; slimier pulp are less tasty; when the fruit capsules are longitudinally
marked, the tastier the pulp will be. The study indicated that farmers can use selected
Tropical Plant Species
combinations of attributes as a guide in germplasm collection. This knowledge could
be employed during the selection of a suitable planting material and a guide for a
domestication. Commercialization of baobab seed oil and fruit pulp is on the rise, in
addition, exportation worldwide has led to mounting pressure on this resource [87].
. Fertilizer requirement
In order to increase productivity to meet the nutritional requirements of human
population and to increase the household income, enhancement of soil health is a
critical factor. Soil fertility can be improved using organic or inorganic fertilizers
and may be combined [14]. Frequent utilization of inorganic fertilizers solely cannot
increase crop yield on poor soils [128]. Therefore, the need for organic soil amend-
ments to increase soil fertility and enhance the physicochemical and biological
properties for continuous production of crops. It was noted that amending the soil
with organic and inorganic fertilizers support the best crop performance [129, 130].
Olajide [23] who worked on the influence of three rates of PM (0, 15 and 30tha−1)
on early growth of baobab in Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria found that plots amended
with poultry manure performed better in terms of the growth attributes measured
compared to the control. The higher values of the morphological traits obtained
with poultry manure application suggests that baobab plants are highly responsive to
manure application. Poultry manure is the richest out of the animal manures, and it
is a valuable source of nitrogen and potassium as well as organic matter [12]. Organic
manure as soil amendment is highly important in order to sustain crop production
systems since it is a reliable source of nitrogen and carbon [131, 132] and it also mod-
erates soil pH [133]. Olajide [23] reported that application of 15tha−1 of PM increased
all the growth parameters evaluated than other poultry manure rates. Adebayo et al.
[58] reported that when manure is available in adequate quantity, plants tend to grow
at their optimal potential.
. Kapok (Ceiba pentandra)
. Description
C. pentandra is a tree belonging to Malvaceae family. It is a plant that is found in the
wild. The plant is called Kapok or white Silk-Cotton tree in English. It is known as “Araba”
in Yoruba, “Akpu-ogwu” in Igbo and “Rimi” in Hausa tribes of Nigeria [134, 135]. C.
pentandra is a fast-growing tree and can grow up to 24–70m high, having a diameter of
100–300cm. Universally, kapok is known to be among the largest trees. The stem and
large branches are usually crowded with conical spines (Figures and ). The palmate
leaves consist of 5 to 9 leaflets and can be up to 20cm (7.9 in) in length. The tree produces
hundreds of pods measuring 15cm (5.9in) with seeds surrounded by a fluffy fiber
which combines lignin and cellulose (Figure ). In Miami, Florida, one of the oldest
known trees lives at 200years [136]. Kapok fiber is light, water resistant, but it is highly
flammable. The harvesting, processing and separating the fiber is done manually and is
labor-intensive. Although it is difficult to spin, it is used alternatively to down for filling in
mattresses, pillows, upholstery, zafus and stuffed toys like teddy bears and for insulation.
Earlier, it was used in making life jackets and similar devices until synthetic materials
largely substituted the fiber. Oil extracted from the seeds is used locally in soap and fertil-
izer production [137].
Lesser Known African Indigenous Tree and Fruit Plants: Recent Evidence from Literatures and…
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. Origin and distribution
Ceiba pentandra is native primarily in West Africa where it is found in rainforests
typically at elevations of 900 to 1200 meters [138]. It is widely distributed in South
America—Brazil, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Colombia, the Guyanas; North
through Central America to Mexico; Caribbean; West tropical Africa [75]. Kapok is
a multipurpose tree with numerous uses for the local populace where it is grown. It
is highly valued for its fiber, and it also provides food, medicines and other products.
Figure 10.
Kapok plants at 5months after transplanting.
Figure 11.
Kapok plants at 11months after transplanting.
Tropical Plant Species
Kapok is widely grown in the tropics for its medicinal value and fiber, the plant exists
naturally in many areas [139]. It has long been planted around buildings in villages for
food, medicine, beautification purpose and other uses. However, the floss is harmful
as it causes irritation to the eye and nose, so the tree is not suitable for town planting.
Commercially, kapok is grown for the fiber from the pod in Java [75].
. Food and economic importance
The succulent leaves of kapok are used in soup preparation, which is comparable
to Okra, and it is used for eating starchy balls made from millet, cassava and yam
[140, 141]. The leaves are dried and made into powder used to prepare delicious soup
known as ‘kuka’ during dry periods [23]. Fresh and dry leaves made into powder are
hawked in the villages, which contributes to the rural farmer’s economy. Vegetable oil
extracted from the seeds can be used for bio fuel, soap making, paint preparation and
can also be used in manufacturing fertilizer [130]. The plant provides fiber and tim-
ber. The whitish cotton (floss) can be used for making mattresses, absorbent material,
pillows and tinder [141]. The wood is widely used in plywood manufacturing and in
making canoes. It is also used for musical instruments, mortars, carvings, lightweight
furniture and other items [130]. The foliage can be used in feeding ruminant animals,
trunk for plywood and wood pulp for paper. The fiber is used while dressing injuries;
applying the oil can treat rheumatism [130]. C. pentandra is known in folktale, it is
noted to be a sacred plant and its image is used as the national emblem of Guatemala,
Puerto-Rico and Equatorial Guinea. It appears on the coat of arms and flag of
Equatorial Guinea.
. Medicinal value
Leafy vegetables play a vital role in maintaining health of the populations and
diseases prevention. Large quantities of micro-minerals are obtained from dark green
Figure 12.
Kapok pods.
Lesser Known African Indigenous Tree and Fruit Plants: Recent Evidence from Literatures and…
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leafy vegetables which are essential in nutrient metabolism and slow down degenera-
tive diseases [142]. Gropper et al. [143] emphasized the importance of consuming
vegetable based meals to prevent colon cancer. Ball [144] found high vitamin, dietary
fiber and mineral contents in vegetables and the role they play in keeping up alkalinity
in the body. The high amount of fibers in green leafy vegetables assists in regulating
the digestive system, improving bowel health and weight management [145, 146]. The
leaves are recognized as having emollient and sedative contents. In Senegal, Kapok
leaves are mashed in water, which is drunk for general fatigue, stiffness of the limbs,
headache and bleeding of pregnant women. Young leaves are warmed, mixed with
palm oil and eaten against heart diseases. Leaf sap is used in treating skin infections
and mental illness. Leaf decoction is used by veterinary doctors in the treatment
of trypanosomiasis among others [137]. The bark contains a blackish mucilaginous
gum; it is astringent and is used in India and Malaya for bowel complaint and West
Africa for diarrhea [66]. It is also used for treating skin infection and tooth troubles
in Senegal. Bark macerations are credited with stimulant and antihelminthic proper-
ties. It is also a cure for heart trouble and hypertension [130]. The root forms part of
preparations to treat leprosy. The flowers are eaten to treat constipation and fruits
taken with water against intestinal parasites and stomach problem.
. Nutritional qualities
Many of the local vegetables are underutilized due to inadequate information
on their potentials to nourish the body with nutrients [147]. High utilization and
consumption of vegetables is crucial in alleviating universal incidence of nutritional
deficiencies [148]. Chemical analysis has shown that the leaves of C. pentandra
contain anti-nutrient, proximate, mineral and vitamin contents. Olajide [23]
reported that the succulent leaves of C. pentandra contain ash (8.59%), carbohy-
drate (55.60%), fat (1.50%), fiber (18.80%), moisture (3.34%) and protein (12.34).
As reported by Osuntokun et al. [137], it has protein (16.25%), fat (5.34%), fiber
(8.53%) ash (8.72%), moisture (7.32%) and carbohydrate (53.72%). Enechi et al.
[149] found 47.37% for moisture, 16.81% for protein, 25.23% for carbohydrate, 4.47%
for fiber, 2.23% for fats and 2.14% for ash. According to Olajide et al. [150], suc-
culent leaf of C. pentandra possess calcium (9.93mg/100g), iron (19.05mg/100g),
potassium (35.80mg/100g), magnesium (60.79mg/100g), phosphorus (78.50)
and zinc (0.59mg/100g). Shahin et al. [151] reported that the leaf contains
177.0mg/100g of calcium, 153.66mg/100g of potassium, 48.15mg/100g of mag-
nesium, 27.09mg/100g of zinc and 1.54mg/100g of iron. Olajide [23] obtained
0.012mg/100g for vitamin B12, 0.59mg/100g for vitamin B2 and 0.97mg/100g
for vitamin C in succulent leaves of Kapok from Kogi State, Nigeria. Earlier report
of Adepoju and Ugochukwu [141] found that Kapok leaves contain vitamin B2
(0.19mg/100g) and B12 (0.24mg/100g). Friday et al. [140] found that it contains
phenol (173.94mg/100g), oxalate (0.10mg/100g), tannin (0.48mg/100g) and
saponin (1.55mg/100g). Olajide et al. [150] also reported 0.19mg/100g of saponin,
107.10mg/100g of oxalate, 18.20mg/100g of phenol, 2.60mg/100g of phytate,
4.55mg/100g of tannin and 3.96mg/100g cyanide in succulent leaves of C. pentan-
dra sourced from Kogi State, Nigeria. The concentration of saponin content was
within the tolerable limits of 0.2% reported by Codex [152], but oxalate, phenol,
phytate and tannin contents of succulent leaves of C. pentandra were above the
tolerable limits of 5% [112], 2% [113], 9.22–5.72% [114] and 3.3% [115], respectively.
Since the leaves are not eaten raw, the anti-nutrient contents may be significantly
Tropical Plant Species
reduced by heat during the cooking process. Boiling significantly reduced the poison-
ous effects of anti-nutrients and increased the leaf consumption [116, 153]. Olajide
[23] conducted a study on the impact of integrated application of poultry manure
and inorganic fertilizer on mineral and vitamin constituents of C. pentandra leaves
grown in Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria. The results indicated that fertilizer applica-
tion rates only influenced zinc and calcium with 20tha−1 of PM having the highest
concentration of Zinc (0.45mg/100g) and integrated application of 5tha−1 of
PM+200kgha−1 of NPK recorded the highest value for calcium (145.00mg/100g).
Protein consumption is necessary due to role carried out by its essential and non-
essential amino acids as building blocks for protein biosynthesis not only for the
growth of infants and children, but also for the steady replacement and turnover of
body protein in adults [147]. Flavonoids have antiviral, antibacterial, antineoplastic,
anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic properties [148]. Tannins possess antioxidant,
antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties. Phenols are known as powerful
antioxidants, preventing oxidative damage to biomolecules such as DNA, lipids
and proteins which are active in chronic diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular
diseases [137]. Ascorbic acid/vitamin C empowers the body’s immunity against infec-
tion, helps in collagen and thyroxin synthesis and improves absorption of iron [147].
In living organisms, ascorbate (anion of ascorbic acid) is an antioxidant that protects
the body against oxidative stress and is a co-factor in several vital enzymatic reactions
[154]. These constituents give the leaves their protective, preventive and therapeutic
properties thus improving the gains that can be obtained by consuming these leaves.
. Climatic requirement
C. pentandra needs abundant rainfall but requires drier period for flower and
fruit production. It grows at altitudes as high as 4000m [155]. Night temperature
less than 17°C decreases the germination of pollen grains. This reduces areas where
the plant can be found. It thrives in latitudes of 20°N and 20°S and requires annual
rainfall of 1500mm. Where kapok is naturally distributed, the average rainfall is 750
to 3000mm per annum. The dry season should not exceed 4months. In drier regions,
water requirement by the plant can be met by providing irrigation [23]. For optimum
production, the tree is grown on deep, fertile well drained soils. Kapok is prone to
heavy winds and cannot survive bush fire. The plant is usually found in rainforest
and drier zones. Kapok is dominant in secondary forest and along the riverbanks and
is hardly found in primary forest. It is a fast growing plant with canopy developing
within few months if left undisturbed [156]. The tree may occur in large numbers in
humid to semi-arid regions. Kapok can be grown or self-sown; the seedlings should
be protected from fire and livestock [23].
. Cultivation
Kapok is a tropical plant found at height of 1200 meters, however, productivity
declines beyond 460 meters [144]. Optimal growth is achieved in locations with
yearly daytime temperatures range of 17–38°C, and kapok can withstand 12–40°C.
The plant could die at −1°C or less [72]. Fruit production could be delayed at noc-
turnal temperature of 20°C. Kapok enjoys a mean rainfall of 1500 to 2500mm per
annum, although it withstands 750 to 5700mm [72]. It tolerates long dry period range
of about 0–6months [157]. Kapok is the tallest indigenous plant in Africa [158]. It
thrives in a fertile, deep, moisture-retentive but well-drained loamy soil is preferred
Lesser Known African Indigenous Tree and Fruit Plants: Recent Evidence from Literatures and…
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[139, 159]. It does well at a pH range of 5.5–6.5 and it can also tolerate 5–7.5 [74].
Kapok is prone to wind; it prefers wind break for protection against strong winds
[139]. The tree may start bearing fruit at 4–5years, with increased production till
8years. The economic or production life of kapok tree can last for almost 60years
[74]. Leaf and flower production season are stable in drier regions where the plant is
distributed; in wet regions, production of leaf and flower are not regular. Anthesis
occurs in the night and ended at midday. The flower releases strong scent and secretes
nectar at the flower base, which is large and bisexual. Ripening of fruits occurs
at 80–100days after flowering, the dehiscent types splits with loosely fixed seeds
released and dispersed [74]. The light seeds are spread widely and find ideal germina-
tion conditions in abandoned agricultural land [74]. A single tree can produce over
300 pods yearly with an output of 20kg of fiber from 5years to 50years [139]. The
tree responds positively to coppicing. It has vigorous root system causing damage to
buildings and roads [160].
. Fertilizer requirement
Soil degradation as a result of deforestation, nutrients lost through leaching and
erosion has led to depleting fertility and caused decline in soil organic matter levels
[161, 162]. Soil amendment using organic manure is vital in increasing crop yield. A
fertile soil should possess an organic matter content of more than 3%. Soil amend-
ment could be in form of organic or inorganic or combined [14]. Previous studies
confirmed that combined application of organic and synthetic fertilizers supports
the best crop performance [129, 130]. Olajide and Baiyeri [163] who worked on the
effect of these rates (No fertilizer, 5tha−1PM+200kgha−1 NPK, 10tha−1PM,
20tha−1PM, 450kgha−1 NPK and 20tha−1PM+100kgha−1 NPK) on growth of
kapok in the field reported that 20tha−1 of PM applied solely increased the perfor-
mance of kapok plants. Olajide and Baiyeri [163] also found that soil amendment
using 450kgha−1 of NPK and other treatments combined with NPK reduced the
growth of kapok when compared with the plants in plots where no fertilizer was
applied. Inability of NPK fertilizer in increasing kapok might be associated with
acidification of the rhizosphere. It has been established that application of NPK
reduces soil pH and boosts soil acidification but addition of organic manure improves
soil acidification [164].
. Conclusion
It is quite evident from this review that tropical plant species provide a lot of
benefits to ensure food security, improve the health and socio-economic status of
the populations. These crops have nutritional, economic, medicinal and industrial
potential and can ensure healthy food system for the people. They can also play
an important role in climate resilience for sustainable environment. Their full
potential should be harnessed as it has been established that these crops are highly
responsive to fertilizer. They can be brought under regular cultivation culture
and the fruits and leaves accessed without the traditional search for them. This
information could encourage the domestication of these indigenous plant spe-
cies and guide the utility of these crops. Empirical studies [23] copiously quoted
in this review supports the possibility of adapting these forest species to regular
cultivation culture.
Tropical Plant Species
Author details
Kayode PaulBaiyeri1* and KolawoleOlajide2
1 Department of Crop Science, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria
2 Division of Agricultural Colleges, College of Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello University,
Kabba,KogiState, Nigeria
*Address all correspondence to: paul.baiyeri@unn.edu.ng
Furthermore, in harnessing the potential of these tropical plant species to the full-
est, this review outlined some key factors that could unlock their vast potential.
• Awareness: It is crucial to supply the stakeholders with knowledge with respect to
their nutritional, economic, industrial and medicinal values in order to increase
their acceptability and domestication.
• Domestication: No effort has been made to specifically cultivate these crops for
food. Most of these tropical plant species have been neglected for long; farmers
should be encouraged to grow them commercially. Government and the scientific
community should work alongside the farmers.
• Intervention of government: Production, harvesting, processing and marketing of
these crops require the support of government. Incentives can be made available
to farmers to boost their morale.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
© 2022 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0),
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided
the original work is properly cited.
Lesser Known African Indigenous Tree and Fruit Plants: Recent Evidence from Literatures and…
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.104890
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