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G. ATİK BAU 2022
ENERGY-EFFICIENT, REGIONAL BUILDING DESIGN APPROACH:
LESSONS FROM DAMASCENE VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE
Ghaid ATİK
FEBRUARY 2022
ENERGY-EFFICIENT, REGIONAL BUILDING DESIGN APPROACH:
LESSONS FROM DAMASCENE VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE
GRADUATE SCHOOL
OF
BAHÇEŞEHİR UNIVERSITY
BY
GHAID ATİK
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARCHITECTURE
IN THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE
FEBRUARY 2022
T.C.
BAHÇEŞEHİR UNIVERSITY
GRADUATE SCHOOL
02/02/2022
MASTER THESIS APPROVAL FORM
This thesis has been approved by the Graduate School which has
fulfilled the necessary conditions as Master thesis.
Prof. Dr. Ahmet ÖNCÜ
Institute Director
This thesis was read by us, quality and content as a Master's thesis
has been seen and accepted as sufficient.
Title, Name
Signature
Thesis Advisor:
Asst Prof DrYigit YILMAZ
2. Member:
Asst Prof Dr Mine DINCER
3. Member:
Asst Prof Dr Suzi Dilara
MANGAN
Program Name:
Architecture (English,Thesis)
Student's Name and
Surname:
Ghaid ATIK
Name of The Thesis:
Energy efficient,Regional Building Design Approach: Lessons From
Damascene Vernacular Architecture
Thesis Defense Date
02.02.2022
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I hereby declare that all information in this document has been obtained and
presented in accordance with academic rules and ethical conduct. I also declare
that, as required by these rules and conduct, I have fully cited and referenced all
material and results that are not original to this work.
Name, Surname : Ghaid Atik
Signature :
ii
ABSTRACT
ENERGY-EFFICIENT, REGIONAL BUILDING DESIGN APPROACH:
LESSONS FROM DAMASCENE VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE
Ghaid, Atik
Architecture Master’s Program
Supervisor: Assist. Prof. Yiğit Yilmaz
February 2022, 166 pages
The emergence of advanced technologies, globalization and modernization policies
has affected architectural and urban practices negatively. Nowadays, buildings are
considered the major source of greenhouse gas emissions and global warming. The
urgent need to reduce energy consumption and design more self-sufficient buildings
have made some countries comply with the Kyoto protocol. The directive of building’s
energy performance (EPBD, 2002) that was published in 2002 has emphasized two
aspects: reducing energy consumption and improving energy efficiency in buildings.
Moreover, the published recast of the directive (2010) has decided that all buildings
after 2020 have to be self-sufficient ‘nearly-zero energy’ buildings. Nevertheless, the
building sector in Syria is accounted for 50% of total energy consumption.
Furthermore, Syria is relying on fossil fuels to generate energy since the country has
yet to develop renewable energy capacity. Nowadays, the energy sector is in chaos due
to political conflict. Therefore, architects should enhance building performance and
design energy-efficient buildings that can be achieved by referencing vernacular,
regional strategies and understanding the dynamics of the region’s inhabitants to
achieve environmental sustainability goals and to create meaningful places.
This dissertation is drawing on damascene houses, accordingly, a comprehensive
analysis of the vernacular architecture and modern architecture of the city is conducted
to propose an energy-efficient, regional design guide for the hot-arid climate of the
region. Hence, the dissertation starts with discussing a brief contextualization of the
iii
previously done literature, it continues with the second chapter, which is providing a
comprehensive analysis of the vernacular dwellings in Damascus in terms of the early
settlements and the implemented regional, passive strategies. The third chapter is
discussing regionalism in architecture, architectural identity, and the socio-cultural
aspects that are affecting energy consumption. Thus, the chapter is investigating the
tangible and intangible dimensions of Damascene buildings, besides; the abandoned
vernacular strategies are discussed. After the first three chapters, the data is collected
to propose design strategies in chapter four that could cope with the user(s) and the
climate. Finally, a new design that is relying on an existing representative case is
proposed. Thus, the dissertation aims to provide an energy-efficient, regional guide
model for architects to follow.
Keywords: Energy-efficiency, Regional architecture, Vernacular dwellings,
Damascene houses, Architectural identity.
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ÖZ
ENERGY-EFFICIENT, REGIONAL BUILDING DESIGN APPROACH:
LESSONS FROM DAMASCENE VERNACULAR ARCHITECTURE
Ghaid, Atik
Architecture Masters Program
Supervisor: Assist. Prof. Yiğit Yilmaz
Şubat 2022, 166 sayfa
Gelişen teknoloji , globalleşme ve modernleşme politikaları, mimariyi ve kentsel
uygulamaları olumsuz etkilemiştir. Günümüzde binalar, sera gazı salınımı ve
küresel ısınmanın en büyük kaynağı olarak değerlendirilmektedir. Enerji
tüketimini azaltma ve daha fazla kendi kendine yeterli binalar tasarlamaya
yönelik acil ihtiyaç, bazı ülkelerin Kyoto protokolüne uymasını sağlamıştır. 2002
yılında yayınlanan Binaların Enerji Performansı Direktifi (EPBD, 2002) iki adet
konuya vurgu yapmıştır: Binalarda enerji tüketimini azaltmak ve enerji
verimliliğini arttırmak. Ayrıca direktifin yeniden yayınlanan düzenlenmiş hali
(2010), 2020 yılından sonra Avrupa Birliği’ndeki tüm binaların kendi kendine
yeterli ‘sıfır enerji binaları’ olması gerektiğine karar vermiştir. Bununla beraber,
Suriye’deki inşaat sektörü ülkedeki toplam enerji tüketiminin %50’sini
oluşturmaktadır. Ayrıca, ülkede henüz yenilenebilir enerji üretimi olmadığından
dolayı, enerji üretimi fosil yakıtlara dayanmaktadır. Günümüzde enerji sektörü
siyasi çatışmalar nedeniyle kaos içerisindedir. Bu nedenle mimarlar, çevresel
sürdürülebilirlik hedeflerine ulaşmak ve anlamlı yerler yaratmak için yerel,
bölgesel stratejileri ve bölge sakinlerinin dinamiklerini anlayarak bina
performansını arttırmalı ve enerji bakımından verimli binalar tasarlamalıdır.
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Bu tez Şam evlerine dayanmaktadır, buna göre, bölgenin sıcak-kuru iklimi için
enerji verimli, bölgesel bir tasarım rehberi önermek için şehrin yerel ve modern
mimarisinin kapsamlı bir analizi yapılmıştır. Bu nedenle, bu tez, daha önce
oluşturulmuş literatürün kısa bir tartışmasıyla başlar, Şam’daki yerel konutların
tarihsel gelişimi ve uygulanan bölgesel, pasif stratejiler açısından kapsamlı bir
analizi ileikinci bölüm devam eder. Üçüncü bölümde, mimaride yerelliği,
mimari kimliği ve enerji tüketimini etkileyen sosyo-kültürel yönlerini tartışılır.
Bu nedenle, bu bölüm Şam yapılarının somut ve soyut boyutlarını
incelemektedir. Ayrıca, terkedilmiş yerel stratejiler tartışılır. İlk üç bölümden
sonra, dördüncü bölümde kullanıcı(lar) ve iklim ile başa çıkabilecek tasarım
rehberi önermek için veriler toplanır. Son olarak, şu anda var olan temsili bir
konut yapısı üzerinden sunulan tasarım rehberi uygulanarak enerji verimli bir
tasarım önerilmiştir. Böylece tez, mimarların takip etmesi için enerji bakımından
verimli, yerel kaygılar taşıyan bir tasarım rehberi ortaya koymaktadır.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Enerji Verimliliği, Bölgesel Mimari, Yerel Konutlar, Şam
Evleri, Mimari Kimlik.
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In loving memory of my father, Dr Salah Atik who was fascinated by Damascus and
its vernacular architecture “you will always be remembered and in my heart”. Words
cannot express how grateful I am to my mother Dr Bayan Abdulmunem, whose love
and prayers surrounded me, without her encouragement and support I would not be
the person I am today. I hope I have made you proud
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am filled with special gratitude for all the people who supported me during this
inspirational journey, which would have been impossible without the support and
guidance from my supervisor and family.
I would like to express my deepest appreciation and gratitude to my supervisor,
Dr Yigit Yilmaz for his valuable guidance and enlightenment feedback that kept
me firmly on the right path to write my thesis. I am indebted to him for his time
and energy spent on this work, he never hesitated to offer me help when I needed
so thank you.
My special and sincere thanks to my family and my siblings, Yaman, Abdulkader
and Tala for their unconditional love and endless encouragement to see me
achieve my Master’s degree. To my love, architect Hozaifa Orfali for his love,
support and inspirational ideas during this journey thank you for being in my life.
Finally, I would like to thank my friend, architect Ahmad Jamaleh for his effort
and help with the modern villa case. Also, special appreciation for all the
professors that I took their courses at Bahcesehir university during my grad
study. Thank you all.
viii
TABLE OF CONTENT
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................. ii
ÖZ ............................................................................................................................... iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ......................................................................................... vii
TABLE OF CONTENT ............................................................................................ viii
LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................... xi
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................... xii
Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Motivation .............................................................................................. 1
1.2 Problem Definition and the Aim of the Study ....................................... 2
1.3 Scope and Research Questions .............................................................. 3
1.4 Methodology .......................................................................................... 5
1.5 Thesis Outline ........................................................................................ 7
1.6 Limitations ............................................................................................. 9
1.7 Literature Review ................................................................................... 9
1.7.1 Introduction to the concept of architectural identity.................... 10
1.7.2 Regionalism and vernacular architecture. ................................... 12
1.7.3 Energy-efficiency and passive design. ....................................... 14
Chapter 2: Energy-Efficiency: Damascene Courtyard House Analysis .................... 22
2.1 Damascus and Damascene Architecture Background ......................... 22
2.1.1 History of urban and architectural practices in Damascus (333
B.C- 1919). ......................................................................................................... 23
2.1.2. Settlement standards. ................................................................. 28
2.1.2.1. Location and topography.............................................. 28
2.1.2.2. Orientation.................................................................... 29
2.1.2.3. Urban fabric. ................................................................ 30
2.1.2.4. Landscaping. ................................................................ 35
2.1.3. Houses’ characteristics. ............................................................. 38
2.1.3.1. Form. ............................................................................ 38
2.1.3.2. Space organization and house sections. ....................... 39
2.1.3.3. Envelope. ...................................................................... 42
2.2 Climatic Considerations ............................................................................ 47
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2.2.1 Hot-arid climate analysis. ................................................................ 49
2.2.2 Regional climatic standards. ............................................................ 50
2.3 Energy-Efficiency and Sustainability Aspects .......................................... 51
2.3.1 Urban passive design strategies. ...................................................... 51
2.3.2 Vernacular dwellings’ passive design strategies. ............................ 53
2.3.2.1 Passive cooling. ................................................................... 54
2.3.2.2 Passive heating. ................................................................... 61
2.3.2.3 Daylight. .............................................................................. 62
2.3.3 Indoor environmental quality. .......................................................... 63
Chapter 3: Regional Architecture: a Critical Discussion on Today’s Damascene
Dwellings ................................................................................................................... 68
3.1 The Concept of Identity: “The Spirit of a Place” ................................ 68
3.2 Regionalism in Architecture, Vernacular Dwellings Background....... 73
3.3 Reading the Place: the Tangible and Intangible Dimension Of
Damascene Homes ................................................................................................. 75
3.3.1 Early home-making. .................................................................... 77
3.3.1.1 Spatial damascene home. ................................................ 79
3.3.1.2 Sensory damascene home. .............................................. 82
3.4 Rethinking Vernacular Abandoned Strategies ..................................... 83
3.4.1 Orientation. ................................................................................. 84
3.4.2 Local materials. ........................................................................... 86
3.4.3 Courtyards. .................................................................................. 87
3.4.4 Passive design strategies. ............................................................ 88
3.4.5 Identity and local dynamics. ....................................................... 89
3.5 “Modern” Urban Plan Of Damascus .................................................... 91
3.5.1 Ecochard-Banjoyas' urban plan .................................................. 91
Chapter 4: Methodology: Energy -Efficient, Regional Building Design proposal .... 94
4.1 Design Guide ........................................................................................ 94
4.1.1 Urban planning strategies. ............................................................ 95
4.1.2 Architectural design strategies . ................................................... 98
4.1.2.1 Identity and privacy: the geometry of home. ................... 98
4.1.2.2 Landscaping and orientation. ......................................... 101
4.1.2.3 Form and space organization. ........................................ 103
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4.1.2.4 Envelope. ........................................................................ 105
4.1.2.5 Materials ......................................................................... 111
4.1.3 Integration of passive design strategies. ..................................... 114
4.1.3.1 passive cooling strategies. .............................................. 114
4.1.3.2 Passive heating strategies. .............................................. 117
4.1.4 Active systems design strategies. ............................................... 120
4.1.4.1 Photovoltaic systems. ...................................................... 122
4.2 Application of Passive Design Strategies on Existing Detached Villa
House in Damascus. ............................................................................................. 124
4.2.1 Case study analysis. ....................................................................... 124
4.2.1.1 Location and site characteristics……………………… 124
4.2.1.2 Envelope analysis……………………………………...127
4.2.1.3 Daily life habits of the users…………………………...128
4.2.1.4 Thermal comfort and active heating/cooling systems…130
4.2.2 Reviving abandoned vernacular strategies. ................................... 131
4.2.2.1 design proposal................................................................... 131
4.3 Findings ................................................................................................... 140
Chapter 5: Discussion and Conclusion .................................................................... 144
5.1 Discussion ........................................................................................... 144
5.2 Conclusion .......................................................................................... 147
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................ 149
APPENDICES ......................................................................................................... 165
xi
LIST OF TABLES
TABLES
Table 1 Plants in the Courtyard of Damascene Houses (Author's own) .................... 37
Table 2 Performance of Glazing Percentage in Different Walls Orientation. (Monna
& Masera, 2010)....................................................................................................... 110
Table 3 Approximate Performance of Glazing Percentage in Different Walls
Orientation of the House Units (Author’s own). ...................................................... 127
xii
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURES
Figure 1 Research Context (Author’s own). ................................................................ 4
Figure 2 Research Methodology flowchart (Author’s own). ....................................... 7
Figure 3 Urban and Architectural Identity Components (ÖKESLİ & Gürçınar,
2012). ......................................................................................................................... 11
Figure 4 Hybrid Solution for Low Energy Building (Edwin Rodriguez-Ubinasa,
Rodriguez, Voss, & S. Todorovic, 2014) ................................................................... 15
Figure 5 The Three-Tier Approach to Sustainable Design (Lechner, 2014). ............ 16
Figure 6 The Three-Tier Approach for Passive Cooling (Lechner, 2014). ................ 19
Figure 7 The Three-Tier Approach for Passive Cooling (Lechner, 2014). ................ 20
Figure 8 The Three-Tier Approach for Lighting (Lechner, 2014). ............................ 21
Figure 9 Hellenistic City in Damascus (Burns, 2005). .............................................. 24
Figure 10 Greek Courtyard Houses (Schoenauer & Seeman, 1962). ........................ 24
Figure 11 Roman City (Burns, 2005). ........................................................................ 25
Figure 12 Roman Courtyard Houses (Schoenauer & Seeman, 1962). ....................... 25
Figure 13 Great Umayyad Mosque of Damascus (https: // yazargokcenur. wordpress.
com)............................................................................................................................ 26
Figure 14 Al Azem Palace (http://bornindamascus.blogspot.com/2020/12/). ........... 27
Figure 15 Map of Damascus. (https: // reliefweb.int/ sites/ reliefweb.int/ files/
resources/ damascus_city_reference_map_20160922.pdf)........................................ 29
Figure 16 The Geographical Location and City’s Orientation (Author’s own) ......... 30
Figure 17 Old City’s Main Gates (Translated and edited by the author). .................. 31
Figure 18 Districts of The Old City (Bakeer, 2021). ................................................. 31
Figure 19 A Sketch of Sibat in Old Damascus. (https: //tr. pinterest.com/ pin
/373306256617933543/, edited by the Author). ........................................................ 32
Figure 20 Paths in Al Nakashat Quarter (Kabrit, 2000)............................................. 33
Figure 21 Main Landmarks in Damascus (pictures were collected by the author). ... 35
Figure 22 Damascene Courtyard House Form Diagram (Author’s own). ................. 39
Figure 23 The Ground Floor of Al-Tabaa House (Kabrit, 2000). .............................. 41
Figure 24 The First Floor of Al-Tabaa House (Kabrit, 2000).................................... 42
Figure 25 Flooring Type at Khaled Al-Azm House (Kabrit, 2000). .......................... 43
Figure 26 Adobe Wall Section (Kabrit, 2000). .......................................................... 43
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Figure 27 Interior Elevation in Al-Azm Palace, Al-Ablaq Stone is Used for
Covering, (Kabrit, 2000). ........................................................................................... 45
Figure 28 Pazar Bashi House, Roof and Ceiling Structure (Kabrit, 2000). ............... 47
Figure 29 Hot-Arid Climatic Zones (Wakil & Seraj, 1989). ..................................... 49
Figure 30 Average Temperatures in Damascus During The Year (https: //www.
meteoblue.m /ar/weather/historyclimate/ climatemodelled/) ..................................... 50
Figure 31 Precipitation Rate in Damascus (https: //www. meteoblue. com/ ar/
weather/ historyclimate / climatemodelled/) .............................................................. 50
Figure 32 Air Movement in Old Damascus’s Alley (Author’s own)......................... 53
Figure 33 Air Movement in Damascene Vernacular Houses (Author’s own) ........... 55
Figure 34 Form Techniques For Passive Cooling in Damascene Houses (Behsh,
1988). ......................................................................................................................... 55
Figure 35 Thermal Zones in a Damascene Vernacular House ‘Al-Dada House’
(Kabrit, 2000). ............................................................................................................ 56
Figure 36 Evaporative Cooling “Fountain Method” in Damascene Vernacular
Houses (Author’s own). ............................................................................................. 57
Figure 37 Evaporative Cooling Method. (Cain et al., 1976). ..................................... 58
Figure 38 Mashrabiya’s Blusters (Samuels, 2011). ................................................... 59
Figure 39 A Mashrabiya in A Damascene Vernacular House (Autor’s own). .......... 59
Figure 40 Natural Ventilation ‘Multi-level Windows’ (Autor’s own)....................... 61
Figure 41 Passive Heating in Damascene Houses (Autor’s own).............................. 62
Figure 42 Daylighting in Damascene House’s Qaah (Autor’s own). ........................ 63
Figure 43 Formation of House’s Identity (Autor’s own). .......................................... 71
Figure 44 Process of Adaptation (Autor’s own). ....................................................... 72
Figure 45 The Relationship Between the Tangible And Intangible Elements (Malec,
2018). ......................................................................................................................... 77
Figure 46 Houses’ Entrances Location To Ensure Privacy (Ferwati, 1992).............. 80
Figure 47 Damascene Houses Types And Room Arrangements, Vernacular and
Modern (Ferwati, 1992). ............................................................................................ 85
Figure 48 The Replacement of Mashrabiya With Sliding Shutters (Edited by the
Author). ...................................................................................................................... 89
Figure 49 Slums in Damascus (https: //www. flickr. com/ photos/75554425
@N03/33476577068) ................................................................................................. 93
xiv
Figure 50 Shaded spaces created by considering H/W ratio and vegetation (Author's
own) ........................................................................................................................... 97
Figure 51 The Sense of Place (Author’s own) ........................................................... 99
Figure 52 Closed Windows and Balconies in The ‘Modern’ Part of Damascus
(Alhawasli & Farhat, 2017)...................................................................................... 100
Figure 53 Screen Block Fence Can Be Considered in the Front or Backyard
(Author’s own). ........................................................................................................ 101
Figure 54 Sun path and buildings’ suggested orientation (Author’s own). ............. 102
Figure 55 Landscaping And Orientation Strategies for The Hot-Arid Climate
(Author’s own). ........................................................................................................ 103
Figure 56 Shades Created by Building Form (Author’s own) ................................. 104
Figure 57 Proposed Courtyard House Ratio And Bubble Diagram (Author’s
own). ........................................................................................................................ 105
Figure 58 Ventilated Double Roof Strategy (Author’s own) ................................... 107
Figure 59 Suggested Double Skin Façade for Curtain Walls (Author’s own) ......... 108
Figure 60 Envelope's Materials Characteristics in Hot-Arid Climate (Author's
own) ......................................................................................................................... 113
Figure 61 Bernoulli Effect With Earth-Air Heat Exchanger (Author's own). ......... 115
Figure 62 Shading Devices Types (Wakil & Seraj, 1989). ...................................... 116
Figure 63 Ecooler Screens (Emdadi, et al., 2016).................................................... 117
Figure 64 Southern Elevation ‘Direct Heat Gain’ With Consideration of Vertical
Movable Louvre System (Author’s own) ................................................................ 118
Figure 65 Thermal Mass Technique (Author’s own). .............................................. 118
Figure 66 Half-height tromb wall to control heat gain (Lechner, 2014). ................. 119
Figure 67 Ventilated tromb wall with shading (Dabaieh & Elbably, 2015). ........... 119
Figure 68 Hybrid System Earth-air Heat Exchanger With Water Spray Channel
(Ahmadi, Shahrestani, Sayadian, Maerefat , & Poshtiri , 2021) .............................. 122
Figure 69 Application of PV system on the roof (Lechner, 2014). ......................... 123
Figure 70 Application of PV systems on the building’s façade (Lechner, 2014). ... 123
Figure 71 The Neighbourhood of The Case Study (https://mapio.net/pic/p-409765/).
.................................................................................................................................. 124
Figure 72 Selected Villa (Author's own). ................................................................. 125
Figure 73 Ground Floor of the Selected Modern Villa (Author's own). .................. 126
Figure 74 First Floor of the Selected Modern Villa (Author's own). ....................... 127
xv
Figure 75 Exterior Wooden Louvered Shutters of the House (Author's own). ........ 128
Figure 76 Occupied Hours During Summers and Winters (Author's own). ............ 129
Figure 77 Approximate Operating Hours of Active Heating and Cooling Systems
Throughout the Year (Author's own). ...................................................................... 130
Figure 78 Proposed site plan (Author's own). .......................................................... 132
Figure 79 Existing and Proposed Spatial and Thermal Zoning(Author's own ) ...... 133
Figure 80 Proposed Modification and Space Organization to the representative Base
Case (Author's own). ................................................................................................ 134
Figure 81 Ground Floor and Proposed Ground Floor (Author's own) ..................... 135
Figure 82 First floor and proposed first floor (Author's own). ................................ 136
Figure 83 Semi-Opened Gathering Space "Iwan" (Author's own). ......................... 136
Figure 84 Implementation of Cantilevered Facade, Mashrabiya and Bernoulli Effect
to Enhance Thermal comfort (Author's own). ......................................................... 138
Figure 85 Backyard With high Fences, Green spaces, and Screen Block to Allow
Summer Breeze (Author's own) ............................................................................... 138
Figure 86 First Floor's Terrace (Author's own). ....................................................... 139
Figure 87 Ecooler Screens Between the Kitchen and Dining Room. (Author's
own) ......................................................................................................................... 139
1
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Motivation
“Do you know how a human can live in a bottle of perfume? Our house
was that bottle…Those who lived in Damascus, and strolled around the narrow
lanes and alleys know how paradise could open its arms for them without
waiting…” (Our Damascene house, Nizar Qabani)
Arab countries are known for their architectural and urban legacy, where
traditional vernacular architecture was common in the region. However, at the
end of the 20th century, these countries have witnessed radical changes on several
levels, as a result of the emergence of globalization policies, advanced
technologies and oil exploration in many of them. These changes had a deep
impact on the inhabitants and their relationship with the built environment.
Unfortunately, Damascus the capital of Syria is one of those cities that
witnessed radical changes that affect the inhabitants’ dynamics. Moreover, its
vernacular regional houses were replaced with modern ones, which could not
serve the users, arouse the sense of individuality, or respect the environment.
Nowadays, the building sector is accounted for 40% of energy consumption
(Cao, Dai, & Liu, 2016), the percentage urged developed countries to plan
protocols that could reduce energy consumption which helps decrease
greenhouse gases. Thus, the main aim of these protocols is to deal with the global
warming issue by improving the energy performance of building stock through
net-zero-energy buildings concept.
The main motivation of the study is, to investigate how the vernacular
dwellings of Damascus achieved reflecting the identity of the region, cope with
the dynamics of the inhabitants and be in harmony with the climate, topography,
and used natural resources as the main source of energy. Moreover, how
vernacular architecture evolved building strategies and techniques to serve the
inhabitants and the environment; for instance, Al- Mashrabiya serves the
traditions ‘intangible dimension’ the sense of privacy and the ‘tangible
dimension’ passive design element since it reduces direct access to sunlight at
the same time
2
Having discussed the motivation of the study, the thesis is seeking to
connect the theory and practice of energy-efficient sustainable design, by
investigating the tangible and intangible dimensions and strategies of vernacular
dwellings in Damascus to propose a ‘new design guide’, which gathers the
discussed aspects to present an energy-efficient, regional building that serves the
user and evokes the sense of individuality.
1.2 Problem Definition and the Aim of the Study
Since the last third of the 20th century, the Arab world started to be
negatively influenced on the architectural and urban level. The traditions,
architectural identity and crafts started to fade in the region day by day. Besides,
modernization and globalization policies have led to the emergence of
inappropriate architectural and urban practices in many countries and historical
cities, such as the case of the thesis “Damascus” under the name of modernity.
As a result, the vernacular dwellings in Damascus “the Damascene houses”
and their main elements were mostly being replaced by more “modern” ones or
neglected, such as the core of the vernacular Arab houses that used to link the
interiors, and helped improve indoor environmental quality ‘the courtyard’.
However, with the absence of the courtyard in the new apartment houses, we can
highly witness a large spreading of balconies all around the city, which could not
function, or act like the courtyard did with reducing energy consumption or
ensuring the required privacy. Therefore, the new damascene “copy, pasted”
houses could not cope with today’s needs of achieving thermal comfort, reducing
energy, or reflecting the identity of the region and the users.
Consequently, the thesis aims to study the vernacular dwellings of
Damascus in a hot arid region, its formation characteristics, elements and
strategies to propose a new design approach “guide model” for contemporary
architecture to help enhance building performance and reduce energy
consumption. According to Hasan Fathy’s saying, “Once you have mastered the
craft, you can use it for whatever purpose you choose.” Thus, the thesis is
drawing on the ‘traditional architectural practices’ and ‘the identity’ of the region
to produce regional buildings that reflect local values and evoke a sense of
uniqueness. Finally, the dissertation aims to create a point of intersection where
the theories of the region’s identity, Syrian culture, and contemporary energy-
3
efficient design practices meet; as a contribution of the evolution of the
vernacular to today’s architecture.
1.3 Scope and Research Questions
This thesis is focusing on three main research areas while investigating the
vernacular dwellings: Identity, site characteristics, and design practices, to
achieve the thesis aims and propose a new design. Indeed, investigating the
dynamic interaction of the mentioned research areas manage to reveal crucial
points: Firstly, how the early settlements in old Damascus and the form of the
vernacular house are directly affected by the traditions, identity and daily habits
of the inhabitants. Secondly, how the mentioned effective elements would help
to achieve contemporary energy-efficient buildings. Moreover, the Climate
responsive design approaches of the house are analysed, to propose design
solutions for contemporary buildings and reduce energy consumption. Thus, the
dissertation hopes to foster the recognition of regional self-efficient buildings
among the studied area, by bringing together diverse methodologies and
concepts while studying it.
The chapters of the thesis focus on the mentioned research area and connect
the concept of identity and theory of place with energy-efficient design practices
(Figure 1). Besides, the study focuses on vernacular residential buildings in
Damascus, Syria. Hence, settlement characteristics, building features, and
passive design strategies of the vernacular architecture and a brief on the current
architectural practices are highlighted, discussed and included to present a
suitable design approach (an improved design model of vernacular architecture
for the capital of Syria).
4
Research area in studying the vernacular architecture ‘Damascene houses’
to propose a new regional energy efficient-design
Figure 1. Research context (Author’s own).
Achieving energy efficiency, relying on regional sources, reflecting the
dynamics of the inhabitant, emphasizing the local identity, and the tactile
dimension of a place are the main aspects to achieve “regional, net-zero energy
buildings”. Hence the main questions of the research are:
1. Can the vernacular architecture of Damascus present a model of sustainable
design for contemporary buildings in the hot-arid climate of the city to enhance
buildings performance, reduce energy consumption and reflect the local
values?
2. What are the main elements and strategies from vernacular Damascene houses
that contemporary buildings should evolve and follow?
3. How studying the identity and dynamics of the place “vernacular dwellings”
could improve the process of achieving energy-efficient regional buildings?
4. How to link the identity of a place, the dynamics of the inhabitants and energy
efficiency to propose new approaches for regional, energy-efficient residential
buildings?
5
1.4 Methodology
This thesis employs a scientific, analytical, cultural framework that
synthesizes vernacular architecture practices, energy efficiency, and cultural
studies. The major goal of the thesis is to investigate the identity of Damascene
vernacular dwellings and their climate-responsive features, which can be applied
to enhance the energy efficiency of contemporary buildings, in particular the
residential sector in a hot arid climate. Hence, the research methodology of the
thesis relies on two main stages.
1. Damascene architecture analysis
2. Design guide and new design determination.
The first stage includes a comprehensive, analytical literature review on
Damascene vernacular dwellings. Furthermore, energy efficiency in Damascene
courtyard houses and a critical ‘regional architectural’ discussion on today’s
damascene dwellings are the main searched aspects of the analysis. Indeed, a
review of the dynamics and the mechanisms of the mentioned aspects helps to
provide a sensible framework to achieve thesis aims and tackle the problems. For
the first step of Damascene architecture analysis, energy-efficient features in
courtyard damascene houses are studied and investigated carefully. The second
step of this stage discusses the concept of identity, regionalism in architecture
and the tangible and intangible of home to criticize today’s damascene dwellings
and rethink vernacular abandoned strategies in the region.
The second stage represents a new design proposal ‘energy-efficient,
regional building’. Thus, the thesis is suggesting a design guide that copes with
the region’s climate and traditions. Moreover, it is presenting a representative
case study of a modern villa in Damascus and tries to tackle the problems in the
case’s performance in terms of (thermal comfort, visual comfort and privacy).
The design proposal part of the thesis includes:
1. Design guide: The first step suggests design strategies that could be
implemented in the region to enhance the urban and architectural performance
in hot arid climates. Furthermore, these strategies are proposed by taking into
consideration the cultural background of the region.
2. Representative case study: this step presents a standard modern residential villa
in Damascus), which reflects the situation of the dwelling building stock.
3. Representative case analysis: this step analyses the previously mentioned
6
modern, residential villa, in terms of the settlement, orientation, landscaping,
materials, space organization, energy consumption, and envelope.
4. Re-using useful vernacular abandoned passive strategies: the discussed
abandoned vernacular strategies in the first stage of the thesis (Damascene
architecture analysis) are investigated in this step and re-used for the new
proposed model to enhance energy performance and revive the identity of the
region.
5. New design proposal: climatic vernacular features and the identity aspect are
assessed in order to find the best solutions for a regional design, improve
building performance, and reduce energy consumption. Drawings of the layout
are provided. Furthermore, passive, and socio-cultural strategies are considered
as a guideline for this step. The design proposal is based on the representative
case’s dimensions, spaces and heights to tackle the current problems in the
house (Figure 2).
7
Figure 2. Research methodology flowchart (Author’s own).
1.5 Thesis Outline
This dissertation starts with explaining the aims of the study, its questions,
limitations, scope, the problem of the thesis and its methodology. Moreover, it
highlights the main motivation behind choosing this topic. Then, it continues
with a brief contextualization of the previously done literature. Hence, the
literature review is presenting an introduction to the main discussed topics, which
are (the concept of identity, regional architecture, vernacular architecture, and
energy efficiency in buildings). The following chapters look closely at Damascus
city and its vernacular dwellings in terms of the mentioned topics in the literature
review.
The second chapter of the thesis provides a comprehensive analysis of
energy performance in the vernacular dwellings in Damascus (Damascene
houses). Moreover, early settlements standards, house characteristics, climatic
8
considerations, passive design, and materials selection are investigated and
provided in detail in this chapter.
The third chapter discusses regionalism in architecture and vernacular
architecture; besides, it tries to read the place (Damascene houses) by analysing
the tangible and intangible dimensions of home. Accordingly, socio-cultural
aspects are discussed in terms of architectural practises to critically rethink the
abandoned strategies of the vernacular dwellings, and investigate the condition
of today’s Damascene houses.
The fourth chapter of the thesis presents a new design approach for hot-
arid residential buildings in the region. Indeed, the new approach is relying on
the literature review, vernacular architecture of the region, and the dynamics of
the users to provide an energy-efficient regional home.
Finally, the fifth chapter presents briefly the findings of the whole study,
furthermore, it provides a guide model for architects to follow and to design
better energy-efficient, regional buildings in Damascus. Accordingly, the study
helps to reduce energy consumption in a hot arid climate and to reflect the values
of the region, based on a comprehensive analysis, theoretical and modelling
applied studies.
In sum, the thesis is establishing an understanding of the meaning behind
the architectural form, features and passive strategies of vernacular dwellings in
Damascus, by investigating the architectural details in vernacular homes. This
study reveals that there is a direct connection between energy efficiency and the
socio-cultural aspects of architecture. Furthermore, the findings reveal the
hidden identity and passive dynamics in Damascene homes, which are usually
misunderstood or ignored. The thesis argues the bonding relationship between
the region, inhabitants and the built environment to achieve energy efficiency.
These aspects are proved and discussed in detail in the following chapters.
9
1.6 Limitations
Syria has been living under unstable political circumstances since 2011,
which has affected the quality and quantity of research in many fields including
architecture. As a result, a lot of data was not always accessible due to the lack
of publication. Hence, some of the discussed topics in the thesis were hard to be
found, such as the current energy performance in modern residential buildings.
Therefore, the thesis relies on the found sources. In addition to the difficulties,
the study has some limitations that must be taken into account and addressed in
future studies.
First, the study focuses on investigating Damascene houses that are located
on a flat site. Hence, it limits the generalizability of the study since residential
buildings on sloped sites are not included. However, the suggested design
strategies in the design guide chapter can be implemented in residential buildings
in hot arid climate regions with flat sites.
Second, the study analysed the performance of singular family houses in
Damascus including the vernacular and modern. Accordingly, some of the
suggested design strategies and the findings of the study are limited to singular
family houses in hot-arid climate.
Finally, more research data collection tools could have been used to add
more credibility and reliability to the research. Simulations, questionnaires and
surveys would have added a more authentic and understandable environment if
they had been used, especially for providing a clear insight into the region and
its inhabitants’ desires.
1.7 Literature Review
Nowadays, we can witness the increasing desire in studying energy
efficiency in architecture and the performance of buildings since consuming
energy in buildings is playing a major role in causing climate change. However,
there is a limited number of studies that are linking energy efficiency to
regionalism and the identity of the region and its inhabitants. Accordingly, this
section is discussing the done literature in the mentioned research areas to
combine them in the study and to validate their effect on each other.
10
1.7.1 Introduction to the concept of architectural identity. “Only once
have I been made mute. It was when a man asked me, who are you?” (Gibran,
1926).
What Identity is? What does it consist of? What forms it? How can we
define someone/something? What are the aspects that distinguish
someone/something from another? And What affects it? All these questions were
asked and have been a subject of study by many fields for a long time. Indeed,
Architecture is one of these fields. Where architects tried to define the identity,
and solve its dilemma by finding the answers to the mentioned questions. Kevin
Lynch has mentioned in his book the image of the city: “Identity is the meaning
of individuality and oneness… Identity is a case where an object is unique”
(Lynch, The Image of the City, 1960). Where others were linking it to the
physical or spatial parts of the built environment, therefore, the built environment
is considered as an important tool that reflects the identity of the region (Yilmaz
& Maz, 2006).
Relph has mentioned that “The main characteristics which form spatial
identity are the physical structure forming the space, the facilities it embodies,
and the meanings created by users.” (Relph, 1976) However, there is a direct
connection that links between people, identity, and the built environment. Hence,
he stated that a ‘place’ is not just a location (Relph, 1976) . Furthermore, Juhani
Pallasma redefined the house when he said, “A house, in fact, is a metaphysical
instrument, a mythical tool with which we try to introduce a reflection of eternity
into our momentary existence” (Pallasmaa, The Geometry of Feeling: A Look at
the Phenomenology of Architecture , 1986).
Genius loci is another term that is used by authors to refer to the identity of
a place. The term is a Roman concept that was defined by Christian Norberg-
Schulz, the genius loci is ‘what a thing is' or what it ‘wants to be’. (Norberg-
Schulz, 1976). Thus, it creates the spirit of the place and transmits its meaning
to the user and observer. Additionally, the built environment is the mirror that
reflects the culture, the inhabitants’ dynamics, activities, and it clearly reveals
the history, ethnic and religious settings of each region. Thus, it creates the
hallow of ‘uniqueness’; which is the ‘essence’ of the concept of identity. Besides,
architecture is the key element that transmits the cultural identity from one
generation to another, to benefit from their tangible and intangible building
11
expertise to create sustainable self-efficient dwellings that arouse the sense of
‘placeness’, and being at ‘home’. The architectural identity of a place is both
affect and can be affected by the local community and the geographical location
in many ways (Yilmaz & Maz, 2006).
Consequently, it can be deduced that the architectural identity or the
character of a place could be understandable through these three main elements:
The physical form (patterns of the buildings), the social life of the users, and
space organization (Figure 3). Furthermore, identity is a combination of the built
environment physical and spiritual elements and their characteristics that
distinguish it from other places. Hence, considering the mentioned elements
together forms what we call ‘Regional Architecture’.
Figure 3. Urban and architectural identity components (ÖKESLİ & Gürçınar,
2012).
12
1.7.2 Regionalism and vernacular architecture. Regional Architecture is
based on the strategies and techniques that were transmitted from the former
generations that lived in the same region. Moreover, the formation and
construction of a regional ‘dwelling’ or ‘place’ is depending on the: local
materials, climate, physical characteristics of the region, the cultural structure
and the dynamics of the inhabitants (Erarslan, 2018) . This harmonious
combination has created sustainable dwellings that reflect the culture, and serve
the user efficiently to provide a comfortable place and it has strengthened the
relationship between the users and their homes. Thus, it is the purest architectural
reflection of the region’s traditions, heritage patterns, and experiences (Erarslan,
2018). However, Vernacular Architecture is one of the most popular physical
forms of Regional Architecture.
The word ‘vernacular architecture’ has appeared for the first time in 1861
(Collins, 1965). Vernacular as a term is defined in the Cambridge English
language dictionary as ‘Local’, ‘Native’, or a ‘common thing’ in a particular
‘region’ or ‘place’ by a particular ‘group’ (Dictionary, 1995). Accordingly,
vernacular architecture is the type of architecture that uses local materials,
sources and construction techniques, while considering the inhabitants’
dynamics, traditions, and climate type; to create a bonding relationship between
people, buildings, and their surrounding environment. Thus, vernacular
architecture has succeeded in creating meaningful places that serve users social
and physical needs ‘spatial and sensory’, evoke the sense of home and touch the
earth lightly (Salman, 2019).
According to (ICOMOS, 1999) the built vernacular heritage is important;
it is the fundamental expression of the culture of a community, of its relationship
with its territory and, at the same time, the expression of the world's cultural
diversity…vernacular building is the traditional and natural way by which
communities house themselves. Furthermore, Paul Oliver wrote in his essay
(Round the Houses): “There is something cosy about vernacular
architecture…there’s not the craftsmanship anymore” (Oliver, Round The
houses, 1983).
It is highly noticed that Vernacular dwellings have less embodied energy
than modern and contemporary ones since it uses local materials, due to the lack
of transportation capacity in the past and it is mainly depending on natural
13
sources (the sun is the main source of lighting, natural ventilation for cooling…).
Indeed, each region has created a type of housing that fits with the local climate,
topography and considers the activities, traditions and needs of the users as the
main references for creating and organizing the spaces of the dwellings ‘Human-
centred design’. (Chandel, Sharma, & M.Marwah, 2016)
Unfortunately, modern architecture and modernists have prided themselves
with the base element, or the foundation of logic that “form follows function” it
was more sensible to them than following the former old techniques. However,
“function” in modern architecture is more related to the structure and circulation
of the building, where it rarely referred to the environmental (energy usage,
climate-changing) or cultural issues as minor problems at best or it is not
considered at all. As a result, energy consumption and climate change are among
the most important issues that are facing the earth today (Lechner, 2014).
Nowadays, the increasing interest in reviving vernacular and regional
architecture strategies and elements by architects and authors is highly noticed.
Some has argued that contemporary architecture is unable to communicate with
the users “No building today is capable of arousing feelings like the ones the
Cathedral of Strasbourg did in the heart of the first Romantic Regionalist”
(Tzonis & Lefaivre, Why Critical Regionalism Today?, 1990). Besides, the same
authors (Tzonis & Lefaivre, 2016) believe that critical regionalism would help
to reflect the culture and arouse the sense of individuality and oneness that
universal architecture couldn’t.
In some cases, regionalism and vernacular architecture were linked to
environmental sustainability to learn from it while designing new buildings
“Critical regionalism necessarily involves a more directly dialectical relation
with nature than the more abstract, formal traditions of modern Avant-garde
architecture allow” (Frampton, 1993). Additionally, Alexander Tzonis and Liane
Lefaivre wrote that “this is the case of optimally composing buildings as shelters,
respecting regional environmental constraints, and accepting regional resources”
(Tzonis & Lefaivre, 1990).
Interestingly, we could notice that throughout history most architects or
local builders have considered environmental controls in their buildings and
designs. Moreover, the need for natural cooling, heating, and lighting has
affected the form and the design of buildings (Lechner, 2014). Furthermore, the
14
usage of regional resources and renewable energy (energy efficiency in
buildings) is an important common element between vernacular regional
architecture and the goals to achieve net-zero energy buildings. which is
discussed in the following section.
1.7.3 Energy-efficiency and passive design. In 2018, the proportion of the
global population that has access to electricity has increased to 90%, but still,
789 million people lacked electricity; where most of them are living in rural areas
(UN, 2020). Indeed, the continuing rising percentage of the global population
urges countries to find solutions and access to cheap, clean energy.
Unfortunately, in 2018 about 82% of the consumed energy came from fossil fuels
(IEA, 2020). Furthermore, relying on fossil fuels as the main source of energy is
harming both human health and the surrounding environment, where some of the
countries like Arab countries have yet to develop renewable energy capacity
which is 10% lower than the total average of the world’s generated renewable
energy which in 2018 was about 18% of the total consumed energy (IEA, 2020).
The previously mentioned facts have urged countries and organizations to design
and publish protocols in many fields that would reduce greenhouse gases and
offer green energy for everyone.
The building sector is accounted for 40% of energy consumption in the
USA and European countries, where this percentage may raise in some
developing countries (Cao, Dai, & Liu, 2016). The urgent need to reduce energy
consumption and design more self-sufficient buildings have made some
countries comply with the Kyoto protocol. The directive of building’s energy
performance (EPBD, 2002) that was published in 2002, has emphasized two
aspects: reducing energy consumption and improving energy efficiency in
buildings (Rodriguez-Ubinas, et al., 2014). Moreover, the published recast of the
directive (2010) has decided that all buildings after 2020 have to be self-
sufficient ‘nearly-zero energy buildings’ (EU, 2010) . Indeed, this protocol is
aiming at reducing energy consumption, greenhouse gases, and it encourages
using renewable energy.
To achieve ‘Net zero-energy buildings’ or ‘nearly zero-energy buildings’,
buildings must improve their performance and increase energy efficiency by
reducing the consumption to zero or very low amount of energy which can be
recovered by generating the energy that the users need from renewable sources
15
(Rodriguez-Ubinas, et al., 2014) Some of the recent researches are stating that
considering the passive design and the climatic conditions of the region are the
keys to achieving energy efficiency in buildings, where contemporary low
energy buildings must consider hybrid energy systems to reduce energy
consumption as shown in (Figure 4) (Edwin Rodriguez-Ubinasa, Rodriguez,
Voss, & S. Todorovic, 2014).
Figure 4. Hybrid solution for low energy building (Edwin Rodriguez-Ubinasa,
Rodriguez, Voss, & S. Todorovic, 2014)
International Energy Agency (IEA) has mentioned in the Oil crisis &
climate challenges book, most of the energy consumption is related to
mechanical systems that would help to maintain a comfortable indoor
environment quality and protect buildings from the outer climatic conditions
(IEA, Oil Crises & Climate Challenges: 30 Years of Energy Use in IEA
Countries, 2004). Additionally, optimizing the design process and enhancing
building performance to minimize heating and cooling loads, is more influential
than using HVAC systems (Todesco, 1996) . Hence, there is a direct connection
between energy consumption, thermal comfort, and passive design.
Additionally, passive heating, cooling, and lighting can be more easily
achieved through understanding the logic of the three-tier approach to
sustainable design that Norbert Lechner mentioned in his book “Heating,
cooling, lighting: sustainable design methods for architects” (Figure 5),
1. The first tier is consisting of all the decisions that the architect makes while
designing any building. When the architect makes the right decisions and
considers reducing energy consumption this stage could help the building to
accomplish about 60% of the heating, cooling and lighting by itself.
16
2. The second tier includes the use of natural sources and energies, such as passive
heating, cooling, and daylighting strategies. Proper decisions at this stage can
help to reduce energy consumption by about another 20%.
3. The third tier is consisting of the mechanical and electrical equipment and its
collaboration with the previous tiers to be as efficient as possible. This
important point can save another 5 % or so.
Figure 5.The three-tier approach to sustainable design (Lechner, 2014).
The heating, cooling, and lighting aspects of each building design always
involves the mentioned three tires whether the architect consciously considered
it or not (Lechner, 2014).
Unlike the hidden mechanical and electrical systems, passive cooling and
heating devices can directly affect the form of the building and its envelope.
Shading devices, for instance, are the visible part of the exterior aesthetics of the
envelope, which is considered a very important part of the building, since the
building could experience a very dynamic environment. Hence, the choice of the
building envelope could affect not just the aesthetic part of the building, but also
thermal comfort and energy consumption.
Accordingly, the building envelope is one of the main elements of ‘climate-
responsive design’ or ‘passive design’ since it shapes the limits between the
interiors and the exterior condition. Thus, selecting it carefully is one of the
effective ways to help to minimize energy consumption (Rodriguez-Ubinas, et
al., 2014). Moreover, the thermal performance of the building’s envelope has to
change according to the climatic conditions to make full use of the natural
17
sources, such as solar energy and wind to create a thermally comfortable indoor
environment. Considering structures such as Trombe walls with control of the
airflow or adding building components that could change the thermal
performance with automatic or artificial controls such as moveable louvres are
some effective additions to the building envelop which architects should consider
for creating efficient climate-responsive buildings that would help reducing
energy consumption (Xu, et al., 2020).
Nevertheless, designing for a certain climate is further complicated,
because the needs and loads of heating and cooling change from one building
type to another. For instance, houses need fewer cooling loads than office
buildings in the same climate type (Lechner, 2014). Hence, understanding
building use, its indoor comfort necessities, and the dynamics of a certain
building that fit with the users can help design better places that facilitate
people’s lives and improve indoor environmental quality. Besides, considering
thermal zones while planning and designing would manage to reduce heat loss,
since interiors are divided according to their function, using ours, etc. Thus, it
helps to reduce energy consumption ( Gut & Ackerknecht, 2011) . It is very
important to consider passive design’s main elements (building materials,
orientation, envelope, the geometry of the building…) while designing NZEB.
Hasan Fathy wrote in his book Natural energy and Vernacular architecture, the
recent sustainable, energy-efficient buildings are learning from vernacular
architecture techniques. Moreover, they are referencing ‘building upon climate-
responsive strategy, since considering indoor environmental quality ‘thermal
comfort’ and using renewable energy as the main sources for the house is the
core of vernacular architecture (Fathy, 1986). Furthermore, to achieve thermal
comfort within the building architects have to understand the environmental and
cultural conditions that allow heat or cool to be lost,
1. Air temperature (°C).
2. Relative Humidity.
3. Air movement (m/s).
4. Mean radiant temperature (MRT).
5. Clothing pattern of the people in the region.
18
As have mentioned, insuring a thermally comfortable indoor environment
would help to enhance building performance and reduce energy consumption.
Hence, including efficient passive cooling and heating techniques help to achieve
the goals of NZEBs. There are many strategies of passive cooling and heating
each one of them valid for some climatic conditions (Rodriguez-Ubinas, et al.,
2014). Moreover, these passive strategies help to avoid undesirable outer
climatic conditions, by taking advantage of the available sources and techniques
in the building’s location such as getting advantage of solar radiation with
thermal mass or benefiting from the wind by installing wind catchers to cool the
building down in summers ( Gut & Ackerknecht, 2011). Besides, the shape,
usage or installation technique of passive cooling and heating strategies may
change from one region to another depending on the dynamics and the needs of
the inhabitants.
Consequently, to achieve thermal comfort in summers architects have to
consider the three passive cooling tier design approaches (Lechner, 2014), these
tiers are (Figure 6):
1. The first one consists of all the possible strategies that designers have to
involve to avoid heat gain, the strategies at this stage may include (shading
devices, vegetation, colours orientation, openings, natural light, insulation,
control of heat sources, etc.)
2. The second tier is using passive cooling systems including the use of air
movements such as ‘wind catchers’ to improve thermal comfort and the
temperature of the indoors.
3. In some types of climates, it is not enough to just use the first and second-tier
to achieve thermal comfort within the building. Hence, the third tier is required
to maintain the temperature. The third tier is mechanical and electrical
equipment. At this stage, the mentioned equipment has to cool what the first
and second-tier could not achieve to minimize energy consumption.
19
Figure 6. The three-tier approach for passive cooling (Lechner, 2014).
To achieve thermal comfort in winter we have to consider gaining solar
heat. ‘Passive solar’ or ‘passive heating’ is a system function by collecting,
storing and releasing solar energy to achieve thermal comfort without using any
complex controls. It works by depending on the building elements to collect
energy such as walls, floors, or windows (Gupta1 & N. Tiwari, 2016) . These
main building components could function to satisfy the structural, architectural,
aesthetics and energy requirements of the building, where walls may work to
hold up the building and store heat at the same time. Additionally, there are many
concepts for gaining heat such as:
• Direct gain (Southern windows)
• Indirect gain (Trombe walls)
• Isolated gain (Sun-rooms)
• Thermosiphon systems
Involving the three tiers of ‘passive heating’ or ‘passive solar would help
accomplish a sustainable design (Lechner, 2014), the three tiers are (Figure 7):
1. The first tier involves reducing heat loss in the building and its envelope by
using proper insulation, calculating the area of total facade-to- the total volume,
and considering airtightness. The better the designs are capable to keep heat,
the less heating is required.
2. The second tier is depending on harvesting solar energy as possible with the
help of passive heating elements.
3. The third tier is the usage of mechanical and electrical systems in some type of
climates where the first and second tiers are not sufficient to heat the area.
20
In the USA, a passive well-designed building could save up to 80% of
energy by just relying on natural resources. (Lechner, 2014)
Figure 7. The three-tier approach for passive cooling (Lechner, 2014).
Indeed, it is important to predict indoor environmental quality in a built
environment since thermal comfort models may enhance energy saving (Zhao,
Lian, & Lai, 2021). However, lighting systems are responsible for 19% of global
energy consumption (Han, et al., 2019). The energy efficiency of lighting
systems varies depending on building type, lighting requirements and application
strategies. In general, building lighting systems are divided into two separate
schemes: passive lighting and active lighting. Whereas NZEBs are depending on
natural light the most by simply using light guidance systems such as adding
atriums in large buildings, benefiting from building’s openings to collect the
needed amount of light, or considering light shelves, etc (Han, et al., 2019).
Moreover, architects must consider three aspects to achieve efficient lighting in
their designs (Lechner, 2014) (Figure 8);
1. The geometry of the design, and the colours of finishes
2. Daylighting
3. Artificial lighting
Sian Moxon mentioned in “Sustainability in interior design” book that,
nowadays, there are many developed types of active lighting, which use less
amount of energy than standard lightbulb does such as LEDs, or in some cases
21
like public buildings or shared spaces efficient lighting that is linked to
movement, sensors would help minimize energy consumption (Moxon, 2010).
Figure 8.The three-tier approach for lighting (Lechner, 2014).
Having discussed the importance of reducing energy consumption,
emphasized the identity aspect of the place and explained the main elements of
vernacular and regional architecture. The following sections of the thesis are
discussing in detail how we could achieve NZEB in Damascus while learning
from its vernacular dwellings to reflect the cultural structure of the place while
preserving the environment.
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Chapter 2
Energy-Efficiency: Damascene Courtyard House Analysis
2.1 Damascus and Damascene Architecture Background
Damascus ‘Dimashq’ in Arabic, or ‘Al Sham’ which is the vernacular name
of the capital of Syria, is located in the interior geographical zone of the country,
33o 30’to the north and rises 700 meters above sea level. The city is surrounded
by a very fertile region called ‘Al Ghouta’, Qasiwn Mountain and anti-Lebanon
mountains laying to the northwest. The mountains rise about 3000 m; as a result,
it deprives Damascus of clouds and sea breeze to be considered as an arid region
with rainfalls only during the months from December to February (Bosworth,
2007). Consequently, Damascus has a hot dry climate. Despite the dry climate
of the city, it is blessed with the Barada River, which encouraged civilizations to
settle and build their houses around it.
However, historians are not certain yet about the epoch when Damascus
was founded, but according to UNESCO, excavations have revealed an urban
settlement as early as 8000 to 10000 B.C (UNESCO, 2015). Historic Cities of
the Islamic World book stated that the city is mentioned in Egyptian Pharos
tablets as one of the cities that was conquered by them in the 15th century B.C
(Bosworth, 2007). Thus, Damascus is considered one of the oldest continuously
inhabited cities in the world. Moreover, the old city of Damascus has been listed
as one of the world heritage sites by UNESCO since 1979 (UNESCO, 2015).
Since Damascus is a very old city, it has been inhabited by many civilizations
and became the capital and the centre of many. Hence, its architecture is
influenced by the traditions and the dynamics of the people who lived in it.
Furthermore, the importance of the city comes from its rich history, layers
of civilizations and its urban fabric. Mark Twain wrote that “Damascus measures
time not by days and months and years, but by the empires, she has seen the rise
and prosper and crumble to ruin. She is a type of immortality. Damascus has seen
all that has ever occurred on earth, and still, she lives” (Twain, 1869)
Consequently, the previously mentioned elements have shaped the very
interesting urban combination of the city, which forms the collective
23
architectural identity of the region. For instance, the old city combines the narrow
alleys of Islamic architecture and the grid system of the Greeks.
2.1.1 History of urban and architectural practices in Damascus (333
B.C- 1919). The complexity in the architectural and urban structure of Damascus
is a result of millennia of building and shaping the image of the city. Indeed, the
urban fabric of the city reveals continuity in the architectural evolution throw
many eras that influenced the architectural practices from the Hellenistic till this
day (Negila, 2012). However, the main difficulty that faced historians is to
differentiate the architectural practices and the urban development in the pre-
Islamic era due to the mutual practices and overlapping in the Greek and Roman
periods. Indeed, this type of cultural interaction had a major role in creating the
identity of the city.
Although Damascus was inhabited by old civilizations such as the
Aramean and the Assyrian, archaeologists and historians never mentioned an
architectural and urban development in that era. Thus, this section of the study
starts with reviewing the history of Damascus from the beginning of the
emergence of architectural and urban practices in the city (Hellenistic period) to
the Ottoman period.
Greek ‘Hellenistic’ period (333 B.C). As cities are reflections of the
dynamics of the inhabitants and they reveal the cultural structures, Damascus
was firstly developed by Greeks following their urban and architectural style.
The Greek city of Damascus is located within the walls of today’s old city
(Lababedi, 2008). In general, the roads network of Greek cities was developed
following the planning methods of the Hippodamus of Miletus. Hence,
Damascus had perpendicular straight streets intersecting with each other to create
a semi-grid network, where each network included two main streets (Mansour,
2015). Furthermore, the width of the streets was half of the width of the
vernacular houses. Greek cities’ plans always had ‘Agora’ in the middle of the
main intersected streets, which represent the city centre or a public place for
gathering and shopping which is called in ancient Greece as seen in (Figure 9)
(Burns, 2005). In Damascus, the regular size of the founded blocks was 45*100
m (Negila, 2012).
24
Figure 9. Hellenistic city in Damascus (Burns, 2005).
Moreover, vernacular houses were built in that era following the
recommendation of Hippocrates to allow sun into the house (Waziri, 2004).
Thus, Greek houses, in general, were built with a courtyard where it is divided
into two types (Abass , Hakim Ismail, & Solla, 2016) (Figure 10):
1. The house with a central courtyard surrounded by house units (rooms),
and opened to a corridor with columns.
2. Houses with courtyards/atriums near the street or in the back of the
house.
Figure 10.Greek courtyard houses (Schoenauer & Seeman, 1962).
Roman period (64-B.C). The rapid increase in the numbers of the
population in Roman Damascene city led to city expansion and urban
development. Romans worked on improving the grid system of the Greeks,
moreover, they shaped and built the walls of the city and its seven gates. The
most important gates of the walled city are the eastern ‘Bab Sharqi’ and the
25
western ‘Bab Al-Jabia’, as a result of their location on the main axis street ‘Via
Recta’ (Lababedi, 2008) (Figure 11). Furthermore, the first water supply system
is considered one of the main important developed elements in the Roman city.
Figure 11. Roman city (Burns, 2005).
As for Roman courtyard houses, Romans inherited the techniques of the
Greeks and the Etruscans. Thus, the houses were similar to the former Greek
ones with some changes such as houses being inner oriented, the surrounded
rooms windows were opened towards the courtyard area to provide more privacy
(Figure 12). Besides they developed the shape of the roofs from wooden Greek
to arches and vaults (Bakeer, 2021).
Figure 12.Roman courtyard houses (Schoenauer & Seeman, 1962).
In the Islamic period (661) Arab cities flourished and Damascus was one
of them where caliphs worked on developing and expanding the city since it
became the capital of the Umayyads. Hence, public facilities (hospitals, baths,
markets and mosques) were established in that era. Public and worshipping
buildings were ornamented and enormous, such as the Umayyad Mosque.
26
Generally, Damascus was developed following the compact organic pattern of
growth, since architects in that era were applying climate responsive design
strategies, houses were built in rows with deferent heights to prevent direct sun
and create shadows (Lababedi, 2008). Moreover, the grid system of the city was
developed to include narrow semi-roofed alleys to decrease the temperature and
to create more shadowed areas. Yahya Waziri mentioned in his book that the
percentage of the open space in Islamic cities was 11% whereas in Greek city
was 27% and in Roman city was 31% of the total space (Waziri, 2004).
However, each house in that period had its own open private space
(courtyards and atriums), these spaces provided the house with natural
ventilation and lighting and it ensured privacy for the inhabitants. To decrease
the noise within the city public facilities were located far from the residential
neighbourhoods (Waziri, 2004). As have mentioned, courtyards were very
popular, thus, they were considered in the residential and public buildings
(Figure 13). Islamic Courtyard houses were more developed than Greek and
Roman. Most of the courtyards had green spaces and a fountain in the middle to
moisturise the dry air. Moreover, an additional section was considered called
‘Al-Iwan’. Al Iwan or Liwan is a semi-opened area with a height of two stories
covered by plants and oriental ornamentations or coloured stone ‘Al Ablaq’. Al-
Iwan provides a cool shadowed area for the users to gather (Bakeer, 2021).
Figure 13.Great Umayyad Mosque of Damascus (https://yazargokcenur.
wordpress. com).
In the Ottoman period (1516) Damascus added to its architectural layers a
new one, the combination of the former architectural styles with the Ottoman
created a unique urban fabric and architecture (Bakeer, 2021). However,
Ottoman sultans were more interested in public facilities and mosques. Hence,
they considered the Ottoman architectural style while building Al Tekkiya Al
27
Sulimania in Damascus, which is considered the finest masterpiece of ottoman
architecture in Syria (Abdulrahman, 2008). Furthermore, public baths and
palaces were very popular in that period (Figure 14), architects then worked on
developing the interiors and courtyards. Hence, the interiors became more
ornamented and larger, while outer facades remained very simple and humble.
As previously mentioned, the urban plan of Damascus is a product of the lived
settlers and their building strategies; however, according to Giulia Annalinda
Neglia, the emergence of the final urban structure of Damascus was during the
Ottoman rule (Negila, 2012).
Al-Tanzimat’ of Damascus started in the last 60 years of ottoman rule.
Thus, the city has witnessed several changes on the architectural and urban level,
including the attempts to modernize the city and its master plan. The main
aspects were considered during this period were,
1. Building new geometrical shaped suburbs.
2. Using stone material instead of wood while constructing.
3. Removing dead ends in alleys and widening main streets
Figure 14.Al Azem palace (http://bornindamascus.blogspot.com/2020/12/).
28
2.1.2. Settlement standards. Human settlements are spaces or lands in
which a group of people or a ‘community’ dwell, consequently, human
settlements represent the relationship between people and nature; besides, they
clarify their interaction with the surrounding environment (Cirella, 2021). The
evolution of human settlements relies on both the built environment and the
surrounding environmental elements (Tolba & El-Kholy, 2012). Many studies
are focusing on the relationship between human settlements developments and
energy (Hendry & Juselius, 2000) Accordingly, the human-built environment is
responsible for consuming a considerable amount of energy annually.
Indeed, orientation, buildings type, materials, landscaping, urban fabric,
building regulations and many other factors affect energy consumption and
thermal comfort directly. Moreover, it is highly noticed that in most of the cities
each neighbourhood creates its own atmosphere and local climate as a result of
its built environment (Yahia & Johansson, 2013). Hence, some of these factors
are discussed and analysed in the context of Damascene vernacular dwellings
settlements in the following sections.
2.1.2.1. Location and topography. Indeed, the geography and the location
of Damascus had a major role in determining the importance of the city.
Damascus is situated in the south western corner of Syria, on a large plain about
700 m above sea level, at the eastern route of the Anti-Lebanon mountains,
crossed by the Barada River (Rabbat, 2021) (Figure 15). With only an average
of (178 mm) of precipitation annually, the Barada river and the strategic location
of the city were natural attractions for early settlers. Thus, the early settlements
appear to be in the western part of the walled city. Since the city is blessed with
the river Barada, it is highly noticed that the name of Barada always accompanies
Damascus in literature and studies.
Furthermore, Damascus started as a junction of a very important trade route
and an important caravan centre as had mentioned in Egyptian and Accadian
tablets. Besides, it is considered as an important node between Egypt (in the
western road), Mecca (southern road), and Babylon (eastern road) (Lapidus,
1969). The early urban fabric form of the city started to be unfolded as early as
3000 B.C, where the walls of the city and its seven gates started to appear in the
Hellenic era.
29
Figure 15.Map of Damascus. (https://reliefweb. int/sites/reliefweb. int/files/
resources/damascus_city_reference_map_20160922.pdf)
2.1.2.2. Orientation. According to Ross Bruns’s book ‘Damascus: A
history’, there is an early settlement in Damascus going back to 9000 B.C on a
hill near the banks of the Barada River. However, there isn’t a complete picture
of how the settlements were, but it seems to be lightly populated then (Burns,
2005). Tell Ramand is the first site to be inhabited in the region and it is located
in the southern hill (UNESCO, 2015). Nevertheless, Tell Al Salehiye which is
located 25 meters above Damascus plain to the east, is the first site that has
proven evidence to be inhabited going back to the bronze age. The hill of Tell Al
Salehiye is a strategic location for the early settlers for defending purposes
against enemies and natural conditions since it is located on the northern bank of
the Barada River. Hence, it protects the inhabitants from undesirable desert
sandstorms, where the location near the river provided moisturized breeze in the
hot arid climate of the region (Burns, 2005).
However, the current walled city of Damascus is a little far from the early
settlements on the hills where it is located on a plain on the southern bank of the
river. The location of the walled city allows having moisturized fresh air from
the river and Al Ghouta (Figure 16). Furthermore, the streets and the narrow-
roofed alleys of the walled city are oriented towards ‘north-south’ and ‘east-
west’ (Yahia & Johansson, 2013). The common architectural type of the old
city’s buildings is simple on the outside and rich on the inside, where all the
sections of the building are oriented towards the inner courtyard or courtyards.
Nevertheless, the modern buildings, which are located outside the walls of the
30
old city are mostly outside oriented towards the streets, where courtyards are
absent and are replaced by balconies in these types of buildings.
Figure 16.The geographical location and city’s orientation (Author’s own)
2.1.2.3. Urban fabric. The old city is located on a plain (flat region) with
an oval shape, Medhat pasha street represents its long diameter which is about
(1600) meters, and its short diameter is about (1000) meters extends from Al-
Faradis gate to Al-Saghir gate. Hence, the city was limited by its rampart before
the expansion towards the north-west and south (Al Sarouja souq and Al-
Medan), where most of the buildings were located on the southern bank of the
Barada river (Kabrit, 2000). As a result, oasis compact settlement was considered
to reduce hot air and solar radiation ( Gut & Ackerknecht, 2011). The city and
its buildings were planned in a way that ensures shaded spaces in streets and
alleys. Additionally, the fertile land that surrounds the city (Al Ghouta) and the
Barada River are the two main geographical elements that represent the ‘oasis
settlement’ of it; consequently, they provided the city with humid cool air.
However, the urban fabric of the city represents the physical components
including buildings, streets, soft and hardscapes. According to Kevin Lynch’s
book “The image of the city”, physical forms of the city can be classified into
five main elements: paths, edges, districts, nodes and landmarks (Lynch, The
Image of the City, 1960), each one of these elements is projected on the case of
the old city of Damascus.
• Edges: the edges are the physical elements that prevent continuity. Hence, it
represents the boundaries between two zones (Lynch, The Image of the City,
1960) the old city of Damascus is surrounded by ancient walls (rampart) and
seven main gates that were built in the Roman era serving defensive purposes
(Figure 17). However, these walls protected the city in old times from sand
storms and it served the privacy aspect that was very important in Arab cities.
31
Inside the walls of the old city, edges and walls were absent in the alleys and
quarters except for the grouped walls of the inhabitants’ houses. Sometimes a
big wall (edge) at the entrance of the main quarters (Al-harah) could be found.
It can be distinguished with its arcades covering the beginning of the alley
(Kabrit, 2000) providing it shade and the sense of transition to a new zone.
Figure 17.Old city’s main gates (Translated and edited by the author).
• Districts: One of the main aspects that were considered while planning and
building the old city is considering functional separation between residential
quarters and commercial ones, since the city has a compact pattern, this aspect
help to solve noise problems. Moreover, residential and commercial quarters
could be distinguished by the design of their alleys (Waziri, 2004) Damascene
districts (quarters) are connected, but independent. Each quarter of the city has
its own facilities (mosques, baths, water distribution…) and the entrance of
each one has a main huge door that could be closed in siege times (Kabrit,
2000) (Figure 18).
Figure 18.Districts of the old city (Bakeer, 2021).
32
• Paths: Paths are the channels that the inhabitants of the city use to move around
it (Lynch, The Image of the City, 1960). The old city’s paths evolved according
to the evolution of the urban fabric of the city. Damascene-Roman city
considered grid system oriented towards the east-west axis, which helped to
minimize solar radiation that could occur in grid system cities in hot-arid
climate. Moreover, it enhanced ventilation and air movement within alleys.
However, in the Islamic era, the city expanded and evolved narrow,
zigzagging, and dead-end alleys were considered to provide more shaded zones
that help to minimize high temperatures in summers. Besides, such alleys
reduce the stormy wind's effect ( Gut & Ackerknecht, 2011).
Some parts of the alleys are roofed by a corridor that connects two houses
called Sibat. The function of Sibats varies from one to another some are used as
a bedroom for the new groom in the family others are functioning as a connecting
corridor between two houses (Figure 19). Sibat helps to create shaded zones
within alleys, besides; it improves air movement between the houses that are
connected to it since it passes air from one direction to another (Waziri, 2004).
Figure 19. A sketch of sibat in old Damascus. (https://tr.pinterest.com /pin/
373306256617933543/, edited by the Author).
33
Old Damascus has two main parallel streets that pass by it from west to
east, the first one is Medhat pasha street and the second one is Souq Sarouja.
All alleys leading from north to south are perpendicular to it. Paths or alleys of
the old city could be categorized into three types according to the Damascene
house book:
Al-Darb (The path): is the first one that represents the main passing node
in the quarter. Al-Darb connects with the rest of the alleys from its ends.
Al-Zokak (The alley): is narrower than Al-darb and it is branching out of
it to connect with another one.
Al-Qanah (Dead-end alley): It is very narrow about 130 cm; hence, it only
allows two people to pass. Al-Qanah is branching from the alley (al-zokak) and
it ends on the doors of houses. (Kabrit, 2000) (Figure 20).
Indeed, these types of paths (straight, parallel, and blocked ones) open the
city to natural ventilation and prevent sudden temperature differentiation from
day to night and from summer to winter.
Figure 20. Paths and boarders in Al Nakashat quarter (Kabrit, 2000).
• Nodes: they are the strategic points of the city, which can change according to
the inhabitants' daily dynamics and the node’s function since it is the
concentration point of the city. It is usually an intersection point between two
main streets or paths. Thus, nodes can be square, street, corners, etc. There are
two types of nodes in the old city of Damascus:
1. Outer main nodes: these nodes are created by intersection between the path
Al-darb the main street. These types of nodes are leading towards and out
of the district quarter. Al-Miskiya square can be considered as an outer
34
node. Moreover, it is located near the main souq of the city Souq Al-
Hamidiya and it contains some remains of Jupiter temple that dates back to
the Damascene-roman city.
2. Inner nodes: it can be created by a little path widening where all others
zokak and alleys are leading to it. As a result, it creates a small organic
shaped square inside the quarter near to main public facilities (mosques,
baths, etc).
• Landmarks: they are the main symbol of the city where people recognize the
city by it, or give its name as a point reference for a location. Landmarks are
physical objects (monuments, buildings, stores, mountains, etc.). In the case of
Damascus, landmarks buildings can be distinguished from other ones by their
huge size, ornamented elevations, and richly decorated interiors, hence, it gives
the landmark building a monumental dimension. Moreover, it gives the city a
unique touch since the outer elevations of Damascene houses are grouped and
monotonous. The following sections are analysing the interiors and the
exteriors of Damascene houses.
The most important landmarks of old Damascus are presented in (Figure 21),
35
Figure 21. Main landmarks in Damascus (pictures were collected by the
author).
2.1.2.4. Landscaping. The landscape of the city is considered one of the
main tools that people use to enhance the surrounding environment and local
climate. Hardscape and softscape are the two main pillars of landscaping design.
• Hardscape represents the unchangeable elements through time “mostly built
environment” such as rocks, paths, streets, etc.
• Softscape represents the changeable elements through time “natural
surrounding environment” such as trees, vines, plants, etc.
As have mentioned earlier, early settlements in Damascus were located
near important geographical elements (oasis, green areas, rivers sea, etc.). Ross
Burns mentioned that “if there were no Barada river there could be no
Damascus” (Burns, 2005). Indeed, the river and the surrounding Ghouta attracted
early settlers, since Al-Ghouta provides the city with vegetables, fruits and raw
materials. Moreover, Al-Ghouta is known for its fruitful trees such as apricots,
walnuts, peaches, cherries, berries etc. Ancient historians considered Al-Ghouta
as “the paradise on earth” (Hafteh, 2012).
36
Evergreen and deciduous trees are common in public places around the
city, which purify the air from dust, moisturize it and provide shading during
summers. Where in winters, they prevent fast temperature dropping which could
occur at night. The most planted trees in Damascus are: willow trees, palm trees,
lindens, poplar trees, bead-tree, and bushes and in some areas outside the city
windbreakers are noticeable.
Gardens and green open spaces are the setting of urban life in Damascus.
Thus, damascene houses inside the walls of the old city are a small-scale version
of Al-Ghouta. Unlike the modest alleys of the old city, Damascene houses were
rich on the inside with their plants and decorations; each house has its own
garden within the walls of the courtyard. Indeed, considering proper shading was
the main aim for damascene houses to reduce direct sunlight in the hot arid
climate of the city and to enhance thermal comfort around the house.
Accordingly, they considered water surfaces in the middle of the courtyard
“fountain” and different types of plants for aesthetic and thermal purposes. The
plants inside Damascene houses can be classified as Woody plants (evergreen
trees, vines), shrubs, bushes, and ground covers (Table1).
37
Table 1
Plants in the Courtyard of Damascene Houses (Author's own)
Location
Evergreen trees and plants are
usually located near the northern
inner elevation of the courtyard.
Sometimes it can be found in the
east and west parts of the
courtyard.
Vertical vines are usually found
covering the inner eastern and
western elevations of the
courtyard. These vines ensure
thermal insulation and shadow
the inner windows of the house
units that are opened towards the
courtyard.
Shrubs are usually located on the
northern side of the courtyard
facing the “ Iwan” .
They can be planted in any area
of the courtyard to fill the gaps
between trees and shrubs.
Function
Evergreen trees and plants help to
maintain appropriate temperatures
throughout the year. Hence, it
protects the house from cold
winds in winters and high intense
solar radiation in summers.
Vines plants are used in
Damascene houses to control
erosion, covering man-made
structures (walls, windows, and
pergolas) and protecting them
from direct sunlight. Thus, it acts
as a shading device when planting
it near pergolas.
Shrubs are usually used for
aesthetic purposes; besides, they
help moisturize the air, block low
sunlight and it has positive
psychological benefits for the
dwellers.
They are planted to give aesthetic
touches to the landscape.
Moreover, they help eliminate
erosion and ensure thermal
comfort.
Physical Characteristics
Evergreen trees remain green and
they don’ t shed their leaves in
autumn. Evergreen trees resist
moisture loss in summers and cold in
winters.
Vines are climbing plants that could
spread in different directions
covering many hard surfaces to look
like a soft one.
Shrubs usually are no longer than
3m. Some are seasonal and others are
evergreen.
Groundcovers usually reach 15-30
cm height.
Example
Citrus trees (Bitter
orange, Kabbad)
and Loquat.
Ivy, plants,
Cissusstriata
grapevines, and
Wisteria.
Damascene
jasmines, roses,
Angel's trumpets,
Bougainvillea
Spiderworts,
Amaryllis, Bassia
scoparia,
Sprenger’ s
asparagus.
Name
Woody plants
“ Evergreen
trees”
Woody plants
“ Vines”
Shrubs
Groundcovers
Number
1
2
3
4
38
2.1.3. Houses’ characteristics. The Damascene vernacular architecture
depends on creativity in the design and using natural materials smartly, to
improve climatic conditions inside and outside the housing unit. Moreover, each
Damascene house has developed its spaces to serve the users efficiently. It is
highly noticed that damascene houses are very simple and humble on the outside
except for the doors of some palaces. Additionally, the row of the houses shaped
the alleys and the paths of the city. Indeed, there are common characteristics for
these houses. Thus, the following headlines are discussing these characteristics
in terms of form, space organization and the envelope.
2.1.3.1. Form. The courtyard house’s design was inherited from the Roman
culture and the nomadic gathering of Arabs tents, where they tend to locate their
tents during their movement in the shape of a circle with a center in the middle
to serve the privacy aspect and to ensure them shelter and security (Al Abidin,
2006). Therefore, the courtyard house fulfilled the deep-rooted need for an open
area inside the house that connects people with the surrounding environment and
the sky (God). Furthermore, the courtyard has a positive effect on the
microclimatic level. In this respect, Damascene houses are the physical
expression of the inhabitants’ needs, beliefs and inherited cultures.
Damascene houses were evolved following the compact type of building
to ensure security and privacy aspects of the home. Houses are built in the shape
of a square, rectangle or sometimes overlapping squares. The units of the house
are inner oriented towards the courtyard, where courtyards are usually built in a
rectangular shape and the long axis of the rectangle is often oriented towards the
east-west. Moreover, the ratio of the length to the width is usually 1:0.52, since
Syria is lying on the (33.30) line of the equator (Salkini, Greco, & Lucente,
2017). Therefore, such calculations were used to guide architects with increasing
the shaded area and improving thermal comfort in these vernacular dwells
(Figure 22).
However, Damascene houses differ in their design, space organization and
area according to the economic situation of the family and the number of its
members. Some of the houses were built inside the walls of the old city and some
outside. Damascene houses have five types:
1. Houses with multiple courtyards.
39
2. Houses with multiple courtyards and stories.
3. Houses with one courtyard and multiple stories.
4. Houses with one courtyard and one story.
5. The modern house.
Figure 22. Damascene courtyard house form diagram (Author’s own).
2.1.3.2. Space organization and house sections. The vernacular
Damascene house is considered a centralized organizational type of shape since
all the rooms are grouped around the central courtyard and oriented towards it.
As have mentioned earlier there are several types of Damascene houses.
Accordingly, in this section, the common house sections are discussed.
Some houses have a basement, which you can reach using stairs located in the
kitchen or near it. The basement was used mainly to store food supplies and it
acts as a thermal moderator (Al Abidin, 2006). The ground floor of Damascene
vernacular houses is usually comprising,
1. the entrance section, the location of the entrance differs from one
house to another, but it is usually located on the eastern or the
southern elevation of the house. The entrance section has 2 main
components which are: the main door, the house could be entered
from the alley using a modest wooden door the width of the opening
is about 80-90 cm, but some houses have a bigger copper-covered
door called “Khoukha” which has a smaller door inside the big one
where the user can enter (Kabrit, 2000).Al Dihliz is a small narrow
corridor that separates the inner space (the courtyard) from the outer
40
one (the alley) which provide the users with the privacy they need
since it acts as a transit space that reveals the rich well-ornamented
interior of the house (Al Abidin, 2006).
2. Courtyard(s) section. The courtyard is considered as the main section
in the house and the essence of it, besides, it is the main interactive
section in the house. The courtyard of the house adds an aesthetical
dimension to the house and it is a multipurpose space in the house,
where families can gather, hold night events, and have dinner.
Furthermore, it enhances the thermal condition of the house and its
relation with the surrounding nature, which are discussed in other
sections in detail. The courtyard contains one of the main sections in
the house, which is; Iwan/Liwan is considered one of the most
important architectural elements in the house. Al Iwan is a three-
walled space located mostly on the northern elevation of the courtyard
opened towards it. Iwans are raised from the courtyard with one or
more steps; hence, it provides a platform for family gatherings and
night events. Moreover, it is two stories in height with an arched
ceiling where its walls are finely decorated and ornamented.
Accordingly, Iwan is always shaded as a result of its location, where
the moisturized breeze of the fountain and citrus trees improve the hot
temperature of summers. (Kabrit, 2000).In some houses, more than
one Iwan could be found.
3. Living section, each Damascene house has several living areas some
are built for family members and others prepared to host guests.
Additionally, in big houses (palaces) the ground floor is separated into
two sections one for the family called (Haramlik) which includes
housekeeping rooms (Khadamlik), and the other one is for guests
called (Salamlik). Each one of these sections has a courtyard and
Iwan. Consequently, these sections include the living rooms called,
Al Qaah, which is a room or a hall that is prepared to host guests, hold
events, parties, and family gatherings (Ferwati, 1992). There are two
types of Qaah according to the season Qaah for summer and other for
winter. The summer ones are usually located on the northern elevation
of the courtyard next to Iwan to get benefit from the moisturized
41
breeze of the northern air (Kabrit, 2000). The other ones are located
on the southern elevation to face winter’s sun rays that ensure warm
temperatures in winters (Bakeer, 2021). Al Qaah may include
different levels to ensure airflow within the room. Besides, summer
Qaahs has a fountain on the lower level of the room. Qaah is
distinguished by its luxurious local decorations and materials, where
its walls are covered with marble, wood and stone carvings and the
ceilings are rich with its coloured ornaments (Kabrit, 2000) Some
Qaahs have private doors that led to stairs for the second floor or to
the Khadamlik room.
4. The kitchen, it is usually in the shape of a rectangle in some houses it
has the shape of a square, where it is usually located on the dead
corner of the house west or north-western part (Figure 23).
Figure 23. The ground floor of Al-Tabaa house (Kabrit, 2000).
The first floor. It is usually comprising private areas (Bedrooms),
Bedrooms can be reached using stairs that led to a straight corridor, where
bedrooms are located near each other on the northern or the southern part of the
first floor. Bedrooms have big windows opened towards the corridor and the
courtyard (Figure 24).
42
Figure 24.The first floor of Al-Tabaa house (Kabrit, 2000).
2.1.3.3. Envelope. Envelopes were built and designed following the
cultural and traditional background of the inhabitants. The building envelope is
a set of building components that act as a unit to protect the house from extreme
climatic conditions (ASCE, 2014). Indeed, each component of this unit is
expected to have a certain performance, construction materials and shape. ‘The
building envelope consists of,
Foundations and floor, Damascene houses were built with direct contact
with the ground to carry the weight of the thick walls and to absorb heat ( Gut &
Ackerknecht, 2011). Thus, the building’s foundations were built using stone
(Ferwati, 1992). Since floorings should be made of high conducting materials,
the houses were floored using coloured stone or marble; these materials have a
high thermal capacity in which they act as thermal regulators between day and
night. Furthermore, the coloured floor had an important role in reflecting sunrays
or absorbing them (Figure 25). Hence, the houses were floored using dark and
light colours of marble and stone to achieve thermal balance (Abidin, 1998).
White, black, pink and red are the most common colours of floorings, these
colours were used together to create geometrically shaped floorings (Kabrit,
2000).
43
Figure 25. Flooring type at Khaled Al-Azm house (Kabrit, 2000).
Walls are one of the most important envelope components since it is
directly exposed to sun rays all day long (Khouli, 1982). Consequently, it is
highly noticed that in most of the vernacular buildings’ walls are thick and act as
a thermal mass to protect houses from extreme temperatures (Oliver, Built to
meet needs, 2006). In the case of the Damascene houses, walls were built using
local materials and construction techniques. Here, some of the techniques are
mentioned;
1. Adobe bricks: it was the most commonly used material for walls. The bricks
were made of a dried mixture of mud and straws, with dimensions of 30*30*8
cm of each brick. This combination insured thermal insulation for the interiors
(Waziri, 2004) (Figure 26).
Figure 26. Adobe wall section (Kabrit, 2000).
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2. The wooden structure technique, this technique was used in multi-stories
houses, where the second floor was built using woods and mud to create
smooth walls (Ferwati, 1992).
3. Stone walls, this technique was usually limited to palaces and public buildings
because it was expensive. Nevertheless, stone-walled buildings are the most
lasting ones. The thickness of stone walls is about 60-90 cm (Kabrit, 2000),
where the most used type of stone in this method is limestone since Damascus
is rich with this type of stone. Hence, it is locally imported (Garrett, 1936).
The walls of the house are divided into two types: exterior walls and inner
walls. Each type has its characteristics. The exterior facades were modest lacked
any kind of decoration or ornamentation which damascene houses are known for
in the region. Besides, exterior walls included cantilevers to ensure shaded
spaces for the alley. However, since the ground floor and first floor differ in their
construction method and materials the outer wall finishing is also different.
Half of the exterior façade of the ground floor is usually covered by natural
stone to add extra insulation for the house where outer windows are usually
absent for climatic and privacy purposes. The upper part of the ground floor and
the first floor are painted in white to reflect intense sun rays in summer.
Additionally, the first-floor’s outer façade included outer windows, but it is
usually covered by Mashrabiya which acts as a shading device to maintain proper
temperatures inside the house.
Unlike the exterior walls, interior elevations were very rich in their
covering, decorations, and openings. Therefore, the interior walls of the
courtyard were usually covered with a yellowish and black local stone called “Al
Ablaq” (Figure 27), which provided extra insulation for the walls. The walls of
Al Qaah were covered with marble wood and lime for aesthetic and insulation
purposes.
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Figure 27. Interior elevation in Al-Azm Palace, Al-Ablaq stone is used for
covering (Kabrit, 2000).
According to Hasan Fathy’s book, windows were designed to serve three
functions: 1. To ensure a view for people inside the house, 2. To allow sunlight,
and 3. To let outside air in (Fathy, 1986). Consequently, the shape, material, size,
and location of the windows vary according to the local climate. Indeed, the
windows of damascene houses were built following these methods. Outer
windows were very simple, small and far from ground level, which prevented
the house from high-temperature transmission in the mornings and fast
temperature droppings at night ( Gut & Ackerknecht, 2011). Besides, there are
several types of outer windows,
Outer windows with wooden shutters. This type usually has 3 layers, the
first outer layer is wood latticed shutters with a decorated arch that block intense
sun rays. The second layer is a metal screen that prevents insects, behind this
screen a wooden framed glass window is found. Sometimes a fourth layer is
found in this type which is an inner decorated wooden shutter following the
decoration style of the surrounded wall
The second type is the outer window with Mashrabiya. Mashrabiyas have
cultural and environmental benefits and it is widely known in Arab countries’
vernacular houses. Mashrabiya is a cantilevered architectural element that is
46
made of lattice wood screens covering the wooden framed outer windows
(Bagasi & Calautit, 2020).
Since damascene houses are inner oriented; thus, inner windows are the
main used windows to provide air and natural light for the house. Inner windows
vary in shape, size and distance from the ground. Hence, we can notice that in
one wall an upper and lower window could be found. Inner windows are opened
towards the courtyard with two glazed shutters. The lower windows of Qaahs
have two frames: 1. a wooden one surrounding the thin glass that is about 2mm,
2. and a stone arched frame surrounding the wooden framed window. Besides, a
crossed wooden or iron bars screen is also added in front of the lower windows
of Qaahs.
The upper windows of Qaahs and first-floor inner windows are surrounded
by a wooden frame with a 2mm glass thickness of each window. As a result of
the lightness in glass weight and to ensure natural ventilation, the number of
windows increased in Damascene houses, especially on the first floor. Moreover,
some doors or windows have small openings over them particularly in the two
Qaahs near the Iwan called Qamaria windows. These openings provide Qaahs
with daylight and moisturized air, whereas Qamarias and some upper windows
of Qaahs are usually covered with stained glass (Kabrit, 2000).
Roofs are the most critical part of the envelope as a result of the long
exposure to direct sunlight during day time (Fathy, 1986). Thus, it is considered
a major source of heat gain, but the percentage of heat transmission varies
according to the used materials and their conductivity (Abuseif & Gou, 2018).In
hot-arid areas the construction materials of the roof must have high thermal
resistance to prevent heat radiation, besides, reflective outer surfaces are
preferred in this type of climate. Therefore, Damascene vernacular dwellings’
roofs were flat and they were built using poplar wood and mud (Kabrit, 2000).
These materials have a low thermal conductivity property, which decreased heat
gain in summers and heat loss in winters. According to “The Damascene house
1” book, the thickness of the roof is about 50-70 cm, where vernacular builders
insured applying several layers while constructing the roof (Figure 28),
Firstly, the beam is constructed using wood so it could allow poplar
columns to lean on it. The width of these columns is about 20-30 cm and the
height is about 6-8 meters. Wood shelves are placed on top of these columns
47
called “Al Tabaq”. After that, a combination layer of wet mud and gravel stones
is being added and pressed, where its thickness is about 20-30 cm. When this
layer dries, it is being covered with a sticky clay layer that prevents rain from
seeping in. The roof’s final layer is ‘Al Zriqa’, which is a locally made thermal
insulation material made of clay or lime combined with plant fibre.
Figure 28. Pazar Bashi house, roof and ceiling structure (Kabrit, 2000).
2.2 Climatic Considerations
Recent studies mentioned that climate affects the urban and architectural
form directly, for instance, the proportion of wall openings to the proportion of
the walls change according to the Climatic zone (Fathy, 1986). Consequently,
the climate is the average of the weather conditions in a specific location or
region at a certain time (Karagoz, 2016). The climate of a certain region could
be defined depending on several climatic factors (Koch-Nielsen, 2002) :
Air temperature, the unit of air temperature is in Celsius or Fahrenheit. Air
temperature can be measured using a dry thermometer placed in a wooden box
named Stevenson screen. However, to give clear information of air temperatures
in a specific area these data should be analysed: 1. Monthly average temperature,
48
2. Monthly average of maximum and minimum temperatures,3. Absolute
maximum and minimum temperatures. Indeed, other factors also impact the air
temperature of an area directly such as latitude, seasons of the year, atmosphere,
the location of the studied area near water bodies or not.
Solar Radiation the sun has a major role in human’s life and their dwellings.
Many factors determine the influence of the sun on the site. Hence, these factors
should be analysed by architects before making design decisions. The factors can
be concluded as follows: Duration, Intensity, The angle of incidence. Therefore,
protecting from direct sun rays is the main goal that architects should achieve in
their designs.
Wind is usually defined as moving air. Wind types are determined
according to their direction, speed and intensity. Therefore, wind control
techniques are preferred in windy areas. Building form and site has a significant
impact on the building’s natural ventilation and air movement. Thus, design
decisions should be made in advance to determine the passive techniques.
Humidity is the invisible water vapour that exists in the surrounding air.
Humid areas are usually the lands near water bodies (oceans, seas, lakes…etc.).
Building materials, ventilation and other decisions should be made according to
the humidity rate in the building site to reduce the rate or enhance it since
humidity affect the thermal comfort of humans.
Precipitation this term is used to refer to the rain and snow rate in a specific
area. Precipitation is influenced by the local weather conditions and geographic
location where tropical areas and mountains have a high precipitation rate
compared to other geographical areas. The used unit to measure precipitation rate
is mm. Cities with high precipitation rates are usually classified as humid
climates.
likewise, many features of the site could influence the microclimate
directly, hence it could be enhanced. These features are,
• Topography
• The built-environment
• Water bodies
• Vegetation and ground cover.
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These features were studied in the previous sections in the context of
Damascus. Hence, the following section is mentioning the main climatic
elements of the city and their relation with the thesis case study ‘vernacular
damascene houses’. Additionally, these elements are taken into consideration
while proposing new energy-efficient housing in the region.
2.2.1 Hot-arid climate analysis. About 15% of the world’s population are
living in hot-arid zones ( Gut & Ackerknecht, 2011). Hot-arid zones include
desert and semi-desert lands (Figure 29). This climate is generally characterized
by a low average of annual precipitation and high temperatures which in some
countries could reach (40o-50o). Moreover, these temperatures may vary sharply
between (day/night), (summer/winter). Accordingly, the crossing wind is usually
dry with possibilities of sandstorms in winters. The intensity of solar radiation is
high especially on summer’s days; besides, sun rays could be reflected from the
ground since most of these areas are located near sand grounds which has
reflecting property (Wakil & Seraj, 1989).
The climate is usually being studied by architects since the previously
mentioned climatic factors affect the design process directly. Thus, these factors
are analysed to find good solutions that could cope with the surrounding
environment and climate to provide thermal comfort, enhance the building’s
performance, and reduce its energy consumption.
Figure 29. Hot-arid climatic zones (Wakil & Seraj, 1989).
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2.2.2 Regional climatic standards. Damascus has a hot-arid climate,
where temperatures may change significantly during the day and seasons.
Indeed, many climatic factors and features affect the weather of the city.
Consequently, the average temperatures of Damascus vary between (+35o and
0o), see (Figure 30). As a result of the geographical location and the local weather
of Damascus, the intensity of solar is high on summer’s days since the buildings
could be affected by the three types of solar radiation (Direct solar radiation,
diffuse solar radiation, and reflected solar radiation from the ground and the
surroundings) (Koch-Nielsen, 2002).
Figure 30. Average temperatures in Damascus during the year (Error!
Hyperlink reference not valid. /ar/weather/historyclimate/climatemodelled/)
Since Damascus is located in an arid zone humidity rate is very low but the
presence of the Barada river in the city has helped to moisturize the air. Besides,
the precipitation level is low as a result of the scarce rainfalls and snow (Figure
31). The wind is usually blowing from the southwest to the northeast, which
allows the air to be purified by the trees of Al-Ghouta.
Figure 31. Precipitation Rate in Damascus (Error! Hyperlink reference not
valid.)
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Climatic design Priorities:
1. Reduce extreme temperatures, dryness and uncomfortable conditions in
summer.
2. Protect buildings from direct sun, glare and dust.
3. Design adaptable buildings to cope with the season’s weather and to achieve a
balanced climate in the interiors.
4. Improve natural ventilation and moisturized air by creating sufficient openings
and water surfaces inside buildings.
Lower Priorities:
1. Let the sun in during winters.
2. Avoid winter winds.
2.3 Energy-Efficiency and Sustainability Aspects
Nowadays, a high concern with architectural practices regarding building
performance and their energy efficiency has been noticed as a result of climate
change. Governments are urging several disciplines including architecture to
comply with protocols to enhance buildings performance and reduce
consumption. Indeed, rethinking the design process and including passive design
is very important to achieve energy efficiency. Therefore, many contemporary
sustainable designs are referencing vernacular techniques where they provide
proper indoor and urban conditions in a specific climatic region. Consequently,
this thesis is studying the passive techniques of Damascene dwellings.
2.3.1 Urban passive design strategies. Recent studies have proved that
urban planning and form affect the micro-climate directly. Accordingly, the
urban components of the city such as streets, buildings, open spaces, etc. have a
major role in enhancing thermal comfort. The studies have discussed climatic
parameters, the influence of green areas and landscaping on the micro-climate
(Yahia & Johansson, 2013). Indeed, they are aiming at reducing energy
consumption and designing climate responsive cities and buildings.
Consequently, ‘climate-responsive design’ refers to using passive and local
strategies to integrate the aimed zone or building with the climate, hence, it helps
with achieving appropriate conditions in a certain climatic zone, by result less
demand of energy (Kaihoul, Sriti, Amraoui, Di Turi, & Ruggiero, 2021).
Paul Oliver has mentioned that vernacular architecture techniques are an
indigenous way to respond and adapt to the climate (Oliver, 1997).
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Accordingly, the vernacular urban design of Damascus achieved the ideal
response to serve the natural and social environment. Thus, the urban passive
design strategies of old Damascus could be summarized as follows:
1. The Urban form of the city has played a major role in reducing the exposure of
walls and roofs to direct sun rays, hence, it helped to keep proper temperatures
during summers.
2. The form of the narrow, zigzagging paths and their direction has helped
provide shade spaces. Moreover, they helped with blocking dusty wind
movement within the city. As a result of the paths form, the cool air was
preserved at night to be released in the morning (Figure 32).
3. Wide-open spaces are rare in the old city of Damascus to prevent sun
reflectivity and dusty winds; hence, they were replaced with recurring small
open spaces. Each quarter had it small open space in between public facilities
(mosques, baths, shops…) these spaces are a gathering space and a small node
that links paths.
4. Houses’ facades were designed to serve the aesthetical and environmental
aspects. Hence, the cantilevered first floor’s façade acted as sun breakers it
helped with shading the outer walls of the houses and the alley (Khouli, 1982).
5. The cantilevered facades on both sides of the narrow alleys helped with
activating the movement of hot air upwards to get rid of it.
6. Street directions towards N-S and E-W improved natural ventilation and cool
air movement. Moreover, water surfaces in public spaces moisturized the air.
7. The spread of green spaces in residential and public facilities in the old city of
Damascus played an important role in purifying the air. Besides, shading by
green spaces ensures cool air since vegetation absorb and reflect radiant energy
(Gunawardena, Wells, & Kershaw, 2017).
8. Sibat is another common architectural element that was used in Damascene
paths to prevent pedestrians from being exposed to direct sun radiation.
Moreover, it acts as a cooling tunnel that cools the passing breeze to preserve
thermal comfort around the alleys.
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Figure 32. Air movement in old Damascus’s alley (Author’s own).
2.3.2 Vernacular dwellings’ passive design strategies. Nowadays, many
studies are arguing that sustainable ‘energy-efficient’ buildings could be
achieved by combining “the best of the past with the best of the new”. Indeed,
considering advanced science technologies and vernacular architecture
techniques that responded to the region’s needs and climate would help design
better contemporary buildings. Therefore, it is highly noticed that throughout
history vernacular building decision-makers were aiming at integrating
environmental controls with their designs to ensure comfortable conditions to the
users. Moreover, Le Corbusier's famous principle of “the form follows the
function” is a result of the urge to design a building that is effective in heating,
cooling, and lighting by relying on its architectural elements (Lechner, 2014).
Accordingly, vernacular architecture has evolved with serving the needs of
the users. Hence, the main aim of vernacular architecture is to create a
comfortable environment by using proper local techniques and environmentally
friendly architectural elements. Consequently, Damascene vernacular dwellings
have responded to the extreme climatic conditions of the hot arid climate with
local flexible design, that adapt to the surrounding and balance the amount of
heating, cooling and lighting (Mousli & Semprini, 2015). The concept of
Adaptation is considered as the essence of passive design where it refers to the
combination of adaptation actions (physiological and behavioural) that people
54
could do in case of an uncomfortable change. Thus, people act in a way to restore
their comfort.
However, the surrounding factors had a major role in influencing the
process of passive heating, cooling and lighting in these vernacular houses
including the socio-cultural aspect (Chandel, Sharma, & M.Marwah, 2016),
which are highlighted in the coming sections.
2.3.2.1 Passive cooling. The geographical location of Damascus near the
desert have affected the climate of the city to be considered a hot-arid zone.
Summers are usually the longest in respect to the winter, hence, considering
passive cooling while designing and building houses is essential (Kabrit, 2000).
In the case of Damascene houses, passive cooling strategies were considered in
the design process from the plan level to the construction and landscaping.
Additionally, to achieve thermal comfort in vernacular houses during summers
they used to create spaces that avoid heat gain using all the local strategies they
have, besides, they considered designing architectural elements that could help
with optimizing indoor environmental quality. As a result, buildings used to
adapt to the local climate (Samuel, Dharmasastha, Nagendra, & Maiya, 2017).
Moreover, the performance quality of passive cooling techniques is
depending on the interaction of the building and its architectural elements with
the surrounding environment to achieve a balanced condition for the users
(Freewan, 2019). Indeed, the surrounding features, building form, and internal
layout are part of the passive cooling process (Koch-Nielsen, 2002). Thus, it is
discussed in this section.
1. Building form: Damascene houses have an organic centralized compact
form where all the units are oriented towards the central courtyard
(Hatahet, 2016).In hot arid zones, temperatures vary significantly from
day to night as a result of the heat radiation from the earth. Thus,
temperatures may vary from (10-20 Co) (Kabrit, 2000). In vernacular
Damascene houses ‘Stack effect’ was considered to ensure inner cool
breeze, this effect could occur since warm air is less dense than cool air,
hence, warm air rises and it is replaced by cooler air (Figure 33). In the
daytime, the air is warmed gradually since the courtyard is shaded by
the mass walls of the surrounding rooms and vegetation. Therefore, the
courtyard acts as an air modifier that keeps proper temperatures and cool
55
breeze around the house (Muhaisen, 2006). Indeed, the limited number
of external openings and other characteristics of the courtyard played an
important role in maintaining low temperatures (Figure 34).
Figure 33. Air movement in Damascene vernacular houses (Author’s own).
Figure 34. Form techniques for passive cooling in Damascene houses (Behsh,
1988).
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2. Space organization: The concept of thermal zones was considered in
Damascene vernacular houses to ensure proper temperatures all the year.
Thus, the main houses’ units were divided according to the seasons;
houses may include summer Iwan and Qaah and winter ones. Summer
Iwan and Qaahs are located on the southern façade of the courtyard
opened towards the north to get the benefit of the summer breeze,
whereas winter Iwan and Qaahs are usually located on the opposite side
facing south warm sunrays or on the eastern and western part of the
courtyard. The angled entrance of the house with the transitional zone
‘Al-Dihliz’ is a very important aspect regarding the concept of thermal
zones since it prevents direct access of outer wind; hence it protects the
house from dust, heat gain and loss. Kitchen and bathrooms are usually
located in western hidden spots or dead corners, as a result, these units
provide extra insulation. Moreover, some houses have whole sections
for different seasons. Accordingly, the orientation of the house units and
the concept of thermal zones achieved providing thermal comfort for the
users (Figure 35) (Kabrit, 2000).
Figure 35. Thermal zones in a Damascene vernacular house ‘Al-Dada House’
(Kabrit, 2000).
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2.3.2.1.1 Evaporative cooling. To achieve thermal comfort in hot-arid
zones considering evaporation cooling is a must since it has pleasing refreshing
and psychological effects (Fathy, 1986). The Evaporation of water is a process
where the sensible heat is conserved into latent heat. Ancient architects and
builders knew the physical states of water, hence they used it to optimize the
climatic conditions in their houses (Bansal, 2014). The concept of evaporation
cooling was considered in Damascene vernacular houses, and it is found in three
methods:
Fountain (spray pond), it is usually placed in the middle of the courtyard
where the cool air of the courtyard pass over the water’s surface, as a result, heat
will be absorbed and the air will be moisturized and cooled (Koch-Nielsen,
2002). gathering areas are usually opened towards the courtyard, such as Iwans
and Qaahs to get the benefit of the cooled air. Some Qaahs have their own
fountain, which would help cool the indoor area (Kabrit, 2000). Moreover, spray
ponds help purify the air from dust particles hence they are more preferable in
hot-arid zones and that was applied in Damascene vernacular houses (Figure 36).
Figure 36. Evaporative cooling, fountain method in Damascene vernacular
houses (Author’s own).
The second evaporative cooling method is incorporating evaporator porous
clay jug in openings (Mashrabiya) this method is less effective and popular in
Damascene houses than the fountain since it uses a smaller water surface and a
still pond. These jugs were used to be placed in Mashrabiyas facing outdoor air
to moisturize and cool it (Figure 37). Therefore, it provides comfort conditions
and enhances houses’ envelopes (Schiano-Phan, 2004). The third method is
58
green spaces, this method was applied widely in Damascene vernacular houses
since vegetation enhance indoor air quality and moisturize it.
Figure 37.Evaporative cooling method (Cain et al., 1976).
2.3.2.1.2 Shading elements. Shading is among the most important
characteristics that architects should pay attention to in hot arid-climate to
prevent the house and outdoor spaces from direct sun and glare. Indeed, the
optimal orientation of houses and the compact urban plan help achieve better-
shaded space. Vernacular architecture is known for its multifunctional
architectural elements. Thus, the surrounding walls courtyards in Damascene
houses act as shading elements along with their main role. However, building
elements are not enough in such an intense climate. Accordingly, it is noticed
that Damascene houses included vernacular shading elements such as
Mashrabiyas.
Mashrabiya is a lattice cantilevered screen that covers parts of the outer
façade, it consists of decorated tangled wooden balusters (Samuels, 2011)
(Figure 38). Throughout history, Mashrabiya was a cantilevered lattice space
used to store water jugs in it, but its function evolved to be an important
architectural element in Arab vernacular architecture. According to Zakariya
Kabrit, Mashrabiyas have five main functions: 1. Controlling Daylight, 2.
Controlling airflow, 3. Moisturizing the air, 4. Decrease air temperature, 5.
Privacy (Figure 39). The design of Mashrabiya differs according to its location
in the house and its function.
For instance, the characteristics of daylight on the southern elevation are
• Direct sunlight is intense on the southern elevation and its angle is
wide on the floor.
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• The reflected glare is less intense, but it affects the vision of the
uses (Kabrit, 2000).
Consequently, the spaces between the tangled wooden balusters should be
small to prevent direct sun and glare. Usually, the balusters near eye level are
very close and tangled and the upper balusters are less tangled and more open to
ensure lighting. Southern Mashrabiyas often have a wide surface since the space
between the blusters is very small the wider surface of the Mashrabiya would
ensure airflow compensation. Moreover, Mashrabiyas act as an air moisturizer
since wooden blusters absorb the humidity of the temperate air at night, and it
releases it when the blusters get heated by the sun (Kabrit, 2000). Therefore,
bigger blusters absorb more night moisturized air than smaller ones as a result
they work more efficiently in moisturizing dry air in the morning.
Figure 38.Mashrabiya’s blusters (Samuels, 2011).
Figure 39.A Mashrabiya in a Damascene vernacular house (Autor’s own).
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2.3.2.1.3 Natural ventilation. Nowadays, thermal comfort, indoor air
quality, and energy are some of the most important architectural research fields,
where ventilation is an important aspect related to them. Natural ventilation
represents effective support or alternative for air conditioning systems.
Moreover, it improves indoor air quality and thermal comfort for the users since
it regenerates the air constantly (Passe & Battaglia, 2015). Ventilation inside
buildings has four main roles according to (Wakil & Seraj, 1989),
1. Replace polluted air with fresh air to prevent the increase of CO2 inside
the building.
2. Cooling human bodies by controlling air movement and speed hence
thermal comfort could be achieved.
3. Cooling the air source since the new air mixes with the air inside the
building hence the heat transfers. The thickness of the wall its colours
and openings design effect directly this process since air temperature
is affected by the temperature of the building’s surfaces.
4. Moistening dry air inside by applying cooling evaporation methods
with crossed ventilation.
Consequently, Damascene vernacular houses relied on these techniques to
achieve thermal comfort. Indeed, the courtyard and wall openings are the main
elements in the natural ventilation process. The courtyard ensures unpolluted
ventilation by creating a constant airflow between inner and outer air, the green
spaces in the courtyard help enhance indoor air quality by increasing oxygen
levels. Since Damascene houses were built as rows where the houses’ units are
inner oriented and the outer windows are rare, the concept of crossed windows
and crossed ventilation was not considered in these vernacular houses. Thus, it
was replaced with “multi-level wall openings” to ensure air movement inside the
rooms. In some Qaahs with high ceilings, three levels of windows were
considered, the first one is the window that its height could reach the high of the
door. The second level is a smaller window that could open to improve air
movement and get rid of inner hot air. The third level is round coloured closed
openings called ‘Qamariat’ and ‘Shamsiat’ which help get more sunlight in the
room (Kabrit, 2000) (Figure 40). Malqafs (wind catchers) are absent in
Damascene houses since outer winds are undesirable, as a result of the
61
multidirectional dusty summer winds. Therefore, courtyards were the main
source of cool air inside the house.
Figure 40. Natural ventilation, multi-level windows (Autor’s own).
2.3.2.2 Passive heating. According to figure 29, the temperature in
Damascus during winter could reach below comfort level. As a result, vernacular
builders considered passive heating while building their houses to ensure proper
temperature. Passive heating is a process where heat is collected during the
daytime to be released at night or when the inner temperature decreases (Wakil
& Seraj, 1989) There are many types of passive heating, but mainly in
Damascene houses direct gain and thermal mass are the most used ones. The
orientation of the Damascene house and the courtyard allow the sun to get into
the building where the heat is being stored by the stone floor or the thermal mass
wall. As have mentioned earlier the south-facing façade on the ground floor
usually include Qaahs that are the main units for the family to gather in winter.
The windows of the Qaah allow the sun is where the heat is stored in the morning
to be released at night when the family usually gather.
The walls of the ground floor and the first floor were constructed
differently. Hence, different heat gaining methods were included. The ground
floor was constructed using stone and adobe where the walls are thick that act as
thermal mass to control temperature levels during winter. Moreover, the rare
outer openings insured airtightness, thus the walls and the insulation layers in the
roof could keep the warm air for a longer time (Figure 41). The first floor of
Damascene houses was built using light materials ‘adobe and wood’. Therefore,
62
the used method was direct sun gain since upper floor rooms had outer and inner
windows consequently the sun could get in the room most of the daytime to heat
it (Kabrit, 2000).
Figure 41. Passive heating in Damascene houses (Autor’s own).
2.3.2.3 Daylight. Since the beginning of human beings’ existence, people
tried to cope with their surroundings and it is widely said that the history of
architecture started with this coping process. Early civilizations made use of the
sun and other environmental elements according to their geographical context
(Boubekri, 2008). Daylighting is not a feature or element that could be added to
the building unlike electric lighting; daylighting is planned and designed along
with the building design. The building form, orientation, windows size, materials
and location are critical decisions to design proper daylighting (Lechner, 2014)
Accordingly, Damascene houses were planned to get the maximum use of
daylighting, houses’ units included different types of windows that differ
according to seasonal and daily sun’s path. The upper windows of the rooms are
the main source to get sunlight in the rooms.
However, since Damascus is located in a hot arid zone direct sunlight was
avoided to maintain proper temperatures accordingly trees and green spaces
were planted in the courtyard to reduce the intensity of the sunrays and to
prevent glare that could occur as a result of sun intensity and fountain’s water.
Indeed, the northern elevation of the house included more windows than the
southern elevation since the northern elevation receives less amount of daylight.
Thus, more windows would ensure a proper amount of daylighting (Wakil &
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Seraj, 1989) Moreover, the light colour of the courtyard’s and Qaahs stone
flooring managed to reflect the light to deep parts of the room (Figure 42).
Figure 42. Daylighting in Damascene house’s Qaah (Autor’s own).
2.3.3 Indoor environmental quality. The indoor environment including
(ventilation, lighting, temperature, etc.) affects the energy efficiency of buildings
significantly. Moreover, it affects the users' work and activities efficiency. As a
result, people tend to improve the indoor environment by actions that usually
include energy implications; hence, poor indoor environments lead to more
energy consumption (Swamy, 2021). There are several parameters for indoor
environmental quality that are classified in many national and international
standards. Thermal comfort and indoor air quality are the main aspects of the
indoor environment that directly impacts the building and users’ performance in
terms of energy and daily activities.
Thermal comfort refers to the comfort zone which the building could
achieve for the user(s). The standard 55-2010 of the American Society of heating,
refrigerating and air-conditioning engineers (ASHRAE) defined thermal comfort
as the people’s state of mind which is pleased with the thermal environment
(ASHRAE, 2010). There are several thermal comfort primary factors, which are
temperature, humidity, radiant temperature, airspeed, clothing and activities (EU
B. , 2007). Besides, other secondary factors affect thermal comfort such as
human body shape and gender. Recent studies deduced that indoor air
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temperature is slightly higher than outdoor temperature as a result of (Nasir, et
al., 2011)
• Heat radiation from electrical lighting sources and other appliances.
• The convection of heat from the outside hot air.
• Heat transmission through the building’s envelope and opening.
Additionally, there are two developed thermal comfort approaches that
architects rely on to achieve thermal comfort and reduce energy consumption in
their designs and buildings, which are Fanger’s equation and the adaptive
thermal comfort model. Fanger’s equation on thermal comfort became a standard
reference since his equation was conducted by using experiments and models.
Fanger considered the evolution of thermal comfort as a milestone (Fanger,
1970). Hence, his equation explains the relation between human thermal comfort
and the parameters that can affect it. The equation’s experiments were done in a
controlled room where the model argued that there is no difference in thermal
comfort created by gender, body shape, colour…etc. Fanger categorized six
parameters that can affect human thermal comfort, two of the parameters are
related to the occupant(s) and four are related to the surrounding environment,
these parameters are (Karyono, Abdullah, Cotgrave, & Bras, 2020):
• Clothing insulation.
• User(s) activities (metabolic rate).
• Temperature.
• Radiant temperature.
• Airspeed.
• Humidity.
Fanger’s equation has become the basis of ISO7730–2005 and
acknowledged by ASHARE as the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV)/Predicted
Percentage of Dissatisfied (PPD) models in ASHARE 55 standard. Nevertheless,
in reality, human’s gender, age, different cultural habits, and people with
disabilities have different thermal comfort responses. Thus, the adaptive
approach is clarifying people’s psychological and physiological adaptation
regarding different thermal parameters.
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The adaptive approach was firstly introduced by Nicol and Humphreys
where they formulated their approach on the human nature of adaptability. The
adaptive model is also acknowledged by ASHARE 55 standard (ASHRAE,
2010). Unlike Fanger’s equation, this model is defining thermal comfort with
regarding the occupant(s) thermal experiences in changing states such as
clothing, activities, and in cases of disabilities and ages (elderly and children).
These aspects influence the human’s response to the previously mentioned
thermal parameters. Consequently, the adaptive model argued thermal
adaptation types which are (S.Brager & de Dear, 1998),
• Psychological adaptation is the state of mind that responds to the thermal zone
according to previous experiences and known behaviours.
• Physiological adaptation, the human’s body responds to adapt to a certain
temperature.
The adaptive model is very effective while designing a human comfort
system for multi-users to achieve proper conditions in reliance on their
behaviours and responses, which could enhance building performance and create
more energy-efficient buildings.
However, contemporary buildings worked on ensuring thermal comfort of
the users by relying on an active system (HVAC) that consumes a considerable
amount of energy daily and affects indoor air quality. Indeed, passive techniques
can replace or support active heating or cooling systems to achieve the thermal
comfort state for the users and reduce energy consumption. Thus, passive heating
and cooling techniques should be analysed by architects while making design
decisions since passive strategies should be included in advance.
On the other hand, vernacular dwellings have long achieved thermal
comfort by relying on the building structure and passive techniques where they
do not consume energy but rely on natural sources. Moreover, the houses were
the mirrors of people behaviours and adaptation experiences, thus, they achieved
crating effective human comfort zones. A recent study was conducted by (Mousli
& Semprini, 2015) analysed the performance of the internal courtyard of the
vernacular Damascene houses, their materials, and structures. Accordingly, they
concluded that the internal courtyard of Damascene vernacular houses has a
major role in achieving thermal comfort. Moreover, they proved that the
66
materials, vernacular structures, green spaces and the fountain are the main
effective elements of the courtyard that managed to reduce temperature. Besides,
the high thermal mass managed to maintain proper microclimate. Indeed, the
achieved private spaces have a significant influence on thermal comfort levels
for women since women were able to reduce clothes during summertime.
Indoor air quality ‘IAQ’ has been widely considered a major concern in
recent studies since people spend 90% of their time in indoor environments
(Giuli, Da Pos , & De Carli, 2012). Moreover, indoor air pollution is ranked as
one of the top five environmental dangers by the US environmental protection
agency. Poor indoor air quality causes several health problems (Kandar &
Nimlyat, 2015). Ensuring proper air quality includes improving ventilation, air
sources and indoor air purification. Additionally, the main role of ventilation is
maintaining low levels of pollution, where ventilation in a building could be
provided either in a passive or active method (Nasir, et al., 2011). Indeed, natural
ventilation is considered an important factor in determining indoor air quality.
Generally, the comfort level of ventilation per minute is 20 square feet per
person, but this level may change according to the indoor activities that are
related to air pollution such as smoking, cooking and cleaning (Kandar &
Nimlyat, 2015) . Likewise, many studies mentioned that many sources could
affect the IAQ such as building materials, furniture, space heaters and other
chemical products used by the users (Abdel-Salam, 2022). Therefore, many
methods are suggested by ‘EPA’ to enhance indoor quality these methods
include (EPA, Improving Indoor Air Quality, 2021),
Source control: this method can be achieved by reducing the emissions
from individual sources including controlling indoor activities of the users such
as smoking, painting and other activities that should be done outdoor, and
modifying other sources like gas stoves. Indeed, this method is more cost-
efficient than other methods such as mechanical ventilation since increasing the
active ventilation systems consume more energy.
Ventilation: most of the HVAC systems do not bring fresh air
mechanically, hence, to enhance the inner air users should consider opening
windows and doors daily to refresh the air and reduce the emissions.
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Air filtration: these systems should be considered to decrease harmful gas
emissions that could affect users’ health such as Co2 and other harmful gases
especially when some activities that pollute the air are done indoors.
Damascene vernacular houses achieved indoor air quality by relying on
natural sources to purify the air and sterilize houses. The Open space within the
house has a significant impact on IAQ. The courtyard and its green spaces
managed to purify the air from dust and it reduced the amount of Co2. Moreover,
they achieved spaces where people can do certain activities outdoor, which
eliminate emissions from individual sources since harmful emissions are being
reduced with the help of natural ventilation. Accordingly, the quality of indoor
air should be considered in each building with the assistance of natural sources
since polluted indoor air may cause respiratory diseases in the long term
especially for children and the elderly.
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Chapter 3
Regional Architecture: A Critical Discussion on Today’s Damascene
Dwellings
Regionalism as a word is defined in the Cambridge dictionary as ‘a phrase,
characteristic, form…of a particular place’ (Dictionary, 1995). Regionalism in
architecture is defined in terms, concepts, and architectural types such as ‘genius
loci’, ‘sense of place’ ‘vernacular architecture’… (Heath, 2009). Lewis Mumford
wrote in his book, regionalism is not about using local architectural style or
materials, but regional architecture is about meeting users’ needs in their current
living conditions to make them feel at home in their surrounding environment,
hence, it achieves reflecting the current cultural conditions of the region
(Mumford, 1941). Other studies argued that regionalism simply is “a local life
aware of itself” (Canizaro, 2007).
Accordingly, the concept of ‘critical regionalism’ was firstly introduced by
Alexander Tzonis, Liane Lefaivre in the early 1980s as a form of ‘resistance
architecture’, they described a type of architecture that is related to its particular
cultural, nature, and geographical conditions (Eggener, 2002). Regionalism is
about adapting to the current surroundings and culture; therefore, it is necessary
to distinguish critical regionalism from reviving some vernacular features that
can’t adapt to today’s needs (Frampton, 1993). Nevertheless, the concept is
urging evoking vernacular techniques by evolving them to cope with today’s
needs and the collective identity by using today’s instruments.
The emergence of the modernization movement in Damascus has affected
the city and its dwellings negatively. ‘Buildings were produced, but yet no
architecture’ since ‘modern’ buildings could adapt neither to their environment
nor to the dwellers’ needs and dynamics (Porphyrios, 1989). Therefore, this
chapter is discussing the essence of Damascene homes, the vernacular
abandoned strategies, and wrong ‘modern’ practices to have guidelines for the
proposed new regional design with consideration to the global priorities and
today’s life needs.
3.1 The Concept of Identity: “The Spirit of a Place”
According to the identity discussion in the literature review, “place” is not
just a location, but it is an essential part of existence. In other words, a place and
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its elements are products of the users’ habits, activities, and beliefs (Arefi, 2014).
Consequently, places build their own identity following the reflected identities
of the users. However, humans’ activities and functions are not similar according
to Norberg-Schulz (Norberg-Schulz, 1976). Even the most basic human habits
such as gathering, sleeping, eating, etc. differ according to the cultural,
environmental, traditional, and climatic conditions, hence, the demands and
properties of places differ accordingly. Therefore, a space becomes a ‘place’
when it creates its character, which is capable to transmit meanings, serving the
users, and communicating with the surrounding. But a place loses its identity if
its relationship with the surroundings and the user is corrupted (Erdem, 2005).
Thus, placemaking demands working in different contexts and achieving
different aims (Silberberg, Lorah, Disbrow, & Muessig, 2013).
Going back to the phenomenon of place by Christian Norberg Schulz, he
suggests that the “everyday life-world” should be the main concern by architects.
Besides, he considers that the language and literature are the keys to
understanding the identity of the place and our life-world of what he named ‘the
phenomenology of the daily environment’. Additionally, recent studies
mentioned that literature and poetry are the main sources of information to
expand the understanding of self, surroundings, and society (Simecek &
Rumbold, 2016). In this respect, to understand the main elements that form the
identity of Damascene houses and their spirits, in which it shaped ‘the regional,
self-efficient home’; this section is analysing a poem written by a local
Damascene poet ‘Nizar Qabani’ describing his house:
…. A small wooden gate opens. and a journey starts towards the green,
red and lilac, and a symphony of light, shadow and marble also starts.
Bitter orange tree holds its fruits where the jasmine tree gave birth to a
thousand white moons and hung them on the bars of the windows….
The marble around the fountain is black, the fountain fills its mouth with
water and blows it, the water game continues day and night, neither the
fountains get tired nor the water of Damascus ends….
In this green belt, I was born, crawled, and pronounced my first words…
This house ‘shelter’ left its marks on my poems, just as Granada,
Cordoba and Seville left their mark on Andalusian poetry….
(Our Damascene house, Nizar Qabani )
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The poet Nizar Qabani has described Damascus, its alleys and houses in
many of his poems. It is clear that there were interactions between the identity of
the poet, ‘his daily environment’, and the identity of the house in which he
‘dwelled’. According to the poem, the green ‘belt’ and the fountain are the spirits
of the house. Moreover, he described the ‘light’ and ‘shadow’ created by the
form of the house, the hung jasmines on the bars of the windows, the fountain
that blows water from its mouth as the main elements that form the character of
the house. Aren’t these mentioned descriptions represent some aspects of the
house’s identity and main elements of passive techniques at the same time? In
this regard, it can be deduced that vernacular Damascene houses had a ‘strong’
relationship to the tangible and intangible sense.
This strong relationship enhanced the performance of the houses and
served the users on many levels including the spiritual and the physical, where
the houses improved their environmental quality in accordance. On the other
hand, the identity of the Damascene house has evolved following the identity of
the users, besides, it succeeds in arousing ‘belonging’ and ‘comforting’ feelings
and left marks on the inhabitants’ daily life-world in the same way that it left
marks of Nizar’s poems “This house ‘shelter’ left its marks on my poems”
(Figure 43).
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Figure 43. Formation of house’s identity (Autor’s own).
As have mentioned, architecture is ‘inhabited by the spirits’ and it gives
life to the people and their places. Hence, architecture and building performance
are affected by the users’ daily life habits, identity, and psychological
fluctuations. The ‘daily life-world that was mentioned by Christian Norberg
Schulz affects the energy consumption in the building directly. Moreover, recent
studies have proved that the energy consumption of the users is directly related
to their expectations from the surrounding indoor environment and their
perception of ‘comfort’. Therefore, nowadays it is essential to study the daily
habits of the users such as spending hours in each unit, the nature of done
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activities, when simulating the energy performance of a building. Besides, age,
gender, and other details related to the psychological state of the users and their
behaviours are taken into consideration (Laaroussi, Bahrar, El Mankibi, Draoui,
& Si-Larbi, 2020). Accordingly, we can conduct that the spirit of the place or the
genius loci which is defined as “what a thing wants to be” has a significant impact
on energy consumption.
However, the users may evolve coping mechanisms that are related to their
behaviours and social norms since people tend to develop and modify their
dwellings to cope with the surrounding environment and achieve the state of
personal ‘comfort’ and belonging’ (Tuniki, Jurelionis, & Fokaides, 2021). This
process of adaptation has created the vernacular houses and their passive
techniques that were evolved ‘locally’ following the traditions and the dynamics
of the region’s inhabitants by using traditional housing forms, local materials,
and construction techniques (Figure 44). These aspects are discussed in the
following section.
Figure 44. Process of adaptation (Autor’s own).
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3.2 Regionalism in Architecture, Vernacular Dwellings Background
Vernacular architecture is the oldest and purest form of regionalism.
Vernacular architecture can be defined as a creative adaptation process that
translates experiences, traditions and skills into buildings that are influenced by
the climatic conditions, region’s landscape, local traditions, cultural structure
and the dynamics of the people and their local identity (Tipnis, 2012). Good
architecture was defined in many books and studies as a ‘building’ that is
sensitive to its location and climate as well as the cultural structure of the region,
and it is also cost-effective. Clearly, these aspects of good architecture define
vernacular architecture aspects. Vernacular buildings relied on the existent local
sources and the inherited techniques to adapt to the region’s environment, thus,
it represents a sign of identity where buildings are the mirrors that reflect the
region’s nature, traditions and environmental conditions (Sayigh, 2019).
Fascinatingly, the elements of the vernacular dwellings are multi-
functional and serve the buildings and the users in several ways on the
physiological, psychological and cultural levels. Mashrabiya for instance is very
popular among vernacular Arab dwellings, this cantilevered architectural
element acts as a sun breaker to block direct sunlight, and it is a traditional
element that ensures privacy for the users, hence, women used to enjoy the
outdoor view without being seen by strangers (Fathy, 1986). Moreover, it has an
aesthetic aspect since Mashrabiya is a piece of art that reflects the values of the
region and the identity of the place, besides, it achieved providing the users with
thermal comfort. In this regard, it can be concluded that vernacular architecture,
the identity of the place, and users’ habits are all influenced by each other and
they represent the keys to achieving regional energy-efficient buildings.
Since vernacular architecture is a process of adaptation, hence, it
continuously evolves to cope with the changing users and socio-cultural
environment of the region. ‘Vernacular architecture and regional design’ book
suggest that we should understand the ‘tradition’ and the ‘identity’ in light of a
changing world to get the benefit of the past techniques and improve it with
today’s instruments (Heath, 2009). Accordingly, recent ‘sustainable’ buildings
are referencing the techniques of the region’s vernacular dwellings to enhance
building performance in its local context, reduce energy consumption and serve
users dynamics (Salgin, Bayram, Akgün, & Agyekum, 2017).
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The emergence of globalization policies has created a gap between the
users and their buildings. Moreover, the produced ‘modern’ ‘universal’ buildings
didn’t resemble the vernacular dwellings or the region that they were built in.
Modern buildings failed to serve the users and their daily habits (Porphyrios,
1989). Therefore, they consume more energy than the vernacular dwellings since
the buildings were built without considering the local climate or environment.
Consequently, many architects worked on developing a form of ‘resistance
architecture to re-connect with the users, nature, and to evoke the collective
identity of the region’s architectural style.
Regionalism as a concept in architecture is not recent, it is as early as the
Roman empire. Roman writers, philosophers, and architects discussed
regionalism in their books and defined it. The concept has evolved through the
years to cope with the region and inhabitants’ needs. Vitruvius who was an
engineer architect and writer believed and wrote in his book that natural causes
determine the architectural form of buildings. In other words, he mentioned that
“if a thing cannot happen in nature, it cannot be forced by humans in an artifact”.
Consequently, he classified the architectural styles and forms according to the
regions (Roman and Greek) and described them in detail, besides, he mentioned
that the diversity in the architectural forms of these buildings is a result of their
different characteristics (the physical environment) which is ordained by the
nature (Tzonis & Lefaivre, Architecture of Regionalism in the Age of
Globalization : Peaks and Valleys in the Flat World, 2012).
Later, after the emergence of the international style, regionalism has
evolved and was redefined by many architects, where the concept became
popular and it arose as a form of resistance. Architects like Frank Lloyd Wright,
Alvar Alto, and some others in that time translated the concept and definitions
of regionalism into real design implementation where Alvar Alto for instance
was more concerned with the selection of regional materials to adapt to the site
and the surrounding landscape. Moreover, Elizabeth Mock called to mind and
argued that architecture must adapt to the region’s climate, besides, she was
concerned with ‘contextual sensitivity to the site’. On the other hand, Mumford
argued that regionalism should resist the universal style, hence, it has to help
people to enhance their relationship with the ‘place’ in terms of ‘the actual life
conditions’ to make them feel at ‘home’ (Mumford, 1941).
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Likewise, other regionalist architects argued that they have to learn and be
aware of the traditional architecture and preserve their characteristics “the
shaded, transitional, enclosed, paved, quiet…spaces” that were results of
people’s habits in the region (Rudolph, 1949). Additionally, they disapproved of
some popular concepts in that time like Louis Sullivan’s “Form follows
function”, where later William Mc Donough commented, “Form does not follow
function, it follows evolution”. The term evolution means evolution from the
region’s vernacular forms, passive techniques, and materials.
The concept of critical regionalism that emerged in the 1980s also
represents the “Architecture of resistance” against globalization and
universalization policies. Kenneth Frampton wrote six main points to achieve
critical regionalism in which he suggested that architectonics features of the
region should be preserved against universalization, where regional architecture
should evolve the techniques of the region to cope with today’s needs. Moreover,
he referred that critical regionalism should maintain a high level of self-
consciousness where the architect can be inspired by local spirits and the site,
and enhance the relationship between the architect and the user. Consequently,
critical regionalism emphasized the relationship with the surrounding nature,
where changing the characteristics of the topography and the landscape of the
building site is named “the condition of absolute placeness”.
Critical regionalism argued that buildings should be capable of arousing
feelings and communicating with the user and the observer even tectonics should
rise as construction of art. Therefore, buildings should not be forced to a site, but
they have to merge with it and reflect today’s “spirit” and “Identity”. Moreover,
it has to be in a delicate and permanent process of evolution to be able to serve
the needs of the “daily-world life”.
3.3 Reading the Place: The Tangible and Intangible Dimension of
Damascene Homes
Since ancient times, human beings have been in constant search of shelter,
a place to keep them safe, comfortable, and protected from natural physical
threats. Moreover, people seek heaven for their spirits, minds, and souls. A home
that represents them, their beliefs and habits in which they refuge not just of a
house, but a piece from their own heaven. When people dwell in a house, they
make certain changes in response to their surrounding natural environment as a
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form of ritual acts of sheltering, in which these acts reflect the dwellers and their
location in the world. The evolution of these dwellings can range from spiritual
‘identity’ to the materials, tangible to the intangible, person to the community.
Hence, according to Ralph Knowles’s book, reconnecting our lives and
dwellings to the rhythms of the surrounding nature can promote the ritual use of
spaces as a type of energy conservation, besides; it enhances the occupants' lives
and buildings quality (Knowles, 2006).
Indeed, the correlations between the tangible and intangible elements of
architecture have a significant impact on its development process. The tangible
dimension includes the physical elements of a building that a human can touch
and feel “artifacts”, besides, tangible elements are made and consciously
influenced by human beings.
1
On the other hand, the intangible dimension is
usually more complicated than the tangible since it represents traditions,
knowledge, skills and religion (Malec, 2018). In this sense, knowledge can be
defined as the reflected structured reality of the personal perception of the world,
hence, it allows designing new solutions; where the collective knowledge
represents the distributed information between people which guide problem-
solving techniques (Hecker, 2012). Traditions are passed knowledge and beliefs
from one generation to another; thus, traditions are part of the architectural
development process since the transmitted knowledge is making use of the
successful theories to be employed in the designing and construction techniques.
Therefore, the architectural traditions can be connected to certain used
construction materials, techniques and designs.
Additionally, it is highly noticed that many religious habits are translated
and transformed into traditions in which they merge to create spiritual spaces
within buildings, hence, the intangible is being transformed consciously into
tangible elements (Malec, 2018). The relationship between the tangible and
intangible dimensions in architecture is changeable through time, but it is an
important element in the evolution of architectural practices and techniques.
Consequently, the intangible dimension influences the formation of the tangible
dimension in various ways (Figure 45).
1
English Oxford Living Dictionaries, s.v. “tangible,”
https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/american_english/tangible (accessed 21
November 2021).
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Figure 45. The relationship between the tangible and intangible elements
(Malec, 2018).
3.3.1 Early home-making. When people refuge in a house, they are in a
constant state of the home-making process where they recognize and emphasize
the dynamic relationship of the body, emotions and their response to different
conditions and parts of the house. Hence, they tend to modify its elements,
structures etc. to fulfil comfort levels. In the process of home-making, people
create spaces to express boundaries, cultural dynamics, beliefs, power…these
tangible goals affect the home-making process in many ways (Knowles, 2006).
However, people seek socializing and connection, thus, they live in communities
and they develop their houses according to the shared dynamics, knowledge and
traditions.
Consequently, to understand the early home-making of Damascene
vernacular dwellings it is important to understand the socio-cultural structures of
the community that designed and built these dwellings. The principles of the
building process were the results of the collective knowledge and traditions that
were passed from generation to generation. Besides, the early place-making
principles of the dwellings on the individual level and ‘neighbourhoods’ on the
communal level were derived from the spirit of the surrounding natural
78
environment and the Islamic religion (Alwaz, 1995). Accordingly, the houses
and the city were shaped following the cultural and religious beliefs of the
inhabitants, which can be summarized as follows (Ferwati, 1992):
• The daily life habits of Damascene people were coordinated according to the
five prayers; hence, mosques were built in each neighbourhood close to the
residential and commercial areas.
• The preferred limited interaction between women and men formed clear
segregation aspects in the homemaking process, consequently, Damascene
vernacular houses have separated sections for women “Haramlek” and for men
“Salamlek”, besides, they have developed elements for women to enjoy the
outer view and socialize with the neighbours without being seen such as
Mashrabiya and Mandalon.
• Privacy and safety aspects are very important for Arabs; hence, the house is
inner oriented, even the entrance “Dihliz” is angled to ensure a high level of
privacy and it included a transitional space (corridor).
• Pursuing “the image of paradise” is a very important aspect which the
Damascene vernacular house was built and developed following this image
which is discussed in detail in the following sections.
• The vernacular organic form of the dwellings was planned following the
Islamic principle “Neither darar nor dirar” which means neither harming others
and the surroundings nor acting to harm them, this principle influenced home-
making decisions such as; locating the house, orientation, etc. Additionally, the
principle affected the formation of the main elements of the house and its
structure to ensure privacy for the occupants and to build with nature preserve
“the image of Aiden”.
Indeed, these aspects and principles have shaped the spatial and sensory
Damascene homes; moreover, they assist with creating their dreamed paradise.
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3.3.1.1 Spatial damascene home. The built environment (neighbourhoods,
houses, streets, etc.) are the tangible ‘physical’ products of the community’s
thoughts, customs, and beliefs. These aspects shape our cities and affect every
part of them including our interactions with the built environment and building
performance, besides, energy consumption is directly related and influenced by
the psychological state and comfort level of the occupant. The vernacular
building techniques are the products of the social and cultural heritage. As have
mentioned in chapter 2, the courtyard house was first built in Damascus in the
Roman era, but Damascus and the Damascene vernacular house flourished and
evolved during the Islamic era. Thus, the following mentioned principles of the
special Damascene home are focusing on the vernacular house in the Islamic era.
The traditions and the cultural background of the inhabitants developed building
codes and shaped the spatial Damascene home on the urban planning regulations
and house levels.
On the urban planning level, as have mentioned the main principle that
influenced the evolution of architecture in the Islamic era is “neither harming
others and the surroundings nor acting to harm them”, accordingly maintaining
comfort levels for the inhabitants is the main aim.
• The city was planned and separated into zones (residential, commercial, and
industrial); this process manages to reduce disturbance levels. Furthermore,
even bakeries and baths were forbidden in residential areas, except for small
ones to eliminate the huge amount of smoke and voiced that could disturb and
harm people. Recent studies mentioned that smoke and high voices affect
human’s psychology and health, besides, they might disturb olfactory and
auditory comfort for the inhabitants (Boduch & Fincher, 2009) Additionally,
tanneries and other industries were located on the edge of the city to reduce
pollution levels (Alwaz, 1995).
• People seek privacy regardless of traditions, backgrounds, and religion.
Consequently, the evolution of street networks was relying on three functional
purposes, these three functioned served the privacy aspect. Moreover, they
ensured thermal comfort and acted as an effective climate-responsive element
since they blocked dusty winds and created shaded spaces (Ferwati, 1992).
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1. The street network was developed organically, streets are narrow and
curved to ensure privacy for the quarter inhabitants and to prevent
passers from overlooking the houses in the alley.
2. The streets were designed in a way that does not reveal the destination
of the passer; hence, it developed a kind of defence system that protects
the inhabitants.
3. Main huge squares were absent, the courtyards of the mosques acted as
gathering spaces for socializing. Nevertheless, each quarter has a semi-
public space that manages the inhabitants of the quarter to interact and
socialize.
• The inhabitants were not allowed to locate their main house door in front of
the neighbour’s door to ensure privacy and not violate it (Bakeer, 2021)
(Figure 46).
Figure 46. Houses’ entrance’s location to ensure privacy (Ferwati, 1992).
On the house level, unity, and humbleness are socially inherited values and
they are reflected in the architectural structure of the city. The following
mentioned aspects are the main principles that formed Damascene vernacular
houses
• The noticed humble facades and settlements are the result of the communal
traditions which urge unity and avoid ostentation from the outside. This aspect
was influenced by the saying “God does not look at your appearance or wealth,
but look at your heart and deeds” (Akbar, 1988). Accordingly, houses were
developed following this principle where houses are rich on the inside. Indeed,
this principle directed the residents to pay more attention to the internal
elevations and spaces than the external ones, which is desirable in the hot dry
climate to improve indoor environmental quality.
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• The segregation between women and men was clear even in the vernacular
house’s units, thus, the house was separated into distinct zones to ensure
privacy. These “traditional” zones acted as thermal zones in which they
ensured proper temperature and privacy at the same time.
1. Guests’ zone (Al-Barrani): this zone follows the main entrance which
includes Qaah for the guests and family gatherings. In some palaces,
this section might include a separate Iwan and courtyard for the
visitors and it is called “Salamlek” (Kabrit, 2000).
2. Family zone (Haramlek): this zone is considered private and limited
to family members and it has to functionally separate areas, “living
area” on the ground floor and “sleeping area” on the first floor.
3. Service area: it includes storage, bathroom, and kitchen which is
usually located in the corners of the house where family members
could work freely without being seen by the visitors.
• In the traditional beliefs of the inhabitants' windows were considered more
harmful and privacy-violating than doors for they could overlook the
neighbours. Therefore, outer windows were rare and if found they have to be
high enough so they don’t violate the neighbours’ privacy. In this sense,
Mashrabiya was found and developed to preserve privacy and societal norms
(Alwaz, 1995).
In this regard, building traditions and knowledge were developed to fulfil
not just the customs and religious beliefs of the inhabitants of Damascus, but also
to achieve psychological and physiological comfort levels. These principles have
urged building with nature and eliminating disturbance and harming levels.
Building rituals, codes, and principles were not limited just to the spatial aspect
of houses to achieve building efficiency and sustainability, but also the imaginary
and sensory aspects were considered.
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3.3.1.2 Sensory damascene home. “…. When the peaks of our sky come
together my house will have a roof” (Eluard, 1947, p. 115) . The relationship
between architecture and space is not limited to the physical dimension, but also
the metaphysical. A home is a series of images that represents identifies and
defines situations and relationships. Many studies argued that the most powerful
tool that a place (architectural product) could have is the capability of
transmitting images, telling stories, and experiences (Pallasmaa, 1986)
(Bachelard, 1957). Successful building forms and components are not the ones
with high artistic and spatial quality, but the ones with simple forms that reflect
the cultural structure of the region and its inhabitants in which it manages to
arouse feelings and images to the observer.
A complete experience of home could be achieved through human senses
that allow one to experience his/her surrounding world. Although the eye
“vision” is considered as the main sense that allows human beings to explore
their surroundings, but also other senses are very important to have the ‘complete
experience’ (Pallasma, 1996). Vernacular builders or decision-makers knew the
importance of involving human senses, and their beliefs in the home-making
process to create sufficient dwellings and represent the occupants’ outlooks,
experiences and tell their own stories. According to Gaston Bachelard, ‘the more
memories and beliefs are fixed in an architectural space the sounder they are’,
besides, he states that a house should allow the user to dream in peace
(Bachelard, 1957).
Therefore, the religious beliefs of Damascenes and their longing for the
image of Aiden (paradise) had a major role in shaping the vernacular dwellings
and giving the users the full experience that they are longing for. The courtyard
represents the open space that connects the inhabitants with the sky (God) where
they derive the natural energy for themselves and their houses. Moreover, the
inhabitants evolved their houses mimicking the described image of Aiden that
was mentioned in the Holy Qur'an “Believers will eternally dwell in Aiden
gardens where rivers flow underneath it” The Qur'an 20:76. Hence, the
courtyard included the mentioned gardens (trees, plants and flowers), and water
elements ‘fountains’ were also included. The full experience was achieved when
the house evoked the visual, auditory, and olfactory senses by using different
colours, textures, voices and smells, which are familiar to the users' knowledge.
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This full experience of the architectural space ‘the courtyard’ is transmitted
through the spiritual presence and embodied materials. Additionally, the
collaboration between the physical and mental structures “poetics” have
managed to create meaningful spaces and the spirit of the place (Spence, 2020).
In this sense, the indoor environmental quality was optimally achieved.
Moreover, the architectural elements of the house were designed to satisfy
the multisensory nature of the humans’ mind. The phenomenology of
multisensory and architectural tectonics was defined and mentioned by many
architects, where it was argued that the carefully transmitted images through the
visual elements, humidity, temperature, materials selection, odours, the layout of
spaces, and the integration of the building to the site…etc are all the keys to
evoke all human senses in an architectural space (Tabucbuc, 2016). Thus, the
multisensory experience was achieved in vernacular Damascene houses by
following these aspects. Many architectural elements within the house were
multi-functional and stimulated several human senses. For instance, the fountain
in the courtyard has aesthetical psychological and thermal benefits in which it
evokes the visual, tactile, and even auditory senses. In this regard, we can
conclude that the houses were enabled to tell stories and communicate with the
observer through good architectural practices, which form the identity of the
place (Spence, 2020). For instance, we can detect that Damascene vernacular
houses encourage regional architecture practices, hospitality “guest zones were
considered”, humbleness, respecting the neighbours and eliminating disturbance
and harm. Furthermore, Damascenes were fascinated by the power of nature and
the image of paradise; this explains the dependence on passive and natural
techniques to enhance building performance.
3.4 Rethinking Vernacular Abandoned Strategies
The emergence of modernization policies in the 20th century has affected
Damascus radically on many levels (Lababedi, 2008). Traditional techniques of
sheltering were abandoned to be replaced by modern “high-class” ones.
Nowadays, our sheltering habits and rituals are unable to reflect the inhabitants’
and nature’s rhythms (Knowles, 2006). Modern neighbourhoods and buildings
do not resemble the historical city and the inhabitants of Damascus. Moreover,
the ‘modern’ houses are not a developed model of the vernacular Damascene
houses, but rather they represent imported copies of ‘modern’ Western houses
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that were firstly built in Syria during the French Mandate period and have
continued spreading in the city to this day (Ferwati, 1992).
The imported modern houses failed to serve the users and the surrounding
environment. Additionally, the main principle of modernism ‘transparency’ was
celebrated and applied by designing glass facades (curtain walls), and orienting
the house outwardly which failed to achieve thermal comfort, besides, it created
an uncomfortable indoor environment in the conservative region with a hot arid
climate. As a result, modern buildings tend to consume more energy than
vernacular ones since these types of buildings maintain proper temperature by
using HVAC systems, consequently, the house and its elements were unable to
work efficiently in such climate. The principle that describes this architectural
type is “build cheap” and “maintain expensive” (Knowles, 2006). Unfortunately,
the imported building principles and codes have changed the face of the historical
city spiritually and physically (Mansour, 2015). Therefore, the following
sections are describing these changes and how they affect the identity of
Damascene houses, their performance and energy consumption by shedding the
light on the abandoned vernacular strategies and the situation of today’s
dwellings.
3.4.1 Orientation. Architectural styles, design, principles, etc evolve to
cope with the current era and to serve the needs of the current generation. Indeed,
an effective design should tackle the region’s problems and be the mirror of
society and domestic habits (Yilmaz & Maz, 2006). Unfortunately, many
vernacular strategies were abandoned and neglected by the modern houses’
design in Damascus (Alwaz, 1995), where the orientation of the house is one of
the main principles that was abandoned as follows.
• Old Damascus has narrow alleys that lead to vernacular houses in which it
reduced dust and heat. Modern neighbourhoods were developed to include
wide streets for cars in which the inhabitants can have direct access from the
main street to the building entrance. This type of building orientation is
affecting indoor air quality and increasing the temperature.
• The vernacular houses were inner oriented, besides, the exterior windows were
very rare, to ensure privacy and maintain a proper indoor environment. On the
other hand, modern houses neglected the climatic solutions of the vernacular
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dwellings and the socio-religious aspect that they reflect. And they chose to
celebrate exterior windows as a replacement solution for the inner windows of
the courtyard. Moreover, the view was replaced from the image of “Aiden” to
the physical human-made built environment.
• The arrangement of the house units in the vernacular houses was relying on the
socio-religious factor, the importance of the rooms, and sun direction. Hence,
as have mentioned earlier the house was separated into functional zones where
they were arranged according to the short-cut principle in which the occupants
can take a straight line to move from one unit to another to maintain privacy
and ensure simplicity. Conversely, the modern house units were arranged
according to the surrounding neighbours, as a result, the users might be
deprived of their privacy, sunlight and many other privileges because of the
adjacent buildings. Indeed, this type of zoning ‘modern’ is continually
challenging the energy performance of the buildings and the harmony between
human beings, buildings, and nature (Ferwati, 1992).
• Salim Ferwati categorized “western modern houses” of Damascus into three
types: Attached building apt, Detached building apt, Elevator building apt.
Moreover, he compared the layout of these three types with the vernacular
house (Figure 47).
Figure 47.Damascene houses types and room arrangements, vernacular and
modern (Ferwati, 1992).
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3.4.2 Local materials. Materials and surfaces have their own language to
communicate with the observer, thus, they should reflect the geographical
structure, origins, and refer to the era (Pallasmaa, 2000). Building materials are
used to reveal the climatic and geographic conditions of the region. For instance,
the dwellings that were made of mud and adobe are directly related to the hot
region as it works as a natural thermal insulation that improves indoor
temperature. However, nowadays modern buildings around the world are
speaking the same language, besides, they neglect the region in which they were
built, its climate, and natural resources. Nevertheless, modern architects pride
themselves on the universal light materials and structures. As a result, modern
apartment high rise buildings look alien to the region with their huge inconsistent
scale.
As have mentioned in the previous chapter, vernacular houses used natural
local materials to build the house. Adobe, stone, and wood were used as the main
building materials in the region. These natural vernacular materials and
techniques act as a thermal regulator which enhances thermal comfort in
summers and winters. On the contrary, modern houses used foreign building
materials that couldn’t adapt to the local climate of the city. The main used
materials in modern houses are, concrete, reinforced concrete, stone, glass, and
steel. Stone was used for aesthetic purposes, similarly to some used vernacular
elements (Muqarnas, Arches, and domes) also served aesthetical purposes in
modern houses (Ferwati, 1992).
‘Cement boxes’ with glass facades were spreading widely in the city and
affecting its image radically. Moreover, applying the transparency method in the
hot arid climate of the city has affected thermal comfort as these facades were
acting as heat absorbents (Mansour, 2015) Cement has negative effects that are
not limited to the appearance of buildings only, but also the environment and
building performance. In recent decades, cement is considered one of the main
contributors to greenhouse gases (Poudyal & Adhikari, 2021). Moreover, it
affects indoor environmental quality as it emits gases that affect human health in
the long term (Tsakas, Siskos , & Siskos, 2011). Hence, these materials should
be reconsidered and replaced with more green ones that serve the climate of the
region and reduce greenhouse gases emission rates.
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3.4.3 Courtyards. With the free choices that modern architects took to
build ‘modern’ buildings from building form, arrangements, heights to building
materials, modern buildings in Damascus ended up with conflicting problems.
One of the radical changes from the vernacular houses to the modern is the
courtyard. The courtyard was considered a cornerstone of the house and a symbol
of Damascene architecture, where people’s daily habits in the house and public
buildings were attached to it. Since modern houses choose to be outwardly
oriented, hence, the courtyard was absent even in ‘villas’ detached houses they
didn’t consider a courtyard, but a small outwardly oriented garden (Ferwati,
1992).
Modern buildings replaced the open space of the courtyard with balconies
where some of them were integrated with the adjacent room to increase the
internal space of the house and others were closed with curtains and glass to
reduce dust coming from the main street, direct sunlight, and glare (Alhawasli &
Farhat, 2017) Furthermore, Iwan which was considered as the main space inside
the house for family gatherings was replaced with a closed area (room) called
‘sofa or salon’. Modern houses in Damascus lacked privacy and comfortability,
which are the main aspects to be considered while designing houses.
Additionally, green spaces in old Damascus were usually found in private spaces
(houses) or the courtyard of public buildings (mosques, baths, government
buildings…). Nowadays, trees and green spaces are found in public spaces
(streets, parks, squares). Unfortunately, the percentage of green spaces is
decreasing as a result of rapid urbanization, the emergence of slums around the
city (near Qasiun mount and Al Ghouta) (Mansour, 2015).
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3.4.4 Passive design strategies. Modern houses in Damascus are consuming a
considerable amount of energy to maintain proper lighting and temperature inside
the house. Consequently, pollution rates and carbon footprint are increasing in the
city day by day as a result of poor urban planning, and architectural practices.
Nevertheless, the government did not consider any building regulations, codes, or
sustainable plans to enhance the environmental and architectural situation (Atieh,
2012). Even climatic design codes of building materials, layout ratio, etc were not
considered by the government and the concerned authorities, which arose a real
crisis affecting nature and the inhabitants of Damascus directly.
Moving back to the vernacular houses of the old city, as have mentioned
earlier, vernacular dwellings applied passive techniques to enhance the
performance of the house. These techniques were part of the Damascene
architectural heritage that also were neglected by modern houses. Mashrabiya
which was an important architectural element in Damascene houses to protect
the house from intense sunlight and to achieve privacy was absent in the modern
buildings. Moreover, it is replaced by sliding shutters called ‘Abajour’ made of
aluminium, these shutters are usually used at night to prevent being seen by the
neighbours when the lights are turned on. Thus, they were designed not to serve
the climatic aspect (protecting from the sun and glare), but for privacy.
Ironically, some people are using these sliding shutters in the daytime to reduce
the amount of direct sunlight and heat where they have to turn artificial lights on
to have clear vision in the ‘morning’ which leads to consuming more energy
(Figure 48).
Water elements are not considered in modern houses, except for some
luxury villas, where fountains and swimming pools were added for aesthetical
purposes. Sadly, inserting HVAC systems and mimicking some foreign
architectural practices were referred to as a sign of civilizing and advancement.
Indeed, this distorted image of ‘advancement’ had a deep impact on architectural
practices which lead to abandoning the climate-responsive techniques of the
vernacular houses (Mansour, 2015). Furthermore, some houses did not consider
the thermal insulation layer while building the house as a result of some
economic reasons, which takes us back to the principle of “build cheap” and
“maintain expensive”.
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Figure 48. The replacement of Mashrabiya with sliding shutters (Edited by the
Author).
3.4.5 Identity and local dynamics. “Despite her happiness in the new
house in Abu Rummaneh, Zain was longing for that small alley that wraps itself
like a womb, the windows that are close to each other, and for the mud skin of
the houses that almost seem alive. She realized that the house is big with its
people, dynamics, perfumes and spices.” (Alsamman, 1999).
The local identity and the socio-religious background of the inhabitants of
Damascus have formed its architectural structure. However, these inherited
principles were neglected in the modern part of the city, besides, they were
considered backward and uncivilized (Lababedi, 2008). Indeed, many aspects
affected the city and the local dynamics of people which influenced the
architectural identity and the image of the city. The changes in people’s lifestyle
and beliefs had a major impact on houses organization as houses follow the
dynamics of the inhabitants “social or psychological forces shape space” (Hillier
& Hanson, 1984 ).
Nowadays, modern buildings in Damascus are being built without knowing
the daily habits of the inhabitant and their needs. Moreover, ‘copy paste’
buildings are very popular in the city where buildings with 6 stories and more
are being built in groups and sold without considering the dynamics and the
climate of the city. Which cause serious issues and affect the performance of the
buildings. These practices are leading to distorting the identity of the place since
buildings are incapable to mirror the users and the region. Additionally, the
inhabitants in the modern houses may experience a state of loss since their house
does not function as expected. Therefore, people tend to use products that can
consume energy and harm the environment and their health in order to maintain
a comfortable atmosphere.
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Kevin Lynch mentioned that “uniqueness” is the sign of identity, this sign
is absent in the modern part of the city. Moreover, it is affecting the old part
“vernacular” since investors are buying the vernacular houses to use them as
“bars, hotels, restaurants, etc.” The city of history became a commodity and a
place with a high rate of pollution. Sadly, today Slums make up 60% of the city's
area, as a result, of poor ‘modern’ urban planning. Besides, 46% of the city’s
inhabitants are living in bad situations in slums, which also influence pollution
rates (Mansour, 2015).
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3.5 “Modern” Urban Plan of Damascus
“I miss my old house while I’m in my exile, in Abu Rumaneh Street, and
my biggest fear is it might get demolished…. I feel embarrassed in front of the
neighbours of my clothes, my words, and my mind... this lonely house... Amidst
the strange orchards that buildings bite day after day, and I am like someone who
lives in a construction site...here, there are many aggressive people that I could
never live with.” (Alsamman, 1999)
After World War II many countries were to the concept of “modern city”,
this concept was mainly imported to the Levant region by French colonization
where they suggest masterplans for the Levant’s cities including Damascus (Al-
Sabouni, 2017). The “western” suggested urban plan of the city strikes every
traditional root of the city and its inhabitants (Taiiarah, 1982). Moreover, it
divides the city into ‘territories’ and ‘functional’ zones in which these aspects
have led to real issues that affect the urban fabric of the city and its architectural
identity negatively.
The noticed neglect in urban planning and the lack of architectural practices
regulations have led to depriving the residents of Damascus of their right to
adequate housing. Consequently, inadequate houses and slums were popular
among the city and they distorted the identity of the historical city in which it
became “unreadable”. As a result, the percentage of energy consumption
increased since the basic environmental architecture practices were neglected
(Atieh, 2012) These aspects are being discussed in the coming sections.
3.5.1 Ecochard-Banjoyas' urban plan
In the 1930s Syria was still under the French mandate’s control where they
were leading architectural and urban planning works in the capital of the country
(Damascus). In 1935 a French firm undertook the planning process of Damascus,
led by two French architects/urban planners ‘Michael Ecochard’ and ‘Rene
Danger’ (Fries, 1994). Michael Ecochard the young architect worked in
Damascus as an archaeologist during the French mandate before working on the
master plan of the city. Hence, he was familiar with the history of the city, its
organic formation and vernacular fabric. Nevertheless, he was fascinated with
the imported concept of ‘modernity’, Ecochard and Danger prepared the first
modern masterplan of the city where they suggested these main ideas to
modernize the city,
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1. The two French architects suggested modernizing the city by making
it more ‘functional’, ‘accessible’ by vehicles where they can move
freely by implementing modern street networks (Fries, 1994).
2. Demolishing some ‘old’ buildings to have enough area to implement
street network and to enhance the sewage systems of the old city
where it was referred to as unhygienic.
3. Separate the city into zones ‘territories’ the modern part is for the
elites and the old part of the city is for the poor. They claimed that
this type of city dividing would manage to keep the socio-economy
stable (Lababedi, 2008).
Indeed, this suggested masterplan upset both the indigenous residents and
architects especially when the old city of Damascus was considered a
“backward” place, besides, the French architects were aiming to replace the
organic vernacular plan that respect the traditions of the inhabitants with
“universal concept of modernity” (Lababedi, 2008). Faedah M. Totah mentioned
in her book ‘Preserving the old city of Damascus’ that, the master plan of
Ecochard aimed to distort the identity of the city and the inhabitants (Totah,
2014). However, the urban plan had many serious issues and it was stopped after
the independence of Syria by UNESCO in 1953 until the 1960s, Al-Baath party
re-hired the French architect Ecochard to modernize the city and the Japanese
architect Banjoya (Matsubara, 2015), they completed the unfinished masterplan
and re-suggested ‘modern’ ideas including,
1. Replacing the inwardly ‘close’ plan in the walled part of the city,
with a transparent ‘outwardly’ plan in the modern part (Al-
Kodmany, 1995).
2. Implementing large public open spaces (parks, squares plazas, etc)
3. Recommending demolishing and gentrification works in the old city
of Damascus instead of restoring the old houses.
4. Considering some squares as the commercial heart of the city and
increasing high-rise office buildings around it.
These radical changes in the urban fabric of Damascus have led to an
extreme change in the inhabitants' behaviours and their relationship with the
place. Moreover, the masterplan affected architectural practices since
architecture both influences and can be influenced by urban planning. The
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reversed orientation affected the thermal comfort and the privacy of the user(s).
Additionally, high-rise buildings were introduced to the city as a response to the
rapid population where they are oriented randomly, which affect the surrounding
buildings and prevent them from their right to natural ventilation and cool breeze.
The government didn’t complete applying Ecochrd-Banjoyas’ master plan
and there weren’t any formally presented master plans to cope with the rapid
population of the city. Accordingly, the city was expanding randomly beyond
the master plan of Ecochrd-Banjoyas’ which have led to the emergence of slums
(Figure 49). People were forced to develop their own plans, and create their own
zones and houses to fulfil the need for shelter, thus, modern houses in the city
are unlike the vernacular they have no feature of living (Al-Sabouni, 2017).
Although these recently built houses were built according to the residents’
knowledge without the help of architects, we cannot consider them vernacular
houses since they do not resemble the city and the region. Moreover, sustainable
techniques were absent in the buildings.
Figure 49. Slums in Damascus (https:// www.flickr.com/ photos/ 75554425
@N03/33476577068)
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Chapter 4
Methodology: Energy -Efficient, Regional Building Design proposal
As have mentioned in the literature review, relying on fossil fuels to
generate energy for buildings is affecting both nature and human health
negatively. Moreover, the large emitted amount of greenhouse due to energy
consumption is causing global warming. As a result, architects are responding to
solve this crucial issue by enhancing building performance and reducing energy
consumption where governments are preparing plans and protocols for architects
to follow including considering NZEB’s.
According to IEA, the household sector is responsible for 50% of total
energy consumption in Syria (IEA, Country Nuclear Power Profiles, 2017). The
country is relying on national fossil fuels (natural gas and oil) to generate energy,
which is considered a very crucial issue that impacts the environment.
Nowadays, the energy sector is in chaos due to the political conflict in the country
(Khaddour, 2021). Therefore, architects should seek alternatives that manage
reducing energy consumption and respond to climatic and cultural conditions.
Indeed, poor architectural practices, which were following the international
trends and neglecting the vernacular heritage have affected the capital Damascus
its urban fabric, architectural identity and building performance. Accordingly,
this chapter of the thesis is aiming to propose design strategies for ‘villas’ and
‘residential buildings’ to reflect the region, cope with today’s needs and consider
the global priorities.
4.1 Design Guide
Good architecture can be achieved by relying on “the best of the past and
the best of the new”, thus, contemporary sustainable design should consider this
principle. Design strategies for contemporary buildings must include advanced
building technologies along with regional techniques and local traditional ideas
to comply with the user(s) needs. Building design strategies should tackle many
issues, but most importantly occupants’ comfort and energy consumption as
these aspects are affecting people’s behaviours in a place, which leads to wrong
behaviours that impact the environment and cause climate change.
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Architectural practices that involve relying on fossil fuel sources should be
replaced with cleaner and more sustainable ones. Indeed, the right process
‘platonic’ to design a building could be concluded as follows,
1. Interview the user(s) to collect information related to their dreamed home, daily
habits, cultural background, etc.
2. Analyse the site and the climatic conditions.
3. Decide the design strategies that could meet the desires of the interviewed
user(s) with the climatic conditions and the regional sources.
4. Propose design alternatives to improve the building performance.
5. Make simulation related to energy efficiency.
6. Include the best results in the design.
However, these steps are ignored in many designs, which cause many
serious issues. Accordingly, the following sections are proposing new design
strategies for the region by relying on the previously mentioned steps.
4.1.1 Urban planning strategies. Urban planning regulations have a great
impact on urban form and the microclimate which affect buildings and their
energy consumption. Nevertheless, outdoor thermal comfort and the
microclimate were mostly not considered in the urban planning process. Recent
studies are arguing design strategies that could improve the microclimate in hot
arid areas. These strategies include increasing vegetation, water bodies, shading
element, etc. Indeed, streets are the most crucial component of the city’s physical
structure, besides, the street form affects the outdoor and indoor environment
since it is responsible for sun reflection, solar gain, air quality, wind speed and
many other aspects.
A study was conducted by (Yahia & Johansson, 2013) they analysed and
simulated three zones in Damascus, the old city zone, the modern residential
zone, and the rural inhabited zone in terms of microclimate, the impact of street
trees on thermal comfort and the effect of H/W ratio and orientation on surface
temperature. The study deduced that the modern part of Damascus and the
planning regulation are highly inefficient. Street orientation is not decisive in the
modern part of Damascus that includes detached houses; however, the E-W and
N-S street orientation in old Damascus is lower than the other two zones, as a
result of the proper H/W ratio in old Damascus.
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Moreover, in both zones of the modern part of the city, streets are mostly
exposed to solar radiation whereas in the old city vice versa. Additionally, they
found out that increasing vegetation (planting row of trees on the pavement) has
a significant impact on the microclimate. In another study, the authors deduced
that landscape elements and green spaces achieved maintaining thermal comfort
even in the warmest hours of the day and in the most problematic season in the
city ‘summer’, nevertheless; in winters the thermal comfort values are lower than
the comfort temperature ‘neutral’ (Yahia & Johansson, 2014).
In terms of the cultural structure of the city’s urban planning, as have
mentioned in the previous chapter the privacy aspect was maintained in the old
city by creating narrow angular alleys that do not reveal the directions, hence,
the sense of safety was achieved in the old part by creating ideal H/W ratios. On
the other hand, in the modern part of the city urban planners argued that to
maintain a sense of safety and privacy they have to enlarge public spaces so
people can accommodate their private space “bubble spaces” (Al-Kodmany,
1995). Consequently, this principle has created very problematic public spaces
to tackle in a hot arid climate since wide-open spaces are more exposed to solar
radiation which affect the outdoor and indoor temperature.
Accordingly, to enhance the microclimate and thermal comfort in the
modern part of Damascus these design strategies should be considered and
implemented,
• Shaded spaces should be increased to reduce exposure to direct sun, especially
in summer. Hence, flexible landscaping elements are preferred to maintain
thermal comfort in summers and winters such as movable street shading
devices, arcades, and trees.
• Green spaces should be considered since vegetation has a dramatic impact
on the microclimate; besides, it improves air quality by tying down dust and
purifying the air from toxic gas emissions. Oasis-like spaces are desirable
with rows of deciduous trees, evergreen trees and ground covers. The trees
should be selected according to the region; thus, they can cope with the
climatic conditions and consume less water. Small parks and lanes should be
also considered to facilitate natural ventilation in the city.
• External open spaces should be treated carefully since they are the key to
reducing solar gain, reflection and glare. Thus, huge open spaces such as
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plazas, parks, and squares should replace hardscapes with softscapes (green
spaces). Moreover, water bodies should be integrated to moisture the air.
• Most importantly H/W ratio should be analysed while planning new zones
where buildings should create shaded spaces most of the day. Hence,
narrower streets should be considered and building elements that create
shaded spaces for the streets should be implemented such as cantilevered
upper floors facades, horizontal shading devices, etc. (Figure 50).
• Attached buildings ‘grouped’ should be considered where east and west walls
should be close to each other to create mutual shade.
Figure 50. Shaded spaces created by considering H/W ratio and vegetation
(Author's own)
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4.1.2 Architectural design strategies. Recent architectural studies are
focusing on energy efficiency and creating NZEB, they have argued many
aspects to reduce energy consumption in contemporary designs. Charles Eley
stated in his book that, the most important design decisions related to energy
efficiency should be done in an early stage. The orientation of the building,
number of floors, materials, etc. are all important decisions that impact building
performance and the future opportunities related to daylighting, heat gain, heat
loss, ventilation, etc (Eley, 2016). Accordingly, the following sections are
suggesting design strategies that would facilitate reducing energy consumption
in contemporary designs.
4.1.2.1 Identity and privacy: the geometry of home. Architecture has to
deal with changing society, advances in technologies, it should be open to new
experiences and other phenomena that impact the physical and spiritual
structures (Yilmaz & Maz, 2006). In ‘place identity participation and planning’
book the authors argued that, since identity is a dynamic concept, hence the
identity of a place might evolve and change according to the changing world
where new functions may arise, users may differ, the goals might change (Hague
& Jenkins, 2005). However, most importantly, the spatial qualities,
characteristics of the inhabitants, social relations and cultural background, are
the signs of identity that distinguish a place from other places should be
celebrated by architecture by creating regional designs.
Consequently, to create a unique place it should evoke the sense of
placeness which can be presented as follows (Figure 51),
• the place should merge with the surrounding nature and touch the earth
lightly this could be achieved by creating a sustainable building that
respects the environment and the society.
• It should arouse a sense of individuality, which can be achieved by
analysing the daily life habits of the users and their desires in the place-
making process.
• It should ensure the sense of being at home and safety by respecting the
traditions of the inhabitants and considering the physical structures to
achieve them, such as ensuring the image of Aiden by designing inner
courtyards and protecting privacy by adding Mashrabiya.
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• The place should communicate with the past and be open to the future, by
doing so buildings can create their own identity and achieve energy
efficiency by considering past experiences and including today’s
advanced technologies.
Figure 51.The sense of place (Author’s own).
According to (Al-Kodmany, 1995) the main aspect that formed the
vernacular architecture of Damascus and affected today’s buildings is the sense
of privacy. It is highly noticed that many spaces inside modern houses are being
neglected by the user(s) since they can’t cope with their needs, besides, they
provoke unpleasant feelings. These spaces and feelings are the results of alien
architectural designs and practices. Most people today in Damascus are ignoring
the balconies that are facing the neighbours' houses or the easily viewed
balconies by street passers. Moreover, the function of the balcony in these houses
has changed from a place to please the user(s) to storage or a place to dry their
clothes. Even windows are mostly being closed by sliding shutters or covered by
curtains (Figure 52).
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Figure 52.Closed windows and balconies in the ‘modern’ part of Damascus
(Alhawasli & Farhat, 2017).
Therefore, to solve these issues the following strategies should be
considered and implemented in the new designs to achieve privacy,
• Residential buildings should be built in rows; hence, the opened windows and
balconies could be acceptably far from being seen by the neighbours.
• Singular family Detached houses “villas” should consider courtyards instead
of front and backyards. If front or backyards are found, the walls “the fences”
of the house should be high enough to prevent being seen from the passers and
to create a shaded space. Moreover, screen blocks could be considered in the
walls of the yard to enhance the view, airflow and aesthetical quality (Figure
53).
• Plants should be considered to prevent being seen by the neighbours and create
pleasant spaces (shaded and generate fresh air) by planting them on balconies
or house’s yards.
• Wide windows could be considered in living and family gathering spaces
where smaller windows are preferable in bedrooms. However, to ensure
privacy and to reduce direct sun in the hot arid climate of the city, screens
(Mashrabiya or block screen) and vertical louvres should be considered for
windows and balconies.
• The spacing between the louvres, plantings or screen openings should be
designed depending on the distance between the house and the neighbours,
and sun intensity.
• For the interior spaces, a buffer transitional zone between the interior and the
exterior should be added. Hence, it reduces heat gain and ensures privacy.
Guest room “if found” should be designed near the main door.
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Figure 53. Screen block fence can be considered in the front or backyard
(Author’s own).
4.1.2.2 Landscaping and orientation. The orientation of the building is
considered one of the fundamental elements in passive solar design, besides, it
is the most easily addressed aspect. Proper building orientation is a highly
effective method to reduce energy. Wakil and Seraj argued in their book that, the
long elevation of the building should be the northern elevation in the hot arid
climate (Wakil & Seraj, 1989). In this way, one long elevation in the house could
absorb heat in winter the “southern”, and the other the “northern” elevation
would be less exposed to the sun in summers (Figure 52). A study was conducted
by (Atieh, 2012) where the author simulated the performance of a base case
modern building in Damascus in twelve orientations, he stated that the worst
orientation of the building is facing a 300 degree where the annual additional
energy requirement is increased to reach 1265Kwh. Moreover, the study presents
that the best orientations of the building are 30,150,210 where energy savings
can reach annually 7500Kwh.
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Figure 54.Sun path and buildings’ suggested orientation (Author’s own).
Additionally, Vegetation is considered in many studies as an effective tool
to reduce the amount of solar radiation falling on the building surfaces.
Moreover, trees manage to reduce about 5 Co of the ambient air temperature
(Kurn, Bretz, Huang, & Akbari, 1994), thus; green spaces enhance thermal
comfort and reduce the intensity of the sun by reducing glare and creating shaded
spaces.
Therefore, the proposed strategies for the hot-arid climate in general, and
Damascene houses in particular in terms of vegetation and orientation are
(Figure 55),
• Buildings are best to be arranged in rows where the exposure to the east and
west should be prevented. The longest building elevations should face north
and west where the eastern elevation is considered the worst. Thus, it should
be protected from direct sun by reducing the number of openings and
implementing shading devices.
• North-south orientation with 25o south-eastern direction is considered the best
in such climate (Atieh, 2012).
• High-rise buildings ‘if found’ should be built on the western side of lower
singular houses (villas) or apartments residential buildings to provide shaded
spaces for the neighbouring building.
• Including courtyards in the design would increase the number of northern
surfaces and shaded spaces, therefore, implementing courtyards in such
climate is preferred.
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• Planting evergreen trees and climbing vines near the eastern and western
facades would reduce the amount of heat gain due to intense solar radiation.
Moreover, shrubs should be placed near the western or northern façade.
• Deciduous trees should be planted at a distance from southern facades to allow
daylight and passive heating during winters. Vines can be planted on pergolas
near the southern façade to form a shading device in summer.
• Increasing green spaces in the balconies, front yards, backyards and
courtyards, helps cool the air and decrease temperatures dramatically.
Figure 55. Landscaping and orientation strategies for the Hot-arid climate
(Author’s own).
4.1.2.3 Form and space organization. Building form and mass have a
significant role in gaining or losing heat, as a result of the created shaded spaces
on building surfaces by the form, hence, more shades are created in multi floors
courtyard houses (Figure 56). Furthermore, it is noticed that the more complex
the shape of the building becomes, the more shaded areas are being created
(Wakil & Seraj, 1989). Recent studies are running simulations to prove that
building morphology has a fundamental role in increasing/decreasing energy
consumption (Catalina, Virgone, & Iordache, 2011) Hence, the building form
and mass are considered very important design decisions in terms of energy
consumption.
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Figure 56. Shades created by building form (Author’s own).
Besides the shape of the building, inner space organization is considered
very important to facilitate people’s daily life and reduce energy consumption.
The inner layout of the building should be designed according to the daily life
habits of the inhabitants. Moreover, the architect should be familiar with the
using hours of each unit to ensure proper daylighting, heating and cooling
requirements for each room.
To achieve thermal comfort and reduce energy consumption in terms of
building form and space organization these strategies should be considered in a
hot arid climate (Figure 57),
• Buildings should be compact and massive to create shades on building
surfaces, besides; solar orientation should be considered more than wind
orientation in such climate. The optimum building ratio is 1:1.3 since it can
gain maximum heat in winters and minimum heat in summers (Wakil & Seraj,
1989).
• Courtyard houses are the optimum solution they can resist the surrounding
environment and bring the focus on the inner realm. Moreover, they can ensure
proper daylighting without gaining heat in summers.
• In the case of high residential buildings, the building should be also compact
where apartments should ensure cross ventilation to reduce heat. Hence, larger
windows could be considered in the northern and southern elevations, but they
should be protected by shading devices or screens. Ventilation shafts or patios
could also be considered, but in this case, green spaces should be planted facing
the wind to purify it from dust and water ponds should be added.
• The concept of thermal zones and thermal barriers should be considered in
these houses. The western elevation that receives more heat should act as a
thermal barrier, thus, less used units should be considered in this zone such as
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(baths, toilets, storage). Moreover, heat-producing areas (kitchen) should be
separated and far from other units to prevent overheating in summers.
Bedrooms should be located on the east side of the house in this way they can
cool until sleeping time since eastern elevations receive heat in the morning.
The living room which is usually the most used room by the user(s) should be
located on the northern side to receive less amount of heat during the day.
Figure 57. Proposed courtyard house ratio and bubble diagram (Author’s own).
4.1.2.4 Envelope. The building envelope forms the limits between the
interior and the exterior environment. Therefore, the selection of building
envelope determines the amount of energy consumption since its main role in the
hot arid climate is decreasing heating gain and dealing with the significant
variation in temperature during day and night. Hence, this type of climate
requires thermal mass to absorb heat and release it when needed. According to
(Koch-Nielsen, 2002)There are three methods in which buildings transfer heat,
1. Solar radiation is absorbed by the building’s external surfaces then transferred
to the internal, this method includes heat exchange.
2. Solar radiation (direct gain) entered the house through the openings, which
results direct heat gain.
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3. Heat exchange (heat transmittance) is due to the difference in the ambient air
temperature between the interior and the exterior environment (the exterior is
cooler).
The following strategies are elaborating the building envelope performance
under roof, wall, floor and window titles to reduce heating and cooling
requirements.
1. Roof design strategies. The roof is the most important element of a building’s
envelope since it is exposed to solar radiation all day. Thus, design decisions
regarding roofs are very critical. Non-flat roofs such as domed roofs absorb
less heat as a result of the created shaded spaces derived from their form.
However, chapter 2 explained how Damascene vernacular houses tackled this
issue regarding their flat roof. Cross air and roof ventilation reduce heat transfer
which mange reduce cooling requirements and energy consumption.
Consequently, roofs should have a smaller U-value (thermal transmittance) and
bigger R-value (thermal resistance), besides, reflective coating materials and
high protection against solar radiation exposure should be provided (Barrios,
Huelsz, Rojas, Ochoa, & Marincic, 2012).
• The roof should be constructed with high thermal resistance materials; hence,
today’s light concrete roofs have a fundamental role in raising the inner
temperatures.
• The roof should be covered with robust thermal insulation material as a
finishing material to reflect the sun and reduce heat gain.
• Vaulted roofs can be considered in some parts of the house.
• Ventilated double roofs can be considered as a solution to reduce heat gain,
thus, the roof of the house would act as a reflecting umbrella to protect the
main roof under the ventilation gap that acts as thermal insulation. The roof
should be constructed using light-reflecting materials where the ceiling should
be massive (Figure 58).
• In the case of the courtyard houses, slopping roofs towards the courtyards can
be implemented to allow cool air to flow downwards.
• Green roofs could be considered, local plants with low water consumption and
shade creating groundcovers can be planted (Ma'bdeh, Ali, & Rabab'ah, 2022).
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Soil with the lowest U value should be considered and the thickness of the soil
should be chosen according to the plants’ requirements.
• Wooden pergolas and climbing vines can be considered in some parts of the
flat roof to create functional spaces (gathering spaces, sleeping spaces, etc.).
Figure 58.Ventilated double roof strategy (Author’s own).
2. Walls design strategies. Additionally, walls are very important to protect the
house from external climatic conditions. The heat amount that a wall receive
depends mostly on its orientation. Similarly, to roofs’ considerations, walls
should have a bigger R-value and lower U-value where they should be covered
with light coloured reflective finishing material. However, thicker walls
(thermal mass walls with high heat storage) should be considered on the ground
floor to protect the house from extreme temperatures during the daytime, to
maintain proper temperatures at night and to increase time lag. Accordingly,
• Walls with high thermal mass are preferable in living zones, but low heat
capacity materials are more preferable for bedrooms.
• High transparent materials such as curtain walls should be prevented in such a
climate to eliminate sun reflection and glare, but if found ventilated double-
skin façade is the optimal solution (Figure 59).
• Light colours, thermal insulation, and high reflective insulation finishing
materials should be provided especially for eastern and western elevations.
• Courtyard buildings with inner oriented walls and wall openings are more
preferable.
• Walls and wall’s openings should ensure airtightness to prevent heat
transmittance.
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• Vegetation on pergolas, evergreen trees, or climbing vines could be considered
for eastern and western walls. Moreover, walls shading devices may be
considered in the eastern and western elevations.
Figure 59. Suggested double skin façade for curtain walls (Author’s own)
3. Windows design strategies. Wall openings are very critical since they affect
energy savings directly due to several factors. Heat flow through windows and
daylight are part of these factors, where heat flow contains two parts, the first
one is solar heat gain due to the transparency in the window’s glass and the
second one is caused by the different temperatures between indoors and
outdoors. Moreover, proper daylight should be ensured through wall openings
to enhance the vision in the interiors and the sense of the surroundings; besides,
outwardly open windows should be prevented to reduce glare, dust and heat gain.
Consequently, the optical and thermal performance of windows can be presented
in terms of the following parameters: visible (light) transmittance, U-value, and
solar heat gain coefficient (SHGC) where the thermal performance (U-value and
SHGC) are the most crucial parameters that influence energy saving in hot arid
climate in terms of thermal comfort. However, visible transmittance can also
affect energy saving since lighting energy can occupy a large portion of energy
consumption according to building typology such as office buildings.
• Visible/light transmittance: refers to the optical property including the
visible portion of the light that passes through the window’s glass. Light
transmittance ranges from 90-10%, where the less percentage is caused by
the high reflective coating material. Besides, the high light transmittance
leads to a reduction of electrical lighting and heating load requirements.
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Accordingly, the optimum percentage of visible transmittance should be
considered in a hot climate, for instance, the standard double-glazing
openings shows about 78% of light transmittance (Aguilar-Santana, Jarimi,
Velasco-Carrasco, & Riffat, 2020). Nevertheless, this percentage could be
reduced by adding reflective coatings to reduce heat gain.
• U-value: refers to the total thermal transmittance, thus, the window’s U-
value measures its effectiveness as an insulator (Park, Kim, Jeong, Lok Do,
& Kim, 2021). The evaluation of the U-value is based on the heat transfer
through the window’s components. Accordingly, windows with low U-
value should be considered in hot climates to enhance thermal comfort.
• SHGC or G-value refers to thermal transmittance through windows due to
solar radiation, thus, it is the amount of absorbed solar energy through the
window’s components and its emission in the inner space. This parameter
is used to determine shading devices capabilities. Consequently, the lower
this value is the more solar radiation resistance.
Additionally, optimum windows to wall ratio should be considered.
Glazing with a low U-value should be provided to reduce heat gain, windows
should prevent air infiltration to maintain lower indoor temperatures. (Monna &
Masera, 2010) analysed windows to wall ratio in three middle-eastern cities with
hot arid climate (Riyadh, Doha, Dubai), they simulated different walls
orientation and glazing percentages the following table (Table 2) is presenting
the best-recommended results where (+) refers to high performance, (-) low
performance, and (0) is medium performance.
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Table 2
Performance of Glazing Percentage in Different Walls Orientation. (Monna
& Masera, 2010).
Wall
orientation
Glazing
percentage
Energy
efficiency
Thermal
comfort
Daylight
In-out view
South
30%
+
+
0
-
South
50%
0
0
+
+
North
50%
+
+
+
+
North
70%
+
+
+
+
East
30%
+
+
0
0
West
30%
+
+
0
0
• Accordingly, the optimum percentage of glazing in southern oriented walls
should be between (30-50%) since the windows receive sunlight at a steep
angle, thus, solar radiation is less intense than it is on western and eastern
facades since they receive sunlight at a shallow angle. Hence, the glazing
percentage in western and eastern facades should not exceed 30%. Larger
windows should be considered for the northern façades (50-70%) with a
limited solar gain capacity to enhance daylight (visual comfort).
• To prevent penetration of dust and hot air, windows profiles and closing joints
should be tight.
• Double glazing, double argon-filled glazing, reflective glazing, and active
glazing are the best options for this climate in terms of energy efficiency,
thermal comfort, daylight and view (Monna & Masera, 2010).
• Mashrabiyas and windows screens manage to reduce heat gain and glare;
hence, they should be implemented in the problematic building facades.
• Exterior shading devices are essential to protect the building from direct solar
radiation and glare, moreover; they are more effective than indoor shadings
since they trap hot air. However, shading types differ according to the façade
orientation and heating demands in each building unit which is explained in
the passive cooling strategies section.
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4. Floor design strategies. Floors have a fundamental role in transmitting or
resisting heat since they are in direct contact with the ground. Hence,
heating requirements should be identified to improve building
performance. In the hot arid climate, thermal storage capacity and thermal
conductivity on the ground floor are required.
• Buildings’ floors should be built with maximum contact with the ground
or into it. High thermal-conductance materials should be included to
create a thermal mass that transfers heat to the ground.
• Building surrounded ground should be shaded during the daytime to ensure
the radiant heat process.
• Heavyweight construction materials should be considered because they
have higher thermal capacity.
4.1.2.5. Materials. The proper choice of materials and construction
techniques is directly related to the effectiveness of the building envelope in
terms of thermal comfort. The choice of materials should be done in light of their
properties and how they respond to the climatic conditions, hence, it should be
made according to how a material: reflects heat, absorbs heat, stores it, emits it,
and its ability to reduce heat flow. These aspects should be taken into
consideration according to the climatic zone and existing materials. Furthermore,
the thermal effects on materials should be analysed since materials could
experience these thermal forces, conduction, convection, and radiation (Gezer,
2003).
According to (Koch-Nielsen, 2002), to control heat radiation through the
envelope the reflectivity property of the material should be analysed since it
represents ‘the first line of defence’ against heat radiation, materials with high
reflectivity properties can stop the heat from being absorbed by the envelope and
reflects it. Moreover, materials have different thermal capacities to absorb heat
(gain heat) and emit it (lose heat) (Figure 60). Therefore, in the case of
Damascus,
• The building envelope should be painted with glossy white paint since it can
reflect about (70-90%) of heat. Off white paint or light yellow can also be
considered, they reflect about (65-70%) of heat.
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• In terms of open spaces, hardscapes such as Asphalt reflect 10% of heat,
whereas softscapes can reflect about (15-40%). Thus, increasing green spaces
and vegetation in wide-open spaces is preferred in this climate. Asphalt can be
replaced by cool pavement such as cement concrete, which would manage to
enhance solar reflectivity and reduce heat islands (EPA, 2021).
• Surfaces’ materials should absorb less heat (gain less heat) and emit heat more
(lose heat). Whitewashed brick or plaster also can absorb (20-40%) and emit
(85-95%) (Koch-Nielsen, 2002). Solid walls such as stone, brick, and earth are
good for hot arid climate in terms of night heat emission and time lag. Burnt
clay bricks are also useful for thermal resistance ( Gut & Ackerknecht, 2011).
• Additionally, phase changing materials (PCM) are a very effective example in
the sense, they are highly recommended in hot-dry zones where the differences
in temperature between day and night may vary significantly. The commonly
used substance for these materials is usually made from organic sources such
as paraffin waxes, salt hydrates, eutectics and organic fats (Jiang, et al., 2021).
PCM’s bio composite usually melts in temperatures between (34-35) Co, where
they absorb heat from the ambient air during the melting process. Conversely,
it releases heat during the solidification process where PCM becomes solid in
temperatures between (22-23) Co (Boussaba, Lefebvre, Royon, Grados, &
Makhlouf, 2021). This material is an effective solution to delay the heat waves
between the interior and the exterior in a hot dry climate. Hence, it helps to
enhance thermal comfort and reduce energy demands for heating and cooling.
Nevertheless, undesirable heat can be prevented when passive strategies and
regulated ventilation are used along with these materials.
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Figure 60. Envelope's materials characteristics in hot-arid climate (Author's
own)
Heat resistance is also a very important property in materials, the heat
resistance capacity of the envelope components could be increased by creating
a gap between construction layers, the radiation in the layer gap can be reduced
if the surface of the gap has a low capacity to absorb and emit heat such as
aluminium shiny sheets (building elements with high thermal storing properties
should be placed in the inner side of the gap) where building elements with
lightweight should be placed in the outer surface of the gap. This strategy
reduces heat transfer through the envelope.
Consequently, the following bullet points are suggesting some aspects for
choosing proper building materials in the hot-arid climate,
• External materials should have high reflectivity properties to reflect heat and
reduce solar gain. Moreover, they should have thermal capacity to absorb heat
during the daytime and release it at night. Accordingly, walls should have a
good reflective finishing to reflect direct heat from the sun and reflected heat
from the surrounding buildings and adjacent walls. Thus, they should be
painted with light colours.
• The selection of materials with high thermal capacity for the building envelope
(roof, floor, walls) can regulate temperature variations between day and night
since the heat storage capacity of materials increase the time lag, for instance;
rammed or compressed earth (250 mm) can increase time lag to 10 h and stone
(400 mm) increase time lag to 10.5 h (Koch-Nielsen, 2002). Additionally,
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materials with lightweight and thermal insulation properties can be used along
with materials with thermal storage capacity to create a composite building
envelope. This strategy is similar to the construction technique of Damascene
vernacular houses, where they used thermal mass walls on the ground floor and
lightweight materials on the first floor to fulfil the thermal demands of the
region. Accordingly, living rooms which are used usually all day requires about
(9-12 hours) time lags, whereas, bedrooms don’t require a long-time lag.
4.1.3 Integration of passive design strategies. The passive design has
very old roots since ancient Roman times. It refers to the way people use natural
sources and building components to maintain proper inner conditions in terms of
thermal comfort, daylighting, etc (Lechner, 2014). According to (Rodriguez-
Ubinas, et al., 2014), to optimize building performance and lower its energy
requirements, a deep analysis of the climate and the site natural sources should
be made. Moreover, architects should understand the interior necessities, if a
building needs to gain more heat or lose more heat. Adding or reducing humidity
also affects the thermal comfort of the occupants. Hence, the passive design
strategies in terms of thermal performance consist of passive heating and passive
cooling. In the hot arid climate of the region, passive cooling strategies should
be highly considered and implemented to enhance thermal performance and
reduce heat consumption. Although, in such an extreme climate ACs can be
considered. Hence, the building envelope should ensure airtightness. Passive
heating strategies are highlighted briefly since the climate does not require high
heat gain.
4.1.3.1 Passive cooling strategies. Ensuring proper inner temperature
and humidity rate during summertime is the most important aspect that architects
should consider in hot-arid climates. Passive cooling strategies and evaporative
cooling strategies can reduce energy consumption significantly if they are
considered in the design properly. Accordingly, during summertime, hot-arid
regions should avoid heat and humidify the ambient air. The following strategies
would help achieve these goals,
• Natural ventilation must be regulated in such a climate to provide fresh air and
avoid dust. Thus, the location of air intake openings should be analysed to
prevent dust. Indeed, rooms with high ceilings improve air circulation so they
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maintain cooler temperatures than low-ceiling rooms. Internal heat sources
(kitchens) should be ventilated separately.
• Water bodies should be placed near wall openings in the direction of the
summer breeze.
• Courtyard houses with water ponds have a significant impact on thermal
comfort during summer since they allow fresh air in the house after being
purified and moisturized by vegetation and the fountain. Including courtyards
reduce energy consumption dramatically.
• Multi-story buildings should consider stack ventilation by designing an atrium
in the middle of the building open at the top and to each floor. Accordingly,
hot air rises out of the building and it is replaced by cooler air. It is preferred
to have green spaces within the atrium to purify the air. Moreover, the
Bernoulli effect can be considered in the atrium design to improve air
movement by using wind speed differences, where the height and the width of
the tower (atrium) should be decided according to the surrounded air stream
to enhance its efficiency and the air volume this strategy can be combined with
earth-air heat exchanger to have cooler air from the ground (Figure 61).
Figure 61. Bernoulli effect with earth-air heat exchanger (Author's own).
• Shading devices must be inserted, and the selection of the shading depends on
the sun path and angle (Figure 62). Most importantly, shading devices should
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be made of reflective materials since they can add heat load on the attached
building element if they are made of heat-absorbing materials (Lechner, 2014).
Figure 62. Shading devices types (Wakil & Seraj, 1989).
• Roof ponds may also be considered. Nevertheless, this type of passive cooling
strategy demands expensive technical solutions.
• E-cooler screens evaporation system is a good strategy in the sense. These
screens are made of hollow ceramic tiles that can hold and transfer water with
the valves that connect the tiles. Therefore, they can be placed in front of the
northern and southern openings to humidify the air and prevent direct sun;
hence, it acts as a Mashrabiya with a porous jug. It can be added as a partition
wall inside the house to enhance inner temperature (Figure 63) (Emdadi, et
al., 2016).
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Figure 63.Ecooler screens (Emdadi, et al., 2016).
4.1.3.2 Passive heating strategies. Passive heating refers to the process
that collects and stores solar energy. The climate in Damascus ‘hot-arid’ climate
might vary dramatically between summers and winters. Hence, to enhance
building performance and reduce the need for active heating, passive solar
strategies should be considered. However, they have to be analysed and regulated
to prevent overheating during summers. The following strategies could be
implemented in hot arid zones,
• Direct gain should be considered as the main active heating strategy since this
strategy can be regulated during summers by using shading devices since it is
depending on the building envelope and walls’ openings.
• Accordingly, south-facing glazing could act as solar collectors in winter,
hence, considering optimum windows size (discussed in envelope strategy)
with moveable louvres help to collect heat directly. Additionally, thermal mass
walls or floors should be also provided in this strategy, thus, they can store heat
during the daytime to release it at night. A right mix of the thermal mass and
south-facing glazing should be calculated during the design process to prevent
overheating (Figure 64).
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Figure 64. Southern elevation, direct heat gain’ with consideration of vertical
movable louvre system (Author’s own)
• If the thermal mass is included in the flooring, dark colour tones of flooring
should be considered, but if the thermal mass is included in the walls, hence,
lighter colour tones of flooring should be provided to reflect the sun to the
walls. Thermal insulation should be included to prevent heat loss (Figure 65).
Figure 65. Thermal mass technique (Author’s own).
• Indirect gain should be less considered than direct gain since these passive
strategies are harder to be regulated during summer. Nevertheless, this section
is highlighting some indirect gain strategies that might be beneficial in some
hot-arid zones with low temperatures during winters and summer nights.
• Half-height Trombe walls could be considered. A Trombe wall is a thermal
mass wall made of heavy materials such as stone, adobe, etc painted with dark
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colours placed behind a south-glazed façade, accordingly, it can absorb heat to
release it. Half-height (parapet) Trombe walls are more preferable in a hot arid
climate to prevent overheating (Dabaieh & Elbably, Ventilated Trombe wall as
a passive solar heating and cooling retrofitting approach; a low-tech design for
off-grid settlements in semi-arid climates) (Figure 66).
Figure 66. Half-height trombe wall to control heat gain (Lechner, 2014).
• Ventilated trombe walls could be implemented to reduce heat during summers
and gain heat in winters. This type of trombe wall has a shutter placed in front
of the glazed layer, besides, an upper vent, lower vent and top vent are
included, and these vents allow heat transfer in summers and winters (Figure
67).
Figure 67. Ventilated trombe wall with shading (Dabaieh & Elbably, 2015).
• To prevent overheating during summertime shading devices must be included
with all the above-mentioned passive solar strategies.
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4.1.4 Active systems design strategies. The climate of the city ‘hot-arid’
can sometimes exceed the comfort level, hence, a proper design that combines
passive strategies with mechanical heating and cooling systems can lower
heating and cooling requirements, and reduce energy consumption.
• Geothermal Heat pumps this heating/cooling strategy is considered one of the
fastest-growing renewable energy in the world since its main technique
depends on the underground’s undisturbed temperature that is between (5-30)
Co. Geothermal heat pumps system (GHP) provide cooling, heating and
domestic hot water for the household, where it has two basic configurations:
open-loop, and closed-loop systems, which can be installed horizontally or
vertically according to the soil type, rocks, location and many other factors
(Curtis, Lund, Sanner, Rybach, & Hellström, 2005). An open-loop heat pumps
system can be installed in two wells or water ponds (lake); therefore, a closed-
loop system is recommended in the case of Damascus. The pipes are usually
made of polymer plastic filled with water and glycol and placed (1-2) m deep
if they are horizontally installed or (50-70) m deep if vertically (Chaldezos &
Karytsasa, 2017).
During winters the pipes absorb heat from the adjacent ground and send it to
the heat exchanger, in some cases heat exchangers are not added, hence, the
pipes can pump the refrigerant (that is used to move heat from one spot to
another), to the compressor directly. The compressor needs a small amount of
energy (electricity) to flow the heat “uphill” from a lower temperature to a
higher temperature. In summers, it extracts heated air from the house returns it
to the evaporator and to be replaced with cooler air from the adjacent ground.
Accordingly, the ground is used as a battery for “heat”.
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• Earth-air heat exchanger systems (EAHE), this strategy is considered very
promising in terms of ensuring thermal comfort and reducing the energy
demand, the system can be effectively used to pre-heat/cool the air in winters
and summers. Moreover, this system is also relying on the constant temperature
of the earth. The undistributed temperature of the earth is higher than the
ambient air in winters and lower than in summers. Consequently, it functions
as follows, fresh air is drawn through pipes underneath the building buried in
a calculated depth, hence, the pipes heat the air as a result of the higher
temperature of the adjacent ground (during winters) and vice versa in summers
(Bisoniya, 2015).
In Damascus, we can use a hybrid system, in the case of high residential
buildings, the stack effect could be considered along with EAHE. A courtyard
or courtyard-like atrium can be considered in the middle of the building to
provide the building with natural lighting and ventilation; hence, it can enhance
the work of the EAHE. However, the openings at the top of the atrium should
be closed in winters to ensure air tightness where they should be opened in
summers (Moxon, 2010). Additionally, in this strategy air purifier can be
considered to purify the air from dust and improve air quality, besides, a water
pond “fountain” can be considered in the middle of the atrium to humidify the
air.
• Hybrid system EAHE with water spray channel, this strategy is a combined
application of the previously mentioned earth air heat exchanger systems with
water spray channel. After the air passes through the ground buried duct which
results in pre-cooling airflow, the pre-cooled air is directed to enter through the
bottom of the water spray channel where water is sprayed from the top of the
channel. Consequently, the airflow increases and the exchange in heat between
water droplets and air mange decrease the air temperature and humidify the air,
after cooling and humidifying the air, it enters the house to cool it. Furthermore,
a water circulating pump is used in this strategy to send back the collected
water from the bottom of the channel to the water tank to reuse it again. The
channel should be well insulated to prevent heat transfer (Figure 68).
According to (Ahmadi, Shahrestani, Sayadian, Maerefat , & Poshtiri , 2021),
this hybrid cooling strategy can enhance thermal comfort and meet people’s
cooling requirements in summers.
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Figure 68. Hybrid system earth-air heat exchanger with water spray channel
(Ahmadi, Shahrestani, Sayadian, Maerefat , & Poshtiri , 2021)
• Misting fans are an energy-efficient and cost-effective example, these fans are
good to use in small spaces for limited users. These fans have water supplies
where the fan pulls water to release it through small vents in it. The rotation of
fans’ blades breaks water droplets to create mist that evaporates to cool down
the air and humidify it. Misting fans can approximately reduce the dry-bulb
temperature by about (1.38-1.57) Co (Wong & Chong, 2010).
4.1.4.1 Photovoltaic systems. Photovoltaic (PV) cells are made of materials
that can convert solar radiation into electricity. Hence, it is considered a green
energy system that manages to supply buildings with electricity without harming
the environment. There are two known types of PV systems used for buildings
stand-alone and grid-connected systems, where the stand-alone system is the
most popular one. The grid-connected system does not need a battery to store
power, during daytime the generated power is sold to the utility to get it back at
night. On the other hand, a stand-alone system needs a battery to store electricity
during shiny daytime to use it during the night or cloudy days. To ensure safety
and longer life for batteries they should be preserved in a cool, dry and ventilated
place, accordingly; PV cells can be integrated with passive strategies to ensure
enhance their performance and thermal comfort (Figure 69).
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Figure 69. Application of PV system on the roof (Lechner, 2014).
Photovoltaics can be integrated with the building in various ways and
according to many factors including orientation. They can be inserted in the
building envelopes (roof, walls, glazing, sun shading devices, etc.) and the
adjacent land or yard. The maximum collection of solar radiation should be
considered; therefore, PV cells should be perpendicular to the direct radiation
beam. Usually, the southern facing orientation is the most optimum. Covering
the roof and south-facing surfaces (facades) manage to generate about 70% as
much as the roof (Lechner, 2014) However, all of the building’s facades could
be clad with PV cells except for the northern façade since it doesn't receive
sunlight (Figure 70). Additionally, PV cells help to generate the required energy
for the hot arid climate especially during summers where more energy is
consumed, save money and enhance aesthetics in public buildings with
transparent facades.
Figure 70. Application of PV systems on the building’s façade (Lechner,
2014).
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4.2 Application of Passive Design Strategies on Existing Detached Villa
House in Damascus
This section presents a modern villa (a representative case of modern villas
in Damascus) located in a modern suburban neighbourhood in Damascus.
Moreover, it is based on a questionnaire that was prepared for the users of the
modern villa in 'Al-Saboura' to analyse their daily life behaviours related to
energy consumption and house performance in terms of,
• Thermal comfort.
• Daylight.
• The usage of the house’s units and garden (front yard, backyard).
• Privacy and safety.
• The reflectivity of the design in terms of the identity and the users’ daily life.
Accordingly, the integration of the passive strategies and the replacement of
some of the house’s features in this section is relying on the users’ experience
(the gathered data from the interviews) and the climatic condition of the region.
4.2.1 Case study analysis. The villa is the ‘home’ for five users who were
interviewed to collect data about their daily life behaviours related to energy
efficiency and design reflectivity.
4.2.1.1 Location and site characteristics. the case study is in a suburban
area located west of Damascus; the neighbourhood of the case study is for the
“elite” where it comprises modern detached villa houses for singular family use.
Some of the villas are built in rows to have the maximum number of houses. The
site has green spaces, which help to improve the climate and air quality, but the
houses were built following foreign imported designs that influence thermal
comfort and building performance in such climate (Figure 71).
Figure 71. The neighbourhood of the case study (Error! Hyperlink
reference not valid.).
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Form and space organization of the case study, the selected modern villa
was built in the 1990s following foreign modern villas designs. The land of the
house is rectangular (13*26) m2, the villa consists of two stories a ground floor
(living area) and the first floor (sleeping area) where it is surrounded by an
adjacent neighbouring house on the west, southern front yard, northern backyard,
and garage space on the eastern side of the house (Figure 72).
Figure 72. Selected villa (Author's own).
The ground floor of the house (the living area) was designed following the
open plan concept; accordingly, the kitchen is connected with the living room,
stairs area, and dining room. After analysing the ground floor plan, it was
concluded that these factors affect the thermal comfort on the ground floor
(Figure 73),
• The long elevations in the building are the eastern and western
elevations instead of the northern and the southern. Although the
western elevation is connected with the adjacent house, the eastern
elevation (the long elevation in the house) is exposed to direct sun.
• The open plan design and the connection between the kitchen and the
living room is adding extra heating loads, which increase the house’s
temperature and affect thermal comfort, especially during summers.
• The courtyard is replaced by a front yard and backyard with low
fences, the southern fence is (90cm), and the northern fence is
(200cm) which expose the building facades to direct sun. Besides,
the outward orientation of the garden makes the occupants feel like
they are in a “public space”.
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• Tall trees are planted in the backyard (north part of the house) facing
the northern façade, which has the most openings in the building,
consequently, it influences the quantity of diffused light in the living
room. Furthermore, trees are absent in the eastern parts of the yard
where a semi-open garage is considered instead, hence, the eastern
facade is more prone to glare in summers.
• W.C and stairs are located in the western part, which is considered
the optimum location for these units.
Figure 73. Ground floor of the selected modern villa (Author's own).
The first floor (sleeping area) has a compact plan where these points were
concluded after analysing the first floor (Figure 74),
• Atriums and inner yards are absent where a small balcony connected
with the bedroom is found.
• Bedrooms are located in the eastern part of the house, which is the
optimum location for sleeping units. Furthermore, the dressing room
and the bathroom are located in the western part of the room, which
manages to reduce heat gain since they are acting as a buffer zone
between the western and eastern spaces.
• The corridors of the first floor are dark as a result of the surrounded
closed rooms and the absence of wall openings. Hence, lights are
usually turned on in this part of the house.
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Figure 74. First floor of the selected modern villa (Author's own).
4.2.1.2 Envelope analysis. The walls of the house were built following the
standard wall layers of modern houses in Syria. However, since the villa is
located in an elite neighbourhood the facades were covered with local yellow
travertine stone and Rihaybani stone. Besides, some parts of the facades are
covered with white plaster. The roof of the villa is a gable roof covered with red
bricks; accordingly, the users cannot use the roof.
The windows of the house, which are the most critical part of the envelope
were analysed deeply in terms of glazing percentage performance and privacy.
Table 3 is presenting glazing performance in different units of the house. The
presented results represent the approximate performance; the following table is
relying on (Monna & Masera, 2010) simulation of glazing performance in
different walls orientation of buildings in hot arid climates.
Table 3
Approximate Performance of Glazing Percentage in Different Walls
Orientation of the House Units (Author’s own).
House
units
Wall
orientation
Glazing
percentage
Thermal
comfort
Daylight
In-out
view
Living
room
North
90%
0
+
+
East
70%
-
0
0
Kitchen
East
30%
+
0
0
South
90%
-
+
+
Master
bedroom
North
70%
+
+
+
East
70%
-
0
0
Bedroom1
East
70%
-
0
0
Bedroom2
South
50%
0
+
+
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The windows are covered with louvred wooden shutters which are
usually used at night since they affect daylight if they were used during the
daytime. Accordingly, the shutters can’t be used to reduce glare and direct solar
radiation. Other outer shading devices are not considered (Figure 75). Internal
shadings are used (curtains), although curtains manage to reduce direct sun, they
trap heat in and affect the quality of daylight negatively.
Figure 75. Exterior wooden louvred shutters of the house (Author's own).
4.2.1.3 Daily life habits of the users. As have mentioned earlier the house
is occupied by a singular family consisting of five members. The occupants were
asked about their age, profession, daily life habits, units' performance and usage.
Accordingly, after analysing the users' answers it can be deduced that,
• Some of the house’s units are used for multiple functions, such as
bedrooms, one and two are used as a bedroom and office/study room,
the living room is also used as a guests’ room.
• The number of occupied hours in a day of the house’s units differ
between daytime and night, summers and winters since some of the
users spend more time at home during summers. Thus, more time is
being spent in the living room and the garden than in winters.
Conversely, the bedrooms are used more in winters since they are also
used as a study room/office see (Figure 76).
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Figure 76. Occupied hours during summers and winters (Author's own).
• As shown in the previous figure, the users cannot use the garden and
the balcony most of the time due to their low thermal performance,
the absence of passive strategies and the users’ “uncomfortable
feelings of being seen by the neighbours and street passers”.
• Additionally, the users are not satisfied with the fenestration system
and space organization. Although the outer louvred shutters are
ensuring privacy at night, they deprive in-out view, besides; they
can’t be used in the daytime. Moreover, the open plan of the ground
floor affects their privacy especially when they host guests.
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4.2.1.4 Thermal comfort and active heating/cooling systems. The house
was built without considering the passive techniques that Damascene houses are
known for. As a result, the users were not satisfied with the house’s thermal
performance, especially during extreme climatic conditions. According to the
users, the house is performing badly during winters and summers between (15th
of November – 1st of March) and (15th of June – 15th of September).
Consequently, active heating and cooling systems operate mostly during these
dates (Figure 77).
Figure 77. Approximate operating hours of active heating and cooling systems
throughout the year (Author's own).
Split air conditioners are used in the house for cooling where during July
and August the users might leave the ACs turned on during the whole night to
ensure thermal comfort while sleeping. Furthermore, central heating systems
(gas boilers) are used for heating. According to the users, “the open plan of the
ground floor makes it more difficult to cool and heat the whole space”.
Additionally, the existed fireplace on the ground floor is a gas-operating fireplace
that is used for the view since it can’t heat the whole space. Hence, they usually
operate it when they host guests.
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4.2.2 Reviving abandoned vernacular strategies. The users were asked
about the house’s units that they prefer to change or modify. Moreover, they were
asked if they prefer to integrate some of the vernacular elements in their modern
house. Accordingly, the following suggested modifications in the house are
based on the users' answers (preferences) that cope with the identity of the place
and the climate.
4.2.2.1 New design proposal. The following recommendations and
suggested modifications are being proposed after analysing the urban,
architectural, and social characteristics of the region on different scales including
the city, neighbourhood, the representative house and the users’ behaviours and
desires. Furthermore, the modifications are limited to the existing dimensions,
spaces, and building height in the representative case to prove that researchers
can rely on the found inputs to establish more climatic responsive and regional
architectural products. Additionally, the facade materials are suggested after
investigating the existing local materials.
4.2.2.1.1 proposed new settlement. The proposed villa is attached to the
neighbour's house in the west and the street in the south; moreover, it is near to
the neighbour's house in the east where the northern façade overlooks green open
space. Accordingly,
1. to improve thermal comfort, visual comfort and privacy on the settlement
scale an eastern alley between the RV and the neighbour’s house is
suggested by taking two meters from the house’s site. Hence, the house
is “semi-attached”. Moreover, the narrow alley allows the house to have
openings toward the eastern side (Figure 78).
2. The alley is shaded throughout the day as a result of the H/W ratio which
is 600/200. According to (Golany, 1983), narrow alleys ensure cool air
during the day and warm it during the night. Hence, linking compact
houses and streets with narrow alleys manage to reduce the temperature
and improve air movement which helps to create a mild climate for the
entire urban fabric (Alabsi, Song, & Garfield , 2016).
3. The following envelope section is proposing a cantilevered eastern façade
with green ivy, which also creates more shaded spaces and improve air
movement; moreover, vegetation element would help to humidify the air.
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Figure 78. Proposed site plan (Author's own).
4.2.2.1.2 Proposed form and space organization. The first aspect that the
users were complaining about in the house is the building form and space
organization. Hence, modifications to the existing representative base case are
made according to the current dimensions of the building site and the house’s
units. However, the houses units are reorganized following the concept of
thermal zones and users’ preferences related to privacy and daily life aspects;
besides, some of the vernacular elements are integrated with the new proposal
(Figure 79).
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Figure 79. Existing and proposed spatial and thermal zoning (Author's own).
The following points are introducing the modifications on the
representative case (Figure 80), the actual dimensions and spaces of each unit
are considered and ensured in the proposal (Figure 81) (Figure 82),
1. A closed floor plan is considered (separated units) to maintain privacy
and to ensure thermal comfort.
2. The office/study room is separated from the living room since
nowadays the users are spending more time at home
working/studying due to the pandemic situation.
3. Multi open spaces in different locations are integrated to provide
daylight for the inner oriented house units, natural ventilation and
open gathering spaces for summers and winters. Hence, a courtyard
with an Iwan (semi-opened gathering space) and a fountain in the
middle of the house, a southern backyard and a western terrace are
proposed to provide privacy, prevent overlooking by the neighbours
while sitting in an open space and ensure proper thermal and visual
conditions (Figure 83).
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Figure 80. Proposed modification and space Organization to the representative
base case (Author's own).
135
Figure 81. Ground floor and proposed ground floor (Author's own)
136
Figure 82. First floor and proposed first floor (Author's own).
Figure 83. Semi-Opened Gathering Space "Iwan" (Author's own).
137
4.2.2.1.3 Proposed envelope. The building envelope should maintain
proper conditions inside the house, ensure thermal comfort, and visual comfort.
Accordingly, the following proposed aspect would help achieve the desired
conditions by maintaining the actual height of the house,
• The walls of the ground floor are covered with local stone
“Rihaybani”, limestone and basalt stone. Furthermore, light-coloured
plaster is used for the inner walls and the first floor’s walls.
• Bigger inner oriented wall openings towards the courtyard are
considered to reduce heat gain and ensure daylighting and smaller
outer openings with shading devices (Mashrabiya).
• The approximate glazing percentage for different walls’ orientation
is, 50% for the southern walls, 70% northern, 30% eastern, and 0 %
western since the western wall is attached with the neighbours.
• The floor of the central courtyard, the backyard, and the terrace are
covered with grass and groundcovers to reflect heat during the
daytime. Moreover, the transpiration of plants manages to reduce air
temperature and humidify it.
• The semi-opened corridor provides extra shade for the courtyard
whereas the cantilevered façade of the two bedrooms creates shade
for the alley as found in the analysed examples of the vernacular
houses (Figure 84).
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Figure 84. Implementation of the cantilevered facade, Mashrabiya
and Bernoulli effect to enhance thermal comfort (Author's own).
• The height of the backyard is 3 meters to create shaded spaces and
maintain privacy.
• Planting vines on the western wall of the backyard to reflect solar
radiation and reduce heat where a wall fountain is implemented to the
eastern wall to humidify the air. Moreover, a screen block fence is
considered in the northern wall of the backyard to allow the summer
breeze in (Figure 85)
Figure 85. Backyard with high fences, green spaces, and screen block to
allow summer breeze (Author's own)
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• A shading device (pergola) is added to the terrace to reduce the sun
and maintain privacy (Figure 86).
Figure 86. First floor's terrace (Author's own).
• E-cooler screens are added between the kitchen and dining room as a
partition wall to reduce heat and humidify the air (figure 87).
Figure 87. E-cooler screens between the kitchen and dining room.
(Author's own)
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4.3 Findings
The dissertation investigated the architectural and urban practices in
Damascus from the Roman era until today to shed the light on passive strategies
and the identity of the region that affect energy efficiency directly. Indeed, the
identity of the place, the dynamics of the inhabitants and the vernacular
techniques that the indigenous Damascenes were following are of central
importance for achieving energy-efficient buildings. Despite this, little attention
has been paid to these three aspects in literature to achieve the goal of NZEBs.
The findings of the thesis reveal that the vernacular courtyard house in
Damascus is an Indigenous house design evolved over centuries to produce
“homes” for the inhabitants that cope with their needs and merge with the
surroundings. Moreover, the dissertation discussed comprehensively the socio-
cultural aspect and people’s daily life behaviours in the region where it finds out
that people’s beliefs, traditions, and comfort are the key elements to shape
energy-efficient homes. Chapter 3 discussed People’s attempts to achieve “the
image of Aiden”, and the constant human quest to reflect their identity on the
built environment to achieve comfort levels. Consequently, these attempts are
living proof that answer the dissertation’s questions.
On the other hand, modern urban planning and architectural practices in
the city have neglected the vernacular elements that firstly shaped Damascus.
Nowadays, the urban plan of Damascus is following alien masterplans that
cannot cope with the city’s climate and image. Wide streets that are usually
designed for cars, large opened hardscaped squares, high rise (copy-paste)
apartment buildings with transparent facades and without considering the
occupants' desires and behaviours are very common in the modern part of the
city which is causing a high level of energy consumption and pollution since
houses lack any kind of passive and climatic responsive strategies.
Additionally, the interview with the representative villa’s users showed that
they were unsatisfied with their house performance in terms of thermal and visual
comfort; hence, they tend to rely on the active heating, cooling and lighting
systems most days of the year as shown in (Figure 77) to maintain their comfort
level. Besides, they constantly mentioned that “they are feeling exposed in their
own house” where privacy was not considered by the architect when planning it
which caused a serious problem to tackle.
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The Damascene vernacular house remains a living part of the architectural
heritage of the region, a comprehensive design that the new architects should
learn from and evolve their designs according to it. The elements, space
organization, envelope and decorations of the vernacular Damascene house are
all symbols through which the generations of Syrians have projected their
identity and achieved sustainability in their homes. Therefore, vernacular
elements should be revived and evolved to be integrated into contemporary
houses.
This dissertation revealed significant findings regarding the studied fields
of the research; identity, regionalism and energy efficiency. The following points
are presenting the major findings of the study,
• Human settlements represent the relationship of people with nature and their
interaction with the environment. The evolution of human settlements involves
relying on both the built environment and the surrounding environmental
elements. Accordingly, the evolution of Damascene vernacular houses and the
improvements in the construction and passive techniques relied on using local
resources and responding to the surrounding environment.
• The urban plan of the old city ensured separated residential and commercial
zones to ensure comfort levels since bakeries and other shops influence ambient
air temperature and air quality. Moreover, the street network consists of three
types of streets as presented in Chapter 2 to improve thermal comfort and
privacy by creating separated shaded alleys for pedestrians. However, these
aspects are absent in the modern part of the city where wide unshaded streets
(for cars) are very common in the city. Consequently, it affects the
microclimate of the city and the streets encourage hot-dusty winds.
Furthermore, commercial and even industrial shops can be found in the
residential neighbourhood of the city, which affects the inhabitants'
psychology, comfort, and health.
• The image of Aiden that Damascene people were fascinated with which created
their dwellings in the first place is absent in the modern houses. The findings
of Chapter 2 emphasize this point, people used vegetation, courtyards and water
elements to recreate the image of the paradise that would enhance the
surrounding environment and the microclimate. The sensible and
psychological comfort was fulfilled in the vernacular houses of Damascus
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where modern houses usually do not consider these aspects as explained in
Chapter 3. Balconies and low fences backyards are very common in modern
houses since they are outwardly oriented. Nevertheless, they are usually
neglected and not used since they violate the privacy of the inhabitants and
create undesirable thermal conditions.
• Damascene houses included many passive strategies that cope with the climate
and the dynamics of the inhabitants. For instance, the units of the house were
organized following the daily life of the inhabitants at the same time the design
of the house ensured privacy, thermal comfort and visual comfort as discussed
in Chapter 2.
• The vernacular architecture and urban fabric of Damascus is a reflection of the
inhabitants' dynamics, beliefs and identity. Consequently, the enhancement of
the buildings and urban performance is due to the common belief of the
inhabitants that discourage harming actions to the surrounding tangible and
intangible elements including the identity. Damascene vernacular houses are
products of the acquired experiences that has been passed down to successive
generations to evolve their strategies in designing regional houses that serve
the users and the climate. However, the modern part of the city imported alien
designs, which are affecting energy consumption since modern houses lack any
kind of passive strategies. Hence, people are relying on active energy-
consuming systems to restore their comfort.
• Abandoned vernacular strategies can be improved to be integrated into
contemporary designs. Moreover, contemporary designs and advanced
technologies that manage to reduce energy consumption and ensure the users’
comfort should be implemented, such as smart lighting, sun responsive louvres,
Mashrabiya, etc.
• Local materials and contemporary construction techniques should be
considered to mimic the construction of the vernacular houses and their thermal
performance but in lighter weight construction where different types of
insulation can be considered. Additionally, using local materials would reduce
the embodied energy and it will create buildings that merge with their
surroundings. The correlation between materials and the passive strategies
should be emphasized in the design; For instance, in the case of Damascus
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passive strategies and materials should resist heat and reflect solar radiation.
Furthermore, new effective materials can be also implemented to enhance
thermal comfort such as phase-changing materials.
• The correlations between the tangible and intangible elements of architecture
have a significant impact on its development process and efficiency. Since
architecture is ‘inhabited by the spirits’ and it gives life to the people and their
places. Hence, architecture and building performance are affected by the users’
daily life habits, identity, and psychological fluctuations as was explained in
the representative analysis. The growing uncomfortable and estrangement
feelings were caused by the design and performance of the representative house
since it couldn't cope with their daily life habits and identity. Accordingly,
unpleasant coping mechanisms were developed by the occupants due to the
inefficient design of the house; for instance, open spaces of the house were
neglected where closed inner spaces are being used instead. Thus, more energy
is being consumed during the year since the house relies on active systems.
• The correlation between architecture, the inhabitants and the environment was
corrupted when foreign designs replaced the local ones; hence, unfortunately,
“the condition of absolute placeness” describes the modern part of the city,
which has distorted the identity and the image of the city. Moreover, it affected
the environment and energy consumption directly.
• Finally, the design process should include a comprehensive analysis of the
tangible and intangible elements that form the site including interviewing the
user(s) to collect information related to their daily life habits, background and
desires. Furthermore, the site should be investigated in terms of the climatic
conditions to propose proper design strategies and alternatives, which would
reflect the user(s), the surrounding environment and respond to the climate.
Accordingly, we can indicate that there is a direct connection between the
region’s resources, the identity (dynamics of the inhabitants), and energy
efficiency. Thus, architects should consider this triangle to achieve an energy-
efficient regional home.
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Chapter 5
Discussion and Conclusion
5.1 Discussion
This dissertation explained that architects should reference experiences and
vernacular architecture’s characteristics to evolve contemporary buildings and
reflect the region. Additionally, the study addressed four research questions
relating to regionalism, identity and vernacular strategies as effective tools in
reducing energy consumption and improving the city’s image. In an attempt to
answer the research questions, a deep analysis of the city’s architecture was
conducted. Moreover, the study presented the found theories related to identity,
people’s dynamics and behaviours to emphasize the correlation between the
theory and practice fields to provide energy-efficient regional architecture.
Different data collection tools were employed to elicit data including modelling,
drawings, and interviews.
The prime findings obtained related to the first question, reveal that
contemporary designs in Damascus should be a developed model of the
vernacular architecture in the city, hence, alien inefficient designs are
problematic. The imported foreign urban planning and architectural practices
have created a gap between old Damascus (vernacular houses) and modern
Damascus (contemporary houses), the past and present, the community and the
person, sustainability and architecture. Indeed, to close the gap, regional climatic
responsive strategies were suggested in chapter 4 to enhance the image of the city
and reduce energy consumption.
The results of the second question of the study show that abandoned
vernacular strategies should be improved using advanced technology tools and
added to the contemporary designs to enhance the building performance. The new
design proposal in chapter 4 recommended including some of the vernacular
elements in the representative modern villa to enhance privacy, thermal comfort
and visual comfort; such as including the Iwan, courtyard, Bernoulli Effect and
Mashrabiyas.
The results of the third question urge architects to design buildings that
resemble the region and its inhabitants. The relationship between architecture and
space is not limited to the physical dimension, but also the metaphysical. Thus, a
145
balanced correlation between these two dimensions manages to produce self-
efficient architecture and create a unique halo as was discussed in detail in the
third chapter in terms of identity and architecture. Passive and energy-saving
strategies should develop their mechanisms following users’ behaviours and
habits, as was the case in the vernacular examples. The discussed process of
adaptation in chapter 3 and the concept of the spirit of a place “what a thing wants
to be” should be evolved and included in energy-efficiency strategies since the
identity and the backgrounds of the users have a significant impact on their
behaviours in a place and their techniques to restore the state of comfort and
belonging.
The fourth question of the study is answered in chapter 4, which has
revealed that people’s techniques in the modern houses of Damascus are relying
on active systems and consume energy to achieve comfort levels. Hence,
apparently, the circle of adaptation in these houses is defective due to poor
architectural and urban designs that ignored the surrounding environment and
local’s dynamics as was discussed in chapter 3. Consequently, this problem is
tackled in the suggested design strategies and the new design proposal to find the
answer to the fourth question by linking the identity of a place, the dynamics of
the occupants and energy efficiency in the suggested strategies.
Accordingly, the following points are recommended findings that would
help to close the gap between the “vernacular” and “modern” and to link the
discussed triangular aspects,
• Architects and urban planners should analyse the cultural and climatic
backgrounds that shaped the city. Moreover, the design process should include
the identity of the place and the dynamics of the users to find a connecting point
that manages to achieve energy efficiency by investigating the climate and the
occupants’ daily life habits.
• The urban plan of the city should be evolved following the vernacular where
more alleys and pedestrian roads should be considered than streets.
Therefore, roads, alleys and streets should be shaded and surrounded by
green spaces to encourage people to walk in such a climate. Besides, narrow
alleys and evergreen trees manage to maintain houses’ privacy where
windows cannot be overlooked from a far distance like the case of modern
Damascus streets today.
146
• The hardscape of the urban squares, which are very popular in the modern
part of the city should be reduced and more green spaces should be
integrated to reflect solar radiation. Moreover, large open plazas can be
replaced with public parks.
• Streets and houses should be oriented in a way that reduces solar radiation
in summers and increases it in winters, dusty winds should be blocked and
summer breeze should be allowed. Moreover, water bodies should be
integrated with the urban elements and houses
• Houses should create a row in some orientations where attached and semi-
attached houses are preferable to maintain a desirable temperature and
privacy. Besides, row buildings encourage an inner oriented fenestration
system and courtyards which is a vernacular abandoned strategy that should
be revived and integrated into singular families houses and residential
buildings.
• Houses’ spaces and units should be organized after analysing the site and
people’s desires and daily life habits since energy consumption is directly
related to the climate and people’s behaviours.
• It is highly noticed that the facades of the modern houses in Damascus are
disharmonious which affect the image of the city and the users since
openings were implemented without analysing the site. Thus, nowadays
windows and balconies could not comply with their main functions, besides
they are violating privacy and influencing the performance of the house in
terms of energy saving.
• The recently found front yards and backyards in modern houses should be
replaced with courtyards or modified to create shaded spaces and maintain
privacy. Therefore, low fences should be replaced with high ones and a
semi-open gathering space should be integrated to encourage using the yard
and reduce energy consumption.
• Green spaces and local plants should be considered as a part of the planning
process and one of the passive strategies process that improves the
performance of the building envelope.
• Additionally, the selection of the materials affects the performance of the
building envelope. Consequently, the used materials in the vernacular
147
houses should be analysed and considered in contemporary designs where
new buildings should rely on the regional resources that fit more with the
environment and respond to the climate efficiently.
• Indeed, privacy is required in each region and through different eras. Privacy
levels should be achieved by interviewing the users and analysing the site.
Some of the vernacular aspects could be considered to achieve it such as the
angular entrance, inner orientation, windows screens (Mashrabiya) that are
discussed in previous chapters.
5.2 Conclusion
This dissertation builds on the existing literature to shed insights into
design practices, which has shown the importance of vernacular architecture and
identity concepts in achieving energy efficiency and regionalism. Despite the
growing interest in studying energy efficiency in architecture and its strategies,
it seems to be less focus has been shown in literature in proving that the identity
of a place, people’s daily life habits and homemaking process are major
strategies to save energy. The main problem that faces contemporary architecture
in Damascus and that gave this study urgency is the weak connection between
the vernacular dwellings and modern dwellings in general, and the ignorant of
the region’s dynamics, identity and resources to achieve energy efficiency in
particular.
As discussed in chapter 3 the main aspect that is influencing contemporary
architecture and urban planning in Damascus is the locals’ and architects’
fascination with foreign modern designs and their eagerness to follow them.
Accordingly, inefficient energy consuming designs that cannot serve the region’s
dynamics and the environment are produced. Thus, reviving and improving
abandoned vernacular strategies, and including the occupants in the design
process is suggested in chapter 4 to tackle the mentioned problem.
In conclusion, the dissertation analysed the physical and metaphysical
dimensions of the vernacular and modern dwellings in Damascus to achieve its
aims and answer its questions. In order to achieve the aims of the dissertation, a
design guide and a new design were proposed. Consequently, the design proposal
is the product of the deep comprehensive analysis and the collected data.
Furthermore, the dissertation elaborated the positive correlation between
regionalism, identity and energy efficiency, and it has revealed several
148
recommendations and directions for future energy-efficient designs and research
on identity and energy efficiency.
The study employed a mixed-methods research design, using both
qualitative and quantitative data. The study revealed significant findings
regarding the impact of identity and regionalism on energy efficiency. However,
this dissertation has some limitations that must be taken into account and
addressed in future studies. The political conflict in Syria has affected the quality
and quantity of research in many fields including architecture. Hence, some of
the discussed topics in the thesis were hard to be found, such as the current
energy performance in modern residential buildings. Accordingly, the study
relied on the collected data from the conducted interview with the representative
case’s users to evaluate the energy consumption situation of the house.
Incorporating additional methods to investigate energy saving by using
energy simulation software could be one possible direction for future research to
simulate the performance of the house’s elements in different climatic conditions
during the year, where best solutions under real typical conditions could be
provided for Damascene contemporary dwellings.
Finally, the study investigated singular family houses and proposed a new
semi-attached design for a singular family based on an existing representative
case and an interview with the current occupants. Hence, future studies could
investigate and propose a new energy-efficient regional design for apartment
buildings where a larger number of occupants with different backgrounds and
behaviours could be interviewed to decide related passive regional strategies that
could be implemented to the building to save energy.
149
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APPENDICES
166
Interview questions.
1. How many people are living in the house?
2. How old are the occupants and what is their profession?
3. What is the approximate number of hours for using the house’s units (rooms)
and when the units are often used (Day/night)?
4. How often do you use the house’s garden?
5. Are you satisfied with the house performance in terms of improving the indoor
temperatures (conditions) in winters and summers?
6. What are the passive and active techniques do you use for heating and cooling
and are you satisfied with the garden’s thermal performance?
7. In which month do you start using active cooling?
8. In which month do you start using active heating?
9. Which active cooling and heating systems do you have in your house?
10. Are you satisfied with the performance of the fenestration systems, space
organization, balcony, and garden in terms of privacy?
11. Do you turn on the lights in the daytime? If so, which house unit lacks access
to sufficient daylighting?
12. Do you use windows “outer” blinds and are they used in daytime or night?
13. Approximately how many hours a day do active cooling and heating systems
operate?
14. What are the house’s units, elements, etc. that you prefer to change or modify
to enhance the performance of the house and what are the reasons?
15. Have you ever visited or lived in a Damascene vernacular house? If so, what
are the elements, features, etc. in the vernacular house that you wish you have
in your current house?
16. Why do you believe these elements (related to the previous question) can
enhance your contemporary villa performance, and how these elements can
serve the users’ needs?
