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RESEARCH ARTICLE
Mass poisonings of the Vulnerable Andean condor
prompt national strategy against the use of toxic baits
in Argentina
N. Luis Jácome1, Gabriela Abarzua2, Vanesa Astore1,3, Rayen Estrada Pacheco1,4∗
Ethnobiology and Conservation, 11:14 (11 July 2022)
doi:10.15451/ec2022-07-11.14-1-17
ISSN 2238-4782 ethnobioconservation.com
ABSTRACT
Massive deaths of Andean condors (Vultur gryphus) prompted a National Strategy Against the Use of
Toxic Baits in Argentina, based on 6 lines of action: 1) delivery of kits and unified intervention protocols
in cases of wildlife poisoning, 2) community education programs, 3) surveys of rural people, 4) training
courses and participatory construction workshops, 5) toxicology studies, and 6) an academic-scientific
committee made up of specialists in toxicology. The strategy was developed in the 14 provinces of the
country where the Andean condor is distributed. 554 people from 166 institutions have participated in
the trainings and workshops, reporting 200 poisoning events involving more than 21000 individuals from
61 species. Birds and mammals were the groups most affected, and further, human victims show the
impact on public health. 19 toxic substances were identified, mainly insecticides. This study proved that
carbofuran is the toxic most used. Analysis of bait types suggests a significant conflict with carnivores.
195 surveys revealed that almost half of the farmers know people who use toxic baits and that the
negative perception towards some species could determine their use. The strategy began to address the
problem of the use of toxic baits in Argentina in a strategic, participatory and regional way, through
the management of public policies and scientific research. We propose actions to work on the causes
that lead to the application of this dangerous practice. Given its extensive use, we believe that this
strategy can be adapted and applied in other countries in the region.
Keywords: Pesticides, wildlife poisoning, conservation, massive mortalities, Andean condor, South
America.
1 Fundación Bioandina Argentina, Juan de Castro 1457, (1406) C.A.B.A., Argentina.
2 Dirección Nacional de Educación Ambiental y Participación Ciudadana, Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible, San
Martín 451, CABA, Argentina.
3 Ecoparque de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires, República de la India 3000, (1425) C.A.B.A., Argentina.
4 Centro de Investigación Científica y de Transferencia Tecnológica a la Producción - Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas
y Técnicas - Provincia de Entre Ríos- Universidad Autónoma de Entre Ríos. Dr. Materi y España. CP 3105. Diamante, Entre
Ríos, Argentina.
∗Corresponding author . E-mail address: NLJ (ljacome@biondina.org.ar), REP (rayenep87@gmail.com)
Part of Special Issue:
Use, Management and Conservation of Wildlife in Latin America.
Edited by Hani R. El Bizri, Melina S. Simoncini, Jair H. Castro Romero, Alejandro Meléndez Herrada, Joaquín L. Navarro.
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Jácome et al. 2022. Mass poisonings of the Vulnerable Andean condor prompt national strategy against the use of toxic baits in
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Ethnobiol Conserv 11:14
SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT
Poisoning due to the use of toxic baits threatens wildlife, the environment and human health. The massive
death of condors in Argentina, an emblematic species threatened with extinction, motivated the launching of a
National Strategy against the use of Toxic Baits [Estrategia Nacional contra el uso de Cebos Tóxicos (ENCT)].
Here we present its six lines of action, analyze the results obtained and propose future guidelines to address this
complex problem. Valuable scientific information, based on the reports of hundreds of poisoning cases, surveys
and toxicological studies, allowed us to uncover and evaluate, for the first time, the toxicants being used, the
types of baits used, the areas of greatest conflict, and the species and number of specimens that are victims,
directly or indirectly, of this dangerous practice. Considering this problem at a global level, ENCT can be a
strategic model of action that can be adapted and applied to other countries.
INTRODUCTION
The use of toxic baits to kill species considered
conflict is happening worldwide (Cowan y Blakley
2015; Henriques et al. 2020; De la Bodega et al.
2020). This practice is nonspecific because by poi-
soning a food source, many species that use it are ex-
posed to toxic effects. This has concerned the inter-
national scientific and conservation community due
to the serious consequences it has on species popula-
tions and ecosystems (Henriques et al. 2020). Given
their gregarious feeding habits, vultures are one of
the groups most affected by the use of toxic baits
(Márquez et al. 2012), and some species populations
are even declining due to this threat (Buechley y Şek-
ercioğlu 2016). Mass mortalities of vultures due to
the use of toxic baits have been reported worldwide,
especially in Europe and Africa, while information
about this in Latin America is still scarce (Plaza et al.
2019).
The Andean condor (Vultur gryphus ) is the
world’s largest scavenger and is endemic to South
America. Globally, the species is considered as "vul-
nerable to extinction" and its populations are declin-
ing due to anthropogenic causes (BirdLife Interna-
tional 2021). In Argentina, the Andean condor is
threatened (MAyDS and AA 2017) and currently its
main conservation problem is the use of toxic baits
used as a livestock practice (Estrada Pacheco et al.
2020a). In recent years, massive deaths of this species
have been recorded in the country due to the con-
sumption of poisoned baits used by ranchers, mainly
to kill cougars (Puma concolor ), foxes (Lycalopex sp.)
and dogs (Canis familiaris) (Estrada Pacheco et al.
2020b).
For more than three decades, the Andean Condor
Conservation Program [Programa de Conservación
Cóndor Andino (PCCA)], intervened in the rescue
and rehabilitation of more than 370 wild condors
from the 14 provinces where the species is distributed
en Argentina (Jacome y Astore 2016). Studies per-
formed by the PCCA demonstrated the use of car-
bofuran and parathion in the toxic baits that caused
the massive deaths of condors in the country (Estrada
Pacheco et al. 2020a). Similar poisoning events are
occurring at a worrying scale and frequency in other
countries in the region, which could drive the species
to extinction (Méndez et al. 2021b). However, these
cases represent only the tip of an iceberg, since the
discovery and intervention in poisoning events is not
always possible because people do not report them or
they may occur in inaccessible places. Other times,
there is no adequate training or the necessary equip-
ment to intervene in them, which undermines sam-
pling, research and even puts the lives of those who
must operate in cases of wildlife poisoning at risk
(Ogada 2014).
Due to the massive condor deaths in Argentina,
the Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible
de la Nación (MAyDS), as the enforcement author-
ity of Law No. 22,421 on the protection and con-
servation of wildlife from the Dirección Nacional de
Educación y Participación Ciudadana, together with
the Fundación Bioandina Argentina (FBA), agreed
to carry out management and research actions within
the framework of the PCCA to address the problem
of use of toxic baits (CONVE-2019-14377560-APN-
SGAYDS # SGP). To this end, human, technical
and financial resources were made available to es-
tablish a working network with provincial authorities
and national and international institutions to create
a National Strategy against the use of Toxic Baits
[Estrategia Nacional contra el uso de Cebos Tóxicos
(ENCT)]. ENCT addresses the cases of condor poi-
soning in Argentina and aims to uncover which other
species are affected by the use of toxic baits, research-
ing the types of baits, the substances used and their
incidence in the different regions of the country to
propose unified protocols for action.
ENCT has the support of Secretaria de Ambiente
y Ordenamiento Territorial de Mendoza, Secretaría
de Estado de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sustentable de
San Juan, Ministerio de Ambiente de Jujuy, Secre-
taría de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sustentable de Salta,
Secretaría de Ambiente y Cambio Climático de Cór-
doba, Secretaría de Medio Ambiente de San Luis, Sec-
retaría de Estado de Ambiente de Santa Cruz, Sec-
retaría de Ambiente, Desarrollo Sostenible y Cam-
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bio Climático de Tierra del Fuego, Antártida e Is-
las del Atlántico Sur, Secretaría de Ambiente, De-
sarrollo Sustentable y Cambio Climático de Río Ne-
gro, Secretaría de Desarrollo Territorial y Ambiente
de Neuquén, Ministerio de Desarrollo Productivo del
Gobierno de Tucumán, Secretaría de Medio Ambiente
de Catamarca, Dirección de Fauna y Flora Silvestre
de Chubut and Secretaría de Medio Ambiente de La
Rioja. ENCT was declared of federal environmen-
tal interest by Consejo Federal de Medio Ambiente
(COFEMA), through Resolution 390 / June 2019.
After two years in office, we describe ENCT’s lines
of action, as a strategic model that can be replicated
in other countries in the region, we analyze its results
and propose future development actions.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Study area
Our study area encompassed the 14 argentine
provinces where the Andean condor is distributed,
covering more than 3500 km of mountain range from
Jujuy to Tierra del Fuego, with peaks that reaches al-
titudes of 6961 m, and the central sierras of Córdoba
and San Luis. These provinces represent 61% of the
national territory and cover more than 1.69 million
km2(Northern Region 333,834 km2, Central Region
570,216 km2 and Southern Region 786,983 km2).
In this large area, the main productive activity
is cattle ranching and, to a lesser extent, agriculture
(Nanni et al. 2020). Cattle ranching is an impor-
tant activity in northwestern and central Argentina,
with about 4.4 million cows per region (Rearte 2007).
Patagonia, on the other hand, is the region with the
fewest cattle, with about 1.5 million cows. In the
northwestern, central and Patagonian regions, there
is extensive cattle raising by small producers where
cows feed on natural pastures. On the other hand,
sheep farming is an important productive activity in
the Patagonian region where there are both small
farms with few animals and large farms that man-
age a large number of sheep (SENASA 2018). In the
rest of the country sheep farming is usually framed
in mixed production systems (agricultural-livestock,
sheep-goat) (Mueller 2013). As for the production of
goats for meat and milk, Mendoza, Neuquén and the
entire northwestern are the main producers, where
the activity is mainly associated with small produc-
ers who raise livestock for family and local consump-
tion (Planet Finance 2011). Finally, llamas are also
farmed in the Puna, and their meat and wool are con-
sumed and sold locally (Rigalt 2012). In our study
area, agriculture is practically not developed in the
southern region, while it occupies eastern sectors of
the central and northern regions (Nanni et al. 2020;
SAGyN 2022).
ENCT lines of action
In order to address the use of toxic baits in Ar-
gentina, the ENCT developed 6 lines of action.
1. EMERGENCY KITS. It is essential for the en-
vironmental authority of each province to have
basic equipment and an action protocol for
emergency intervention in cases of wildlife poi-
soning. Therefore, within the framework of the
ENCT, a kit was provided with biosecurity el-
ements, materials, instruments and a protocol
with procedural norms (Estrada Pacheco et al.
2021). This equipment has the necessary ele-
ments for sampling, data collection, sanitation,
as well as biosafety elements to minimize the
risks for the technical personnel who must in-
tervene in the field.
2. COMMUNITY EDUCATION. Since it is nec-
essary to reach the community with a clear mes-
sage about the danger posed by the use of toxic
baits, the ENCT includes an educational pro-
gram, based on the scientific, cultural and ed-
ucational exhibitions developed by the PCCA.
The exhibitions highlights the risks of this se-
rious threat, as well as the efforts being made
to address a solution. It consists of a display of
more than 70 pictures (1 m x 0.7 m) and ma-
terial and videos that support the educational
talks. The exhibitions were presented in cul-
tural centers in the provinces with the high-
est number of poisoning cases due to the use
of toxic baits (Estrada Pacheco et al. 2020a),
representing the northern, central and south-
ern regions of the country. The month-long
exhibitions, with free admission, were open to
the general public and were coordinated by the
provincial environmental authorities, MAyDS
and FBA.
3. SURVEYS OF RURAL PEOPLE. Surveys were
conducted in different localities, in provinces
where the Andean condor is distributed. The
surveys were aimed at people with some degree
of association with livestock (they currently
have livestock or have had livestock in the past).
To locate these individuals, key informants in
the area (police, teachers, park rangers, etc.)
were contacted, and they indicated which peo-
ple met these conditions and their locations. To
maximize the number of people surveyed, this
information was complemented with snowball
sampling (Goodman 1961). The surveys were
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anonymous to protect the respondent’s iden-
tity. Semi-structured forms were used, com-
plementing the information with interviews and
informal conversations. The locality of the live-
stock establishment, the perception (harmful
vs. non-harmful) of 12 species of wildlife (using
photographs for correct identification), and the
knowledge and eventual use of toxic baits as a
livestock practice were recorded.
4. TRAINING COURSES (TC) AND PARTIC-
IPATORY CONSTRUCTION WORKSHOPS
(PCW). In each province, environmental, pro-
ductive, educational, health, safety, research,
NGOs and other social activists involved with
mitigating the poisoning problems were sum-
moned to a one day meeting which began with a
press conference announcing the provincial sup-
port of the ENCT. The meetings were the ideal
framework for the delivery of emergency inter-
vention kits to the environmental authorities.
The TC began with an anonymous survey to
assess the participants’ knowledge of the prob-
lem of the use of toxic baits. The training
included presentations by local specialists and
ENCT professionals who presented the impacts
of poisoning on the conservation of the Andean
condor and other wildlife, the environment and
human health. Training was also provided on
the ENCT action protocol in cases of wildlife
poisoning.
In the PCW, heterogeneous groups were formed
so that all the stakeholders involved were as well
represented as possible and the participants as-
signed a reference person to take notes.
Each group reported the cases of poisoning they
knew of, where and when they occurred, the
species and number of individuals involved, and
the type of baits and poisons used. When par-
ticipants did not remember the number of indi-
viduals involved in an event, the number was
considered equal to one for that species. In
the analysis of the poisoning events recorded,
duplicate data were eliminated, that is, those
in which the place, date and species involved
coincided. Finally, the participants presented
their results, and the different presentations
were recorded as testimonial records.
5. SOS CONDOR: TOXICOLOGICAL STUD-
IES. ENCT, within the framework of the
PCCA, developed a program called SOS Con-
dor which, together with the provincial environ-
mental authorities and security forces, imple-
ments emergency action in cases of wildlife poi-
soning to guarantee that taking of samples, the
chain of custody, toxicology studies and the san-
itation of the affected site is completed accord-
ing to an established protocol (Estrada Pacheco
et al. 2021). It is essential to scientifically study
the cases of wildlife poisoning in order to be
able to reliably determine the type of poison
used and the severity of its impact. The diver-
sity of poisons is enormous, and their effects can
be different, so gas chromatography and mass
spectrometry were used to detect and differen-
tiate them. Alternatively, enzymatic activity of
acetylcholinesterase in blood was measured to
determine toxicant category. Toxicology stud-
ies were performed on crop contents and blood
samples. We considered poisoning when it was
found that the bird had been in contact with
poison or when carcasses of these birds were
found in a typical scene of poisoning due to the
use of toxic bait (dead condors found near a
bait in the same area). We define possible poi-
soning, when at the time of rescue the bird was
found with symptoms compatible with a pic-
ture of poisoning (jaundice, salivation, regurgi-
tation, loss of stability and flight capacity) and
subsequent studies showed no other results.
6. SCIENTIFIC ACADEMIC COMMITTEE.
Within the framework of ENCT, coordinated
by the Dirección Nacional de Sustancias y Pro-
ductos Químicos of MAyDS, specialists in toxi-
cology, representatives of prestigious study cen-
ters of the country were summoned to form an
academic-scientific working group to contribute
to the scope of the strategy. The committee
oversees review ENCT protocols and proposing
measures to combat this serious problem.
Statistical analysis
We analyzed the results of ENCT from its begin-
ning on June 12, 2019 to March 2021. The poison-
ing events were grouped according to the region of
the country where they occurred: Northern Region
(Jujuy, Salta, Tucumán and Catamarca provinces),
Central Region (San Juan, Córdoba, Mendoza, San
Luis and La Rioja provinces) and Southern Region
(Neuquén, Río Negro, Chubut, Santa Cruz and Tierra
del Fuego provinces). We analyzed the relative fre-
quency of poisoning by applying the chi-square test,
where the expected values were the same for the three
regions (total of events / 3). We made maps with
the emerging information from the PCW using QGIS
software version 2.18.28 (QGIS Development Team
2022).
In the analysis of the rural population surveys,
we evaluated the use of poison as a lethal method
to combat wildlife. For this purpose, we constructed
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generalized linear models (GLMs), with binomial dis-
tribution, where the response variable was whether
they ever used/use poison to kill wildlife considered
harmful (1) or never used it (0). The variables in-
cluded in the models were province, sex, and percep-
tion of the species, depending on whether they are
considered harmful or not for livestock.
Model selection was made using Akaike’s Infor-
mation Criterion for Small Samples (AICc), choosing
the model with the lowest index. Differences in the
Akaike value greater than 2 were considered differ-
ent models (Burnham y Anderson 2002). All analy-
ses were performed using R software version 3.6.0 (R
Core Team 2020) and we considered statistical signif-
icance when p < 0.05.
RESULTS
ENCT was officially launched on June 12, 2019
and covered 14 provinces within the distribution area
of the Andean condor in Argentina. With the coop-
eration of the environmental authorities, ENCT was
developed in the provinces of Jujuy, Salta, Tucumán,
Catamarca, San Juan, Córdoba, Mendoza, San Luis,
La Rioja, Neuquén, Río Negro, Chubut, Santa Cruz
and Tierra del Fuego.
Emergency intervention kit
During the training sessions, the emergency in-
tervention kits and protocols for action in cases of
wildlife poisoning were delivered to the environmental
authorities of the 14 provinces (one kit for province).
Both the contents of the kit and the action protocol
have been updated during the ENCT course, making
these resources available to the provinces.
Training courses (TC) and participa-
tory construction workshops (PCW)
In all the provinces mentioned above, the TC and
PCW were established, where 554 people participated
(167 individuals in northern region, 247 in central re-
gion and 140 in southern region), representing 166
institutions.
Surveys conducted at the beginning of the TC in-
dicated that 69% of the participants were aware of
the use of toxic baits and 21% indicated that they
knew people who use or have used toxic baits. 44%
of the participants were aware of strychnine and car-
bofuran, and to a lesser extent parathion (29%), as
substances used in the preparation of baits. On the
other hand, 78% considered the practice ineffective
for its intended purpose, and a danger to human
health (93%) and the environment (93%).
In the PCW, 200 poisoning events between 1982
and 2020 were reported. A total of 191 cases were lo-
cated in the 14 provinces studied, 6 in other provinces
(La Pampa, Buenos Aires, Entre Ríos and Corrientes)
and 3 in Chile (Figure 1). A total of 21,816 victims
of poisoning (mean = 109.08,SD = 1,413.76) from
61 species were reported. Birds (n= 28 species) and
mammals (n= 25) were the most frequently reported
groups. Other groups reported included fish, insects
and reptiles (n= 8).
Events occurring within the study area were more
frequent in the central region (n= 82) than in the
southern (n= 56) and in the northern (n= 53) re-
gions (X2= 7.98,g.l. = 2,p= 0.018,n= 191). In
terms of the number of individuals, the central and
southern regions were more affected than the north-
ern region (X2= 337,g.l. = 2,p < 0.001) (Figure
1).
The events involving birds within the study area
were distributed with the same frequency in the three
regions of the country (X2= 2.31,g.l. = 2,p= 0.31,
n= 115). In terms of the number of victims,
the central region was the most affected, followed
by the southern region and, to a lesser degree, the
northern region (X2= 67.75,g.l. = 2,p < 0.001,
n= 512). Outside the study area, two events were
recorded. The antecedent of 20000 dead individuals
of Swainson’s hawk (Buteo sawinsoni ) in the province
La Pampa, due to the use of monocrotophos, an
organophosphate insecticide (Sarasola et al. 2007)
and one case of 5 ducks, in the province Entre Ríos
(Figure 2).
Within the study area, the Andean condor was the
most affected species, with 177 individuals reported.
In addition to condors, other vultures were recorded
(n=78), highlighting that scavenger birds are espe-
cially affected by this problem (Figure 3).
Mammals, in terms of the number of species, were
the second most affected taxonomic group by toxic
baits in the country. Within the study area, 1106
individuals, including wildlife, domestic species and
humans, were affected in 120 events.
Dogs were the most frequent victims, with 890
individuals in 75 poisoning events. The number of
events varied among regions of the country (X2=
13.13,g.l. = 2,p= 0.001), as they were more nu-
merous in the center (n= 36) and south (n= 29),
relative to the northern region (n= 10), and the
same was found for the number of affected individ-
uals (X2= 303,g.l. = 2,p < 0.001,n= 890) (Figure
4). Guanacos (Lama guanicoe), cats, foxes and deer
have also been among the main victims, and even 11
humans were affected by toxic baits (Figure 5).
In relation to events involving wild mammals
within the study area, we found similar frequencies in
the three regions of the country (X2= 3.45,g.l. = 2,
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Figure 1. Poisoning events due to the use of toxic baits reported by the PCW. 200 events involving 61 species
are shown. The size of the circles corresponds to the number of victims. The political boundaries of the 14
argentine provinces included in the study area are shown.
p= 0.18,n= 44). However, the number of individ-
uals involved was higher in the southern and central
region (X2= 12.90,g.l. = 2,p= 0.002,n= 108).
Outside the study area, 8 events involving 72 individ-
uals were reported in Corrientes, Entre Ríos, Buenos
Aires and Chile, affecting one Maned Wolf (Chryso-
cyon brachyurus), 3 foxes, 66 dogs, 1 cat and even 1
human.
In relation to the type of poison used, the PCW
allowed the identification of at least 19 toxic sub-
stances, used in 74 poisoning events, observed with
the same frequency in the three regions of the coun-
try (X2= 2.27,g.l. = 2,p= 0.32).
The most used toxicants were insecticides (78%),
among them carbamates, such as carbofuran and
methomyl, which were used in most of the poison-
ing events (74%). The use of carbamates was as-
sociated with the southern (n= 18) and northern
(n= 14) regions, and to a lesser extent with the
central region of the country (n= 5) (X2= 7.19,
g.l. = 2,p= 0.027). The use of organophos-
phates such as parathion, monocrotophos and chlor-
pyrifos (17%), organochlorines such as endrin (4%),
pyrethroids (2%), among other insecticides (3%) was
also reported (Figure 6).
Rodenticides, such as warfarin and strychnine
(12%), herbicides (3%) and other substances, such as
antifreeze, metaldehyde, sulfur, aluminum sulfate and
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Figure 2. Bird poisoning events due to the use of toxic baits reported in the PCW. The size of the circles cor-
responds to the number of individuals involved. The political boundaries of the 14 argentine provinces included
in the study area are shown.
carbide pills (7%) were also reported in the prepara-
tion of poisoned baits.
From the PCW it becomes apparent that toxi-
cants were applied in different types of baits. Animal
products (pieces of meat, fat, eggs) were used in 38%
of the events, domestic animals (sheep, cows, goats,
donkeys, chickens, dogs) in 33%, wild animals (gua-
nacos, pumas) in 11%, vegetables (mandarins, corn)
in 11%, water in 4% and processed foods (noodles,
bread) in 3% (Figure 7).
Both products of animal origin (n= 28 events),
domestic animals (n= 24 events) and wild animals
(n= 8) were used as bait with the same frequency in
the three regions of the country (X2= 4.59,g.l. = 2,
p= 0.10). Vegetables, on the other hand, were used
almost exclusively in the provinces of the northern re-
gion. Water was used in very few events occurring in
the provinces of Mendoza and Santa Cruz. Processed
food was used in 2 events in the provinces of La Rioja
and Río Negro (Figure 8).
Of the 200 poisoning events recorded in the PCW,
in 132 (66%) information was obtained about the year
in which they occurred. Of these, 54% of the cases
were recorded between the years 2018 to 2020, and the
oldest event corresponds to the year 1982, in Arroyito,
Córdoba, where even one person died after poisoning
fat with Endrin in an attempt to kill psittacines (Fig-
ure 9).
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Figure 3. Birds most affected by the use of toxic baits in Argentina within the study area reported by PCW.
SOS Condor: toxicological studies
Within the framework of ENCT’s SOS Condor
program, we intervened to study and clean up the
environment in 13 events involving 26 condors. In
7 cases, poisoning was confirmed, and 20 condors
were poisoned in the provinces of Salta (Paraje San
Luis), Tucumán (Tafí del Valle), San Juan (Bauchac-
eta), Mendoza (Poti Malal), Córdoba (El Volcán),
Río Negro (Arroyo Tembrao) and Santa Cruz (Perito
Moreno). Six occurrences of possible condor poison-
ing involving 6 condors were recorded in the provinces
of Jujuy (Tilcara), Mendoza (Las Loicas), Córdoba
(Punilla), Río Negro (La Fragua), Neuquén (Bajada
del Agrio) and Santa Cruz (28 de Noviembre).
It is worth noting that the events in Tafí del Valle
and Perito Moreno were massive, each involving at
least 6 poisoned condors. In Tafí del Valle it was
possible to prove the use of organophosphates or car-
bamates, by means of enzymatic activity of acetyl-
cholinesterase in blood. The presence of Puma meat
as a vehicle for the poison could be confirmed in the
crop of one the condors which died. The other 5 in-
dividuals were rehabilitated and released. In Perito
Moreno, 6 dead condors and a sheep used as bait
were found. Toxicology studies determined the use
of carbofuran. In the events in Paraje San Luis and
El Volcán, it was also possible to confirm the use of
carbofuran.
All the cases were reported by FBA, within the
framework of the PCCA, to the provincial and na-
tional environmental authorities, to the Unidad Fiscal
para la Investigación de delitos contra el Medio Am-
biente, to the Servicio Nacional de Sanidad y Calidad
Agroalimentaria (SENASA) and to COFEMA.
Community education programs
Four educational campaigns presenting the scien-
tific, cultural and educational exhibitions developed
by the PCCA were carried out in the provinces of Ju-
juy (Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias Sociales de
la Universidad Nacional de Jujuy), Mendoza (Museo
de Educación), Río Negro (Residencia del Gober-
nador) and Santa Cruz (Complejo Cultural de Río
Gallegos), thus covering the northern, central and
southern regions of the country.
Press releases in the mass media, as well as the
production of videos and educational spots, made it
possible to extend the reach of ENCT’s educational
campaigns in the community.
Surveys of rural people
Surveys were conducted in 7 Argentine provinces
within the Andean condor distribution (Jujuy, Salta,
San Juan, Córdoba, Mendoza, Río Negro and
Chubut). The total number of surveys was 195 (63
in the northern region, 80 in the central region and
52 in the southern region). Most respondents were
male (77%, binomial test p < 0.001) and age ranged
from 15 to 84 years (mean = 52,SD = 14 years). All
respondents were involved in livestock activity, 48%
were engaged in the activity exclusively, 42% comple-
mented it with other work and 10% were engaged in
the past.
Perceptions of wildlife species varied, with the
Puma (80%), Grey fox (61%), Culpeo fox (60%),
Andean condor (32%) and, to a lesser extent, other
species, being considered the most detrimental to live-
stock farming. Fifteen percent of the respondents in-
dicated that they use or have used toxic baits to com-
bat wildlife that they considered harmful. There was
a association with this practice in the southern region
(X2= 13.65,g.l. = 2,p= 0.001). The perception of
8
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Figure 4. Dog poisoning events by use of toxic baits reported by PCW. The size of the circles corresponds
to the number of individuals involved. The political boundaries of the 14 argentine provinces included in the
study area are shown.
Puma, Grey Fox and Andean condor was not associ-
ated with the use of toxic baits (Puma: X2= 0.14,
g.l. = 1,p= 0.7; Grey fox: X2= 0.27,g.l. = 1,
p= 0.6; Andean condor: X2= 0.18,g.l. = 1,
p= 0.67), while the perception of the Culpeo fox
was associated (X2= 6.16,g.l. = 1,p= 0.01).
Regarding the target species to which the toxic
bait was directed, 8.7% of the respondents reported
that it was directed toward Culpeo fox, 6% toward
Puma and 5.6% toward Grey fox. Only one person
in the town of Liviara, province of Jujuy, in addition
to applying toxic bait against Grey fox and Puma,
reported using this practice against Andean condor
(0.5%). Around 45.5% of respondents indicated that
other villagers in the area use toxic baits. These re-
sponses varied between regions (X2= 38.7,g.l. = 2,
p < 0.001), with most respondents from the southern
region reporting that their neighbors use toxic baits
to combat species considered harmful (77%), almost
half of the respondents from the northern region in-
dicating the same, and only 20% of respondents from
the central region accepting their use.
With no differences between regions, 60% consid-
ered the use of toxic baits to be an effective method
for the objective pursued (X2= 3.48,g.l. = 2,
p= 0.17), 80% indicated that it was dangerous for
human health (Fisher Test, p= 0.21) and 93% that it
was dangerous for wildlife (other non-conflict species)
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Figure 5. Mammals most affected by the use of toxic baits in Argentina reported by PCW. Dogs are not
included for better visualization.
(Fisher Test, p= 0.41). Three equivalent models
were obtained, which explain the use of toxic baits
by farmers, where the provinces in which they are
applied and the perception of the Culpeo fox turned
out to be the most important variables (Model 1 =
province, AIC = 136.29,∆AI C = 0.0; Model 2 =
province and perception of the Culpeo fox, AIC =
136.51,∆AIC = 0.22; Model 3 = perception of the
Culpeo fox, AIC = 137.3,∆AIC = 1.00).
Academic-scientific committee
More than 35 specialists in toxicology formed the
academic-scientific committee of the ENCT. They re-
viewed and updated the protocol developed by the
FBA with the collaboration of national and inter-
national professionals. The committee improved the
functioning of the chain of custody to make more ef-
fective the taking of samples for toxicological studies
in order to have a unified document to attend wildlife
poisoning events.
DISCUSSION
ENCT made it possible to equip, train and pro-
vide an action protocol to the environmental author-
ities of each province, so that their technicians can
operate under biosafety standards in a unified and
effective way in cases of wildlife poisoning. These re-
sources are essential for an adequate sampling, which
allows for the scientific study of each case and pro-
vides solid evidence as grounds for criminal cases.
The ENCT protocol, whenever possible, was im-
plemented for each new poisoning event that oc-
curred. Due to the vastness of the national territory
and the distances that need to be covered to deal with
these cases, it became evident that a single kit per
environmental authority is a very limited resource.
Therefore, we recommend providing additional kits
to the provinces, including national security forces
(Gendarmeria Nacional Argentina), provincial secu-
rity forces (environmental and rural police), Admin-
istración de Parques Nacionales, among others. Ac-
cording to our results, the majority of people con-
sider that the use of toxic baits is a danger to hu-
man health, wildlife and the environment. However,
their use is widespread in the 14 provinces where the
ENCT was carried out, so we recommend applying
the strategy, as a federal policy, in the rest of the
country. TC participants and farmers respondents
are aware of this practice, and some even stated that
they use it. It is worrisome that almost half of the
farmers said they know producers who currently use
this practice. It is urgent to implement legal, educa-
tional and management measures to avoid its use.
We recorded a higher number of events and in-
dividuals affected by toxic baits in the central and
southern region during PCW. The higher number of
participants could explain our results in the central
region. However, the southern region, which had the
lowest number of participants, was very prominent
in the results, suggesting that the number of partic-
ipants in the PCW might not limit the number of
events and victims recorded.
In the southern region, livestock producers ad-
mitted using or having used toxic baits to combat
wildlife and even that their neighbors use them more
frequently than in the other regions. Previous stud-
ies conducted in Patagonia demonstrate the appreci-
ation that ranchers have for this practice (Gáspero
et al. 2017; Travaini et al. 2000). The livestock
production system, the negative perception towards
10
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Figure 6. Insecticides used in poisoning events due to the use of toxic baits reported by the PCW and their
percentages of occurrence. The political boundaries of the 14 argentine provinces included in the study area are
shown.
wild carnivores and the legal regulations in some of
these provinces that endorse and even grant economic
compensation for the killing of pumas and foxes (Gar-
cía Brea et al. 2010; Llanos et al. 2014) perpetuate
strong livestock-wildlife conflict in the region, that
could explain an higher use of toxic baits.
As has been recorded in other countries, the use
of poison-baits in Argentina affects many species, in-
cluding humans. In addition, the enormous number
of individuals involved could seriously impact natural
populations of many of these species (De la Bodega
et al. 2020).
Our results suggest that birds are one of the group
most affected by this practice and poisoning events
occur in all the regions studied. We reported the
poisoning of the Swainson’s hawk occurred in mid-
1990. This was one of the paradigmatic cases of the
negative effects of pesticide use in Argentina. Spa-
tial aggregation, habitat selection and feeding habits,
together with environmental conditions that favored
demographic explosions of insects considered harmful
to crops in the Pampean Region, were decisive in the
massive deaths of this species (Sarasola et al. 2007).
Vultures were particularly affected by toxic baits and
the Andean condor were the main victims. Their
gregarious habits and hierarchical feeding behavior
making them vulnerable to suffer massive deaths in
poisoning events (Méndez et al. 2021a). The high
mortality of adult individuals and consequent loss of
future offspring, are devastating for natural popula-
tions, especially for threatened species such as the
Andean condor (Estrada Pacheco et al. 2020a; Mén-
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Figure 7. Types of baits used in the poisoning events reported in Argentina by the PCW.
dez et al. 2021a). The loss of scavenger birds results
in a decrease in their environmental services, and the
carrion that are not eliminated can become foci of
infection, generating the spread of unwanted species
and disease transmission (Baruzzi et al. 2018; Ogada
et al. 2012). Within the study area, mammals were
the most affected group by the use of toxic baits in
terms of number of events and individuals, with dogs
being the most frequent victims. Their deaths are as-
sociated with the vicinity of large urban centers and
the conflict between feral dogs and livestock. One
of the most important cases occurred in the city of
Deán Funes, province of Córdoba, where at least 215
dogs were killed. This case was brought to justice in
the 12th Criminal Court of the city of Córdoba (Ám-
bito 2013). The massive death of dogs has caused the
declaration of environmental and sanitary alarm in
important cities of the country on several occasions
(Ámbito 2013; Norte 2019). Hundreds of poisoned
dogs, mainly associated with the central and south-
ern regions of the country, expose the lack of respon-
sible pet ownership and proper sanitary management
programs. Conflict with dogs is a problem, as docu-
mented in Argentina and other countries, with great
impact on wildlife conservation (Montecino-Latorre y
San Martín 2018; Zamora-Nasca et al. 2021). Rep-
tiles, fish and insects were also victims of poisoning,
demonstrating that the use of toxic baits targeted
at certain species may affect various forms of life.
The number of individuals involved in these events
could not be precisely determined and was consid-
ered equal to one. Therefore, the total number of
poison-bait victims reported by the PCW is under-
estimated. Identification of substances involved in
poisoning events is often difficult due to the lack of ap-
propriate material and training for sample collection
(Plaza et al. 2019). Nevertheless, through our strat-
egy we were able to identify at least 19 toxics that
could be being used in the production of poison baits.
Our results suggest that most of the poisons used are
cholinesterase inhibitor insecticides (carbamates and
to a lesser extent organophosphates) used in agricul-
ture. Of these, carbofuran is the most widely used,
especially in the north and south of the country where
it was reported in the initial surveys of the TC, as
well as in the PCW and toxicological studies of the
SOS Condor program. The massive cases of con-
dor poisoning that we investigated and denounced
from the PCCA in 2017 in Rinconada (Jujuy) and in
2018 in Los Molles (Mendoza), Perito Moreno (Santa
Cruz), and Manzano Amargo (Neuquén) shocked the
public and occupied the main mass media (Estrada
Pacheco et al. 2020a). As a result of these events,
society began to become more aware of the danger
posed by poisoned baits, which could explain the
greater number of events reported in the PCW in
the last three years (Figure 9). These cases influ-
enced SENASA to ban the use of carbofuran in Ar-
gentina (Resolution 263/2018). This is a very impor-
tant measure, although not enough, given that sub-
stances such as parathion and strychnine, despite be-
ing banned decades ago in all their formulations and
uses (Resolution 606/93, Resolution 976/93), are still
used in the production of toxic baits (Estrada Pacheco
et al. 2020a; García Brea et al. 2010; Travaini et al.
2000). Unfortunately, these substances are also used
in other countries around the world for the same pur-
pose (Botha et al. 2015; Hernández y Margalida 2008;
De la Bodega et al. 2020; Otieno et al. 2011). Re-
garding the type of bait, although we found that veg-
etables are used in some agricultural production ar-
eas, our data showed that domestic animals, animal
products and wild animals are the most commonly
used as baits (82%). These baits target species that
12
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Figure 8. Types of bait used in the poisoning events recorded by PCW and their percentages. The political
boundaries of the 14 argentine provinces included in the study area are shown.
consume these resources and are considered harm-
ful in livestock farming, which highlights the need to
address livestock-wildlife conflicts in depth, as men-
tioned by other studies in the country (Ballejo et al.
2019; Cailly Arnulphi et al. 2017). Therefore, we rec-
ommend promoting permanent educational actions,
public policies that encourage livestock alternatives
and responsible practices among producers, such as
tax compensation systems for producers who demon-
strate good management practices, improvements in
the design and condition of corrals, sound and light
alarms, protection dogs, and economic compensation
for losses to those who develop good practices. Some
of these alternatives have already been implemented
locally and have demonstrated their effectiveness in
reducing livestock predation (Garramuño et al. 2017;
González et al. 2012; Ohrens et al. 2019). Increas-
ing these efforts would address conflicts with wildlife
through appropriate management measures that help
to reduce the use of toxic baits. We recorded cases of
poisoning throughout the 14 provinces studied. Some
of them occurred in isolated areas, with few inhab-
itants and far from the main cities. Even the use
of pesticides associated with agricultural production
was recorded in areas of livestock production, sug-
gesting that there is easy access to toxic substances,
anywhere in the country, to be used for a variety
of purposes. We recorded the abuse of permitted
(metomil Resolution 1563/01 and piretroides Resolu-
tion 466/1) and prohibited substances (endrin, Res-
olution 2121/90; monocrotofos, Resolution 182/99;
carbofuran, Resolution 263/18; clorpirifos, Resolu-
tion 414/21). Access to the last ones is evidence of
an active illegal market and/or the consequences of
13
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Figure 9. Poisoning events that occurred between 1982 and 2020, reported in Argentina, in the PCW.
remaining stocks.
ENCT provides scientific evidence that unequiv-
ocally demonstrates the occurrence of cases of poi-
soning in the country and its consequent impact for
several species. This information makes it possible
to go deeper into the problem of the use of toxic
baits and provides results which can support future
lines of investigation and the initiation of legal cases
in search of sanctions for environmental remediation
(La República Digital 2021). In addition, the de-
tection of the specific type of poison used makes it
possible to identify sales channels and tighten con-
trols on their commercialization and use. Environ-
mental education is a continuous pedagogical process
which contributes to a critical reflection of humans’
relationship with the environment. It is a fundamen-
tal line of action of the ENCT. In order to gener-
ate a substantial change in society and stop the use
of toxic baits, we consider it a priority to continue
with training courses and participatory construction
workshops and to extend educational campaigns and
dissemination actions to the entire national territory.
In formal education, although it is a big challenge,
it is necessary to include this problem and its con-
sequences as a curricular proposal at all levels: ini-
tial, primary, secondary and higher education. In the
non-formal sphere, it is essential to carry out direct
awareness talks to farmers and stallholders on the
risks and damages, direct and indirect, of the use of
toxic baits. We recommend the creation of a register
of producers, importers, traders, users, storage and
final disposal of agrochemicals. Agree with produc-
ers and importers on annual quotas, supervising and
reducing the number of outlets. We suggest ensure
the professional service of agronomists to small pro-
ducers. Further, we recommend border controls are
intensified and seizures and fines for the illegal pos-
session of prohibited products are implemented. It
is urgent to have a National Law on traceability and
prescription of agrochemicals in Argentina that will
make it possible to control the sale and distribution of
these dangerous substances. It is worth noting that,
to date, of all the cases reported by ENCT very few
have led to the initiation of judicial or criminal pro-
ceedings or the arrest of individuals. It is urgent to
reform the penal code so that these crimes against the
environment and human health are duly punished.
CONCLUSION
The massive death of Andean condors in Ar-
gentina prompted the launching of a National Strat-
egy against the use of Toxic Baits (ENCT). This gen-
erated valuable scientific information, based on re-
ports of hundreds of poisoning cases, surveys and tox-
icological studies that allowed us to know and evalu-
ate the toxicants and types of baits used, the areas of
greatest conflict, and the species and number of indi-
viduals that are victims, directly or indirectly, of this
dangerous practice. The development of this work
and the knowledge generated allowed us to propose
actions to work on the causes that lead to the appli-
cation of this activity.
ENCT began to address the issue of the use of
toxic baits in Argentina in a strategic, participatory
and regional manner, through public policy manage-
ment and scientific research. Considering this prob-
lem at a global level, we believe that ENCT can be a
strategic model of action that can be adapted and ap-
plied in other countries of the region. Unfortunately,
the impacts of the use of toxic baits extend to other
Latin American countries. In February 2021, ENCT
assisted the technical team of the Centro de Custodia
de Fauna Silvestre del Bioparque Urbano in the city
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of Tarija, Bolivia that intervened in a case of mas-
sive condor deaths where at least 34 condors died as
a consequence of the use of toxic baits (Méndez et al.
2021b). Other cases have been reported in Chile,
Colombia, Ecuador and Peru (CAS 2021; Pavez y Es-
tades 2016; Trome 2017; El Universo 2019). There-
fore, we hope that ENCT will be used as a model for
strategic action in the fight against the use of toxic
baits in the region.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
To the authorities of the Ministerio de Ambiente
y Desarrollo Sostenible de la Nación, the Dirección
Nacional de Educación y Participación Ciudadana,
Dirección Nacional de Biodiversidad, Dirección Na-
cional de Sustancias y Productos Químicos and Eco-
parque Buenos Aires. To Mariela Chervín, for her
management and permanent support. To Melina Ál-
varez and team for their management at the scientific-
academic committee. To Gisela Chapero, Sol Azcona
and Sergio Goldfeder, for their collaboration in infor-
mation processing. To Tomás Plandolit and Carlos
Garay, for their participation in the population sur-
veys. To Daniela Reygert and Daniela Rodríguez for
their support. To Sher L. Hendrickson for review-
ing the English version of the manuscript. To Silvia
Peralta, for her contributions as curator of the educa-
tional exhibition of the PCCA. To all the participants
of the ENCT participatory construction workshops
and provincial territorial referents. Aerolíneas Ar-
gentinas, Beauval Nature Association, Bioparc Foun-
dation, Rolex, Grand Parc du Puy du Fou, AFdPZ
and members of the PCCA. This publication is sup-
ported in part by the Gordon and Betty Moore Foun-
dation through grant # GBMF9258.
DATA AVAILABILITY
The data used to support the findings of this study
are available from the corresponding author upon rea-
sonable request.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors have no conflicts of interest to de-
clare.
CONTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Conceived of the presented idea: NLJ.
Carried out the experiment: NLJ, REP, GA, and VA.
Carried out the data analysis: NLJ, REP.
Wrote the first draft of the manuscript: NLJ, REP.
Review and final write of the manuscript: VA, GA,
NLJ, and REP.
Supervision: NLJ, VA, GA and REP.
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Received: 20 October 2021
Accepted: 20 June 2022
Published: 11 July 2022
17
