Thesis

Children talking about computers : a discourse analysis perspective on gender issues in information technolgy

Authors:
To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the author.

Abstract

p>This thesis is concerned with gender differences in children's responses to information technology. From primary school onwards girls participate less in computing activities than boys. For researchers attempting to understand these differences one important focus of interest has been children's attitudes towards computers. The vast m^ority of studies in this area have employed a questionnaire based methodology. However, while this research suggests that there are small but persistent differences in girls and boys attitudes towards computers, it goes little way to helping us understand these differences. This thesis adopted a discursive perspective to address the question of gender differences in response to IT. The analysis is based on a small set of in depth interviews in which 13-14 year olds were asked about their experiences with computers in school and at home. The aim of the analysis was to make explicit some of the rhetorical strategies available to the children for reasoning about their experiences with information technology, and to explore how (if at all) gender mediated these understandings. Although the small number of participants in this study make it difficult to draw any firm conclusions, the analysis suggests that girls and boys responses to computers may be differentiated, not in terms of their overall attitude towards computers, but in terms of their enthusiasm for and participation in different computing activities. The analysis also explored how the children themselves negotiated the significance and meaning of gender in the context of computer technology. The participants drew on the idea that boys were far more Sequent and enthusiastic computer game players than girls, and characterised girls and boys preferences for computer games as polarised along traditional gender lines. However, there was strong resistance to the idea that there were any comparable differences in girls and boys interactions with computers in school. Overall, the analysis suggests that the significance of gender varies across different contexts of computer use. Future research should focus on the way gender mediates children's responses to different kinds of computing activities. Such research should differentiate, not only between the use of computers for games and the use of computers for school, but also between the different activities within these two contexts.</p

No full-text available

Request Full-text Paper PDF

To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the author.

ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any citations for this publication.
Article
Full-text available
The author offers an interpretation of why we resist associating the female sex with competence on the computer, and conversely, why the male sex is not regarded as a problem in terms of learning to deal competently with the computer. The aim of this paper is to investigate the relationship between gender and computers.
Article
Full-text available
In this paper we examine some ways in which members of subcultures make comparisons between and within subcultural groups and one function served by such comparisons. Specifically, we illustrate how social comparisons are used to achieve authenticity for the subcultural group and for the self as a member of that group. Our analysis focuses on the language through which such comparisons are made in people's talk. The data come from a series of informal interviews with punks, gothics and hippies. We analyse three types of comparison: the comparison of one or more groups with an external standard; the comparison of the subculture's past and present character; and the comparison between older and newer members. The implications of our findings for social identity theory are considered. Finally, we discuss an interesting and recurrent device for emphasising authenticity which lay in the construction of the descriptions of members' motivations for joining. This was related to the distinction between 'being' a member, or having the correct grounds for affiliation, and merely 'doing' or performing, aspects of the subculture.
Article
Full-text available
Common beliefs about computerphobia were examined using meta-analytic techniques. Stringent screening criteria yielded 81 research reports with sample populations including college students, adults and business professionals, elementary/secondary students and teachers as well as postsecondary teachers. Results indicated that none of the six common beliefs characterizing the computerphobic represent reality. The computerphobic is equally likely to be a younger or older male or female. Although computerphobics tend to experience other types of anxiety (mathematics, test, state, trait), these anxieties account for little variance. Results indicated further that computer experience alone is not sufficient to eliminate computerphobia, but that psychological techniques have treated successfully these negative psychological reactions.
Article
Full-text available
This article discusses the contribution of educational research to the emergence of a discourse on 'the problem of girls in science and technology' in the Netherlands. Research has not only produced findings and recommendations, but also conceptualisations of the problem. We argue that it has gradually become self-evident to think of the attitudes, achievement and choices of girls pertaining to science and technology as the problem of gender inequality in education. The results of many studies focusing on connections between teacher behaviour, the subject matter and school characteristics on the one hand and attitudes, achievement and choices of girls on the other, appear to be disappointing. We suggest that both the questions that were asked and the way they were investigated are responsible for the disappointing results. We propose that research on gender and education should not be limited to the investigation of statistical correlations between school characteristics and student outcomes, but should also study the mechanisms and processes that mediate between these factors. Insights from women's studies on the social construction of gender and on the development of gendered identities could be useful in addressing this issue.
Article
Full-text available
An analysis of methods used to examine gender differences in computer-related behaviour. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 8(3), 323-336.
Article
Full-text available
A theoretical analysis of methods used by researchers to examine gender differences in behaviour toward computers is offered. Most studies have used a quantitative, construct-testing, cross-sectional approach to assess general behaviours. It is argued that a qualitative, contextual, developmental approach, examining specific cognitive tasks is required if we want to shift from simply identifying gender differences to understanding them. This alternative approach offers the potential to develop a more cohesive and comprehensive understanding of human-computer interaction. Without this understanding we will continue to identify only pieces of a very complex puzzle.
Article
As schools increasingly integrate computers and technology into the curriculum, students are given the opportunity to develop skills deemed important in an Information Age society. Two groups identified as at risk regarding such opportunities are women and minorities. There appears to be a cultural stereotype that casts computers and technology as the domain of white males. Cues regarding this stereotype come from many sources, one of which may be the computer itself. This study investigated the representation of women and minorities in computer clip art available for the Macintosh computer and raised the following question: Are women and minorities represented in the clip art they use on the computer, or are they primarily exposed to images of white males? Two coders rated 1,474 images of Macintosh computer clip art from five different software publishers. A chi-square test revealed that women were underrepresented and men overrepresented (p < .001) when compared to the proportion of each group in the general population. A second chi-square test (p < .001) indicated that blacks and other minorities were underrepresented and whites overrepresented when compared to the proportion of these groups in the general population. Implications and suggestions for helping educators balance these cues are presented.
Article
This article discusses the findings of a research project concerning gender differences in computing in secondary schools, funded by the Equal Opportunities Commission. The research examined the organisation and teaching of computing in secondary schools, assessing the extent and nature of gender differences in participation in computing activities and examined teacher attitudes to girls and computing. The article outlines the main findings of the research and includes a series of recommendations for action by schools.
Book
Scientists give conflicting interpretations about scientific work - drawing alternatively from the contingent repertoire and the empiricist repertoire (both discourses). Contingent, which is more common in interviews and informal talk, calls attention to the personal battles, mistakes, disagreements of scientific work and is very flexible, vague, and imprecise. Empiricist, which is more common in articles and publications, emphasizes the impersonality of scientific work. Discourse is context-dependant.
Article
With the question “What is ‘discourse?’ “ as the starting point, this paper addresses ways of identifying particular discourses, and attends to how these discourses should be distinguished from texts. The emergence of discourse analysis within psychology, and the continuing influence of linguistic and post‐structuralist ideas on practitioners, provide the basis on which discourse‐analytic research can be developed fruitfully. This paper discusses the descriptive, analytic and educative functions of discourse analysis, and addresses the cultural and political questions which arise when discourse analysts reflect on their activity. Suggestions for an adequate definition of discourse are proposed and supported by seven criteria which should be adopted to identify discourses, and which attend to contradictions between and within them. Three additional criteria are then suggested to relate discourse analysis to wider political issues.
Article
This study examines gender differences in computer attitudes and experiences of adolescents. A sample of students from five Bay Area high schools was surveyed for their uses of computers before and during their high school years, in both formal instruction and informal settings. Adolescent males had greater total exposure to computers, based primarily on higher enrollments in computer programming classes and participation in voluntary experiences, such as home computer use. Fewer gender differences were found in enrollment in classes using computers for purposes other than programming. Overall, males held more positive attitudes of interest in and confidence with computers than did females. Controlling for amount of computer experience, however, males and females responded with similar levels of interest. Social influences, especially those among peer groups, are explored as important factors for differential rates of participation in computer activities.
Article
In this review, the research conducted during the 1980s on race/ethnicity, gender, and social class differences in K–12 educational uses of computers is summarized in terms of access, processes, and outcomes. First, gender, social class, and racial inequalities in access to computers are documented. Second, equity in four aspects of process is considered: type of use, teachers’ attitudes towards equity and equality, curriculum content, and interactions among students. Third, the literature on three outcome variables is considered: student attitudes, computer-related competence (literacy and programming), and traditional achievement measures using computer-aided instruction. Finally, implications from the decade of research are drawn. These include the conclusions that the use of computers maintained and exaggerated inequities, that equity issues are complex and future research should reflect this, that between-school differences in equality should be examined, and that much more research on poor and minority children is a priority.
Article
While there is much literature suggesting reasons why there are differences between males and females with respect to computer usage, achievement and attitudes, there is a paucity of empirical research. This study discusses a meta-analysis or synthesis of empirical studies and finds small differences in attitude and no differences in achievement between males and females. Two Australian studies are then reported. One study investigated differences between male and female students, parents, and teachers in 32 schools that have been involved with computers for some time. The second study was based on a representative sample of 1000 schools throughout Australia. The research supported the conclusion of small differences in attitudes, but pointed to a polarity in that as many males as females liked computers, but many more girls ardently disliked computers. There were no differences between primary male and female students in usage and attitudes towards computers, but as the students progressed through secondary schools, the differences became marked. Various reasons for these findings are evaluated and some strategies suggested to encourage girls to use computers.
Article
Studied sex-related differences in the context of using a microcomputer in a middle-school science class to research information to write themes for class. 11 female and 15 male 8th graders were studied while they used computers to access a commercial videotex system containing an electronic encyclopedia. A 2nd class of 17 female and 14 male 8th graders who used only print materials for research was compared with a 3rd class, 10 female and 13 male 8th graders, who did not do a research assignment. One month prior to the present study, the Ss completed an attitudinal questionnaire, including items related to computers and gender roles. The results show no unpredicted differences by treatment group, but indicate significant sex-related differences in theme writing and attitude toward computers and gender roles. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Abstract The attitudes of 328 British Secondary School children towards computers were examined in a cross-sectional survey. Measures of both general attitudes towards computers and affective reactions towards working with computers were examined in relation to the sex of the subject, courses studied (computer related/noncomputer related) and availability of a home computer. A differential pattern of results was observed. With respect to general attitudes towards computers, main effects were found for all three independent variables indicating that more favourable attitudes increased as a function of being male, doing computer courses and having a home computer. In contrast to this, affective reactions to working with computers was primarily related to doing computer courses, such that those doing computer courses reported more positive and less negative reactions. The practical and theoretical implications of these results are discussed.
Article
This study explored the pictoral representation of men, women, boys, and girls in popular computer magazines through content analysis. Issues of three mass market computer magazines (total pages =2,637) were analyzed to determine numbers of men, women, boys, and girls illustrated; roles in which they were portrayed; and whether they were shown using the computer actively, standing by while others used the computer, or rejecting the computer. Many stereotypic portrayals were found: Men appeared in illustrations almost twice as often as women; women were overrepresented as clerical workers and sex objects, while men were overrepresented as managers, experts, and repair technicians. Women were shown significantly more often in a passive role vis--vis computers. In mixed-sex illustrations, men were most often shown in the position of authority. Only women were shown rejecting the computer or portrayed as sex objects. Also included are observations regarding the effects of stereotypic portrayals on women/girls and suggestions for further research.
Article
Informal reports suggest that computer literacy (computer awareness and programming skills) is sought more often by boys than girls. In order to gather more systematic data on this possibility, questionnaires were sent in the summer of 1982 to directors of summer camps and classes that offered training in programming for microcomputers. Twenty-three directors of summer programs, serving a total of 5,533 students, provided data on enrollment, type of sponsorship of programs (private, public schools, universities), level of difficulty of programming classes, cost, and residential versus day use. Three times as many boys as girls were enrolled in the total sample. The ratio of males to females increased with grade, cost of program, and level of difficulty of course offerings. Possible explanations for differences in enrollment are discussed.
Article
This study examined gender differences in perception of computer self-efficacy and equality in computer competence, and the factors that might influence these perceptions among 15-yr-old Japanese students. The study replicated the “we can, I can't” phenomenon, a tendency for females to be unsure of their own individual ability to use computers, but to feel that women as a group are as able as men in this domain. Results from a series of regression analyses indicated that computer usefulness and occupational aspirations jointly accounted for significant variance in explaining self-efficacy and that computer usefulness, but not occupational aspirations, accounted for significant variance in the “we can, I can't” expectations. Results are discussed as they relate to previous research, Japanese culture and policy implications and needed areas for future research.
Article
An attitude to computers scale for primary age children was piloted and revised following item analysis. The final questionnaire, which yielded scores on the full scale and three sub-scales (fun, ease of use, usefulness), was completed by 721 children in the P3, P5 and P7 classes of 10 randomly selected local schools. A scale was also administered to the teachers of these classes. Except on the ease of use sub-scale, boys had more favourable attitudes than girls, the difference being unaffected by primary level. There was no overall age effect, except on the fun sub-scale on which scores decreased over primary levels, but there was an interaction between primary level and school. Pupil-teacher attitudes were positively correlated, except at the P3 level, where they were unrelated. Attitudes of neither pupils nor teachers were related to school ethos ratings, but both correlated negatively with a deprivation index (percent of children receiving free school meals).
Article
Reviews of research on gender differences in computer attitudes have concluded that the results of studies are contradictory or that any differences that exist are very small. This study tested the hypothesis that the size of gender differences found depends on the facet of computer-related attitudes assessed. A survey of college students' computer-related attitudes and behaviors resulted in four key findings. First, attitudes toward computers as assessed in this study can be described in terms of one affective factor — anxiety — and two cognitive factors — positive and negative beliefs concerning the social impact of computers. Second, there is a moderate gender difference for anxiety, a small gender difference for negative beliefs, and no gender difference for positive beliefs. Third, small to moderate gender differences exist on measures of computer-related behavior. Finally, although prior experience with computers does not mediate gender differences in anxiety, anxiety does appear to mediate gender differences in current computer-related behavior. Implications of these findings for reducing gender differences in computer-related behaviors are discussed.
Article
A meta-analysis of studies of gender differences in computer-related attitudes and behavior using US and Canadian participants found that men and boys exhibited greater sex-role stereotyping of computers, higher computer self-efficacy, and more positive affect about computers than did women and girls. These effect sizes varied as a function of study population — adult, college, high school, and grammar school — with the largest differences generally found for high school students. Gender differences in beliefs about computers approached zero and did not vary by study population. Gender differences in computer-related behaviors were small and did not differ as a function of study population. Implications of these findings are discussed.
Conference Paper
In common with similar departments in many other UK universities, the School of Computer Studies at Leeds University has become increasingly concerned over the past few years by the declining proportion of women amongst our students. In 1979, 20% of the students entering Computer Science and related single-subject degree schemes at Leeds were women, but since then the proportion has tended to decrease, reaching just 9% in 1988.
Conference Paper
Government initiatives in the late 1980’s to increase the number of places for computer science students in UK universities at this time of economic stringency is continuing evidence of the current and predicted shortage of computer scientists in industry and commerce. The demand for computer science graduates is still such that many of them are in a position to pick and choose between jobs offers from the most prestigious software houses and industry, despite increasing economic stringency. There has been much press coverage of Government reports stressing the increasing need for such graduates so that students applying for computer science degree courses are still assured of excellent employment prospects when they graduate. The Butcher Report [Butcher 85] highlighted the IT skills shortages and stresses the fact that IT companies cannot afford to ignore the intellectual resources offered by women at a time of growing skill shortages and declining school and university populations: this is still relevant.
Article
Computers are becoming ubiquitous in our society and they offer superb opportunities for people in jobs and everyday life. But there is a noticeable sex difference in use of computers among children. This article asks why computers are more attractive to boys than to girls and offers a cultural framework for explaining the apparent sex differences. Although the data are fragmentary, the world of computing seems to be more consistent with male adolescent culture than with feminine values and goals. Furthermore, both arcade and educational software is designed with boys in mind. These observations lead us to speculate that computing is neither inherently difficult nor uninteresting to girls, but rather that computer games and other software might have to be designed differently for girls. Programs to help teachers instill computer efficacy in all children also need to be developed.
Social Class Identity: A Discourse Analysis Approach. Unpublished undergraduate MA dissertation
  • J Artis
Artis, J. (1994). Social Class Identity: A Discourse Analysis Approach. Unpublished undergraduate MA dissertation, University of Edinburgh.
How to do things with words
  • J Austin
Austin, J. (1962). How to do things with words. London: Oxford University Press. Bar-Hillel, Y. (1954). Indexical Expressions. Mind. 63. 359-79.
Studies in Ethnomethodologv
  • H Garfmkel
Garfmkel, H. (1967). Studies in Ethnomethodologv. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
Discourse analysis: Methodological aspects
  • R Gill
Gill, R. (1996). Discourse analysis: Methodological aspects. In J. E. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of Qualitative Research Methods for Psychology and the Social Sciences. Leicester: British Psychological Society.
Asylums. Harmondsworth: Penguin
  • E Goffinan
Goffinan, E. (1961). Asylums. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
Electronic Children: How children are responding to the information revolution
  • M Griffiths
Griffiths, M. (1996). Computer game playing in children and adolescents: A review of the literature. In T. Gill (Ed.), Electronic Children: How children are responding to the information revolution (pp. pp. 41-58). London: National Children's Bureau.
Children's ideas about computers
  • M Hughes
  • A Brackenridge
  • H Macleod
Hughes, M., Brackenridge, A., & Macleod, H. (1987). Children's ideas about computers. In J. Rutkowska & C. Crook (Eds.), Computers. Cosnition and Development (pp. 9-34). London: Wiley.
Gender and software interactions in children's computer-based problem solving
  • K Littleton
  • P Light
  • R Joiner
  • D Messer
  • P Barnes
Littleton, K., Light, P., Joiner, R., Messer, D., & Barnes, P. (1994). Gender and software interactions in children's computer-based problem solving (Technical Report 17): ESRC Centre for Research in Development, Instruction and Training, University of Nottingham.
Talking About Career and Gendner Identities: A discourse Analysis Perspective
  • H Marshall
  • M Wetherell
Marshall, H., & Wetherell, M. (1989). Talking About Career and Gendner Identities: A discourse Analysis Perspective. In S. Skevington & D. Baker (Eds.), The Social Identity of Women. London: Sage.
Discourse in Social Psychology
  • I Parker
  • J Potter
  • M Wetherell
  • D Abrams
  • M Hogg
Parker, I., Potter, J., Wetherell, M., Abrams, D., & Hogg, M. (1990). Discourse in Social Psychology. Philisophical Psychology. 3(21 187-225.
Should Mary have a little computer
  • A Straker
Straker, A. (1986). Should Mary have a little computer? In L. Burton (Ed.), Girls into maths can go (pp. 149-152). London: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Electronic Children: How children are responding to the information revolution
  • E Stutz
Stutz, E. (1996). Is electronic entertainment hindering children's play and social development? In T. Gill (Ed.), Electronic Children: How children are responding to the information revolution (pp. pp. 59-70). London: National Children's Bureau.
The Second Self: Computers and the Human Spirit
  • S Tiirkle
Tiirkle, S. (1984). The Second Self: Computers and the Human Spirit. London: Granada.
Autobiography and change: rhetoric and authenticity of 'Gothic' style
  • S Widdicombe
Widdicombe, S. (1993). Autobiography and change: rhetoric and authenticity of 'Gothic' style. In E. Burman & I. Parker (Eds.), Discourse Analytic Research: Repertoires and Readings of Texts in Action. London: Routledge.
On the Analysis of Interaction: An introduction to
  • R Woofgtt
WoofGtt, R. (1990). On the Analysis of Interaction: An introduction to