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31
enero-junio ■ ISSN: 1909-3063 ▪ ISSN-e: 1909 -7743 ■ pp. 31–46
Revista de Relaciones
Internacionales,
Estrategia y Seguridad
2022
Vol. 17(1)
Editoria l
Neogranadina
* Research paper.
a Candidato a Doctor en Gestión Tecnológica e Innovación de la Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro,
Magíster en Administración de Negocios de la Universidad Sergio Arboleda con Énfasis en Negocios In-
ternacionales de la Prime Business School, Administrador Aeronáutico de la Escuela Militar de Aviación.
Fuerza Aérea Colombiana, Colombia y Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, México.
Correo electrónic: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0788-9151
b Doctorado en Gestión Tecnológica e Innovación (UAQ-PNPC), Maestría en Ciencias con Especialidad en
Sistemas de Información (ITESM_CM), Ingeniero Industrial y de Sistemas (IT ESM - CQ), Diplomado en Robótica
Industrial (CRS-Robotics, Canada), Diplomado en Sistemas Computacionales Administrativos (ITESM -CQ), Di-
plomado en Asesoría y Orientación Educativa (ITESM-CQ), Diplomado en Windows Presentation Fundation
(UAQ). Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Santiago de Querétaro, México D.C.
: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1590-5000
The Triple Helix and its Intervention in the
Research and Development of Products
for International Security and Defense*
Guillermo Alfonso Giraldo Martineza ■ Luis Rodrigo Valencia Pérezb
Abstract: This article aims to analyze the concepts and relationships of the Triple Helix Model (THM)
-
bution of THM to the development of knowledge-based economies. The method used was a qualita-
UNESCO),
NATO) and the European Union (EU). The results showed that
the generation of capacities in Science, Technology, and Innovation lead to assets in security and
defense and the systemic development of products and innovative initiatives, creating a virtuous
of knowledge. Finally, as a conclusion it was found that investment in research and development in
defense and securit y, articulated with the actors of the Triple Helix, is a driver of technological change
that strengthen the concept of knowledge-based economies in the countries that achieve this articu-
lation, as evidenced in the cases analyzed.
Keywords: Defense; economic and social development; innovation; security technology; triple helix
Recibido: Aceptado: 21/01/2021 Disponible en línea: 30/06/2022
Cómo citar: Giraldo Martinez, G. A., & Valencia Pérez, L. R. (2022). The Triple Helix and its
Intervention in the Research and Development of Products for International Security and
Defense. Revista De Relaciones Internacionales, Estrategia Y Seguridad, 17(1), 31-46. https://doi.
org/10.18359/ries.5600
DOI: https://doi.org/10.18359/ries.5600
32
La Triple Hélice y su intervención en la investigación y el
desarrollo de productos para la seguridad y la defensa
internacionales
Resumen: este artículo tiene como objetivo analizar tanto los conceptos y relaciones del Modelo de
la Triple Hélice (MTH-
nacionales como la contribución del MTH al desarrollo de economías basadas en el conocimiento. El
Unidas para la Educación, la Ciencia y la Cultura (UNESCO), la Organización del Tratado del Atlántico
Norte (OTAN) y la Unión Europea (UE). Los resultados mostraron que la generación de capacidades en
Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación produce activos en seguridad y defensa y conduce al desarrollo sis-
témico de productos e iniciativas innovadoras. Este círculo virtuoso les permite a universidades, es-
tados y empresas evolucionar fundamentando su crecimiento en el desarrollo del conocimiento. En
conclusión, se encontró que la inversión en investigación y desarrollo para la defensa y la seguridad,
en articulación con los actores de la Triple Hélice, es un motor de cambio tecnológico que fortalece
el concepto de economías basadas en el conocimiento, como se evidencia en los casos analizados.
Palabras clave: defensa; desarrollo económico y social; innovación; tecnología en seguridad; triple
hélice
A Tríplice Hélice e sua intervenção na pesquisa e desenvolvimento
de produtos para segurança e defesa internacional
resumo: Este artigo tem como objetivo analisar os conceitos e relações do Modelo de Hélice Tríplice
(THM-
buição do THM para o desenvolvimento das economias baseadas no conhecimento. O método utili-
e a Cultura (UNESCO), a Organização do Tratado do Atlântico Norte (OTAN) e a União Europeia (EU). Os
criando um círculo virtuoso que permite que universidades, estados e empresas, evoluir baseando
o investimento em pesquisa e desenvolvimento em defesa e segurança, articulado com os atores da
Tríplice Hélice, é um propulsor de mudanças tecnológicas que fortalecem o conceito de economias
baseadas no conhecimento nos países que realizam essa articulação, conforme evidenciado nos
casos analisados.
Palavras-chave: defesa; desenvolvimento econômico e social; inovação; tecnologia de segurança;
hélice tripla
33
The Triple Helix and its Intervention in the Research and Development of Products
for International Security and Defense
Revista de Relaciones Internacionales, Estrategia y Seguridad ■ Vol. 17(1)
Introduction
Knowledge, productivity, education, and technol-
ogy were not determining factors in economic
growth at the beginning of the 20th century; how-
ever, with the democratization of information,
capital and work became a factor of support for the
development of economies and knowledge became
the central axis for the generation of wealth. It is
for this reason that the Organization for Econom-
ic Cooperation and Development () in 1996
coined the term knowledge economies as those
that show dynamism and growth originated by
the production and intensive use of information,
technology, and knowledge, and, where knowl-
edge is the greatest driver of growth, wealth and
employment.
Under this concept, the knowledge generation
capacity of a state will frame the well-being, social
and economic development of its citizens, becom-
ing an asset that requires the development of tools
for the systemic growth of knowledge, resorting to
the development of the science, technology and in-
novation as productive factors of society.
Models such as the Triple Helix proposed by
Etzkowitz and Leydesdor, designed to explain the
development structure of knowledge-based econo-
mies, become important to guide the productive
processes of a nation (Leydesdor, 2012). For this
reason, this article relates how the defense sector
works in the dynamics of knowledge economies,
how these are integrated into the three axes of
the Triple Helix (Etzkowitz & Leydesdor, 1995),
where spaces of knowledge, innovation and con-
sensus are generated, how the components
are reected in the sector (Ranga & Etzkowitz,
2013), and how investment in science, technology
and innovation in the defense sector stimulates the
economy and strengthens other economic sectors
by analyzing the cases of successful projects in de-
fense research and development in which actors of
the Triple Helix take part.
is article aims to solve the following research
question: how does R&D in security and defense
at the international level drive science, technology,
and innovation activities and the development of
knowledge-based economies with the interaction
of the triple helix? e foregoing, supported by
thematic axes based on industry, technology, poli-
tics, and strategy.
To do this, this research established the objec-
tive of analyzing the concepts and relationships
of the actors in the Triple Helix Model ()
proposed by Etzkowitz & Leydesdor and their
intervention in the research and development of
products for international security and defense
and the strengthening of knowledge-based econo-
mies. is was supported by studying the cases of
reference countries for their scientic and indus-
trial development in the security and defense sec-
tor of the continents of Africa, America, Asia, and
Europe.
Methodology
e research under the qualitative approach takes
as a sample related homogeneous cases to under-
stand the phenomenon related to the concept of
the Triple Helix, extracted from reliable scientic
sources, ocial websites of countries and organi-
zations such as the United Nations Organization
Education, Science and Culture (), the
North Atlantic Treaty Organization () and
the European Union (), and reviews reports and
ocial reports to analyze the previously raised
problem of understanding how the triple helix is
involved in the research and development of prod-
ucts for international security and defense and al-
lows the development of economies and societies
of knowledge delimited in the study of cases pre-
sented in South Africa, Sweden, China, the United
States, and the European Union.
In the investigation process, books, book chap-
ters, and cases with validated information on the
operation of national security and defense were
reviewed, analyzed, and synthesized. e quali-
tative approach was used for the development of
this article through the collection of consolidated
information in documents, records and bibliog-
raphy of the concepts generated in the triple he-
lix by the representative exponents of this area of
knowledge, taking as reference the number of cita-
tions in Microso Academic, ltering by the terms
“triple helix” and taking the two authors who have
34 ■ G. A. Giraldo Martinez ■ L. R. Valencia Pérez
Revista de Relaciones Internacionales, Estrategia y Seguridad ■ Vol. 17(1)
published the most publications in scientic jour-
nals on this topic “Henry Etzkowitz” and “Loet
Leydesdor”. Subsequently, a search was carried
out on this same topic in the Redalyc database to
consult Latin American publications, generating
and taking a sample of twenty-four (24) docu-
ments for the development of the article.
Likewise, a search for cases was carried out in
the Science Direct database and in dierent sourc-
es of information from defense entities and ocial
documents in reference countries such as South
Africa, Sweden, China, the United States, and the
European Union on issues of R&D&I of Defense.
For the elaboration of the article, two thematic
axes were used under which the documents that
were taken for its construction were analyzed:
1. e thematic axis based on the : to deter-
mine the entire conceptual framework of the
model, its dynamics, components, spaces for
interaction and relationships.
2. e axis of analysis of ocial documents of the
governments of South Africa, Sweden, China,
the United States, the European Union, and
case studies of the companies of the military
industry, to reect on the development of the
scheme within the defense sector as it
locks itself low.
e approach design used was phenomenologi-
cal under the empirical approach, with a descrip-
tive scope, seeking to analyze the common and
dierent experiences related to presented in
the countries and explore, describe, and under-
stand the dierent perspectives and shared experi-
ences related to this concept. (Hernández Sampieri
et al., 2014).
Theoretical framework
The Triple Helix Model (THM)
Multinational institutions, such as the European
Union (), the World Bank () and the United
Nations (), are moving to adopt knowledge-
based economic development concepts that lead
the productive and regulatory spheres of society
to new congurations (Etzkowitz & Leydesdor,
1995). e transition from a political economy to a
knowledge-based economy became an important
engine of competition at the macro level aer the
fall of the Berlin Wall and the demise of the So-
viet Union (Leydesdor, 2012). Knowledge-based
economies function under the dynamics of eco-
nomic exchange in markets, geographic variations
and the organization of knowledge (see Figure 1
Knowledge
infrastructure
Knowledge-based
Economy
Innovation
Political Economy
Knowledge
Geography
Economy
Figure 1. Economic relations based on knowledge
Source: Leydesdor & Meyer, 2003
35
The Triple Helix and its Intervention in the Research and Development of Products
for International Security and Defense
Revista de Relaciones Internacionales, Estrategia y Seguridad ■ Vol. 17(1)
Knowledge-based economies relations). ese
three axes are integrated through the following
factors (Leydesdor & Meyer, 2003):
1. Knowledge - economy, integrated by
innovation
2. Knowledge - geography, integrated by
infrastructure
3. Economy - geography, made up of economic
policies
e foregoing strengthens the concepts and
novel work models that characterize this era: “the
knowledge society” and “global economy” and,
with them, special mention is made of knowledge
in its various forms (creation, application or dis-
semination), as a resource and key product of so-
cioeconomic management (Mora, 2014). It is here
where the appears as a tool where the relation-
ship between universities, companies and the state
is considered in order to promote the development
of the economy and society, and from which con-
tributions are expected from three perspectives:
1. From the economic evolution, focus on the
functions of the knowledge infrastructure in
advanced systems (industrial) and consequent-
ly with the R&D policies.
2. Starting from the sociology of science, technol-
ogy and higher education, reform the knowl-
edge infrastructure such as technological
sciences and the R&D systems of universities
so that they lead to the intellectual reorganiza-
tion of disciplines.
3. Starting from political analysis with an evalu-
ative perspective, to make eorts to achieve
changes in the relevant interfaces between
science-technology-industry (Etzkowitz &
Leydesdor, 1995).
Although some authors speak of a tetra helix
including actors such as society, in this article it is
handled in an intrinsic way, because with the proj-
ects resulting from the interaction between the ac-
tors of the triple helix, we seek to obtain a benet
for society.
In the last two decades, has been viewed
from two perspectives (Ranga & Etzkowitz, 2013)
as related below:
1. Institutional perspective: where various aspects
such as shareholders, socioeconomic develop-
ment, vehicles, barriers, benets and impact
of technology transfer in university, entrepre-
neurship are studied; regional contribution for
development, government policies, and aid
for industry and university connections (Ranga
& Etzkowitz, 2013). is perspective raises the
following types of congurations of the triple
helix
◾Static: the government plays a leading role, di-
recting the academy, the industry and limits its
capacities for initiative and development of the
transformation of innovation.
◾Laissez-faire: limited intervention of the state
in the economy; industry as a guiding force
and the other two as support structures with
limited roles in innovation: the university as a
provider of qualied human capital and gov-
ernment as a regulator of social and economic
issues.
◾Balanced: the three actors work in partnership.
Each of the actors can take joint initiatives, this
conguration oers greater insight into inno-
vation because intersection spaces are generat-
ed where creativity emerges in synergy, where
each of the actors can take the role of another
in new organizational formats. is creates
new technologies, new companies, and new
types of relationships.
2. Evolutionary perspective: the three actors are
subgroups that co-evolve and interact through
networks and organizations that overlap, such
as, for example, markets and technological in-
novation. is concept is inspired by the theory
of social systems of communication and the
mathematical theory of communications.
ese interactions are part of two processes of
communication and dierentiation: one function-
al between science and the market and the other
institutional between public and private control
36 ■ G. A. Giraldo Martinez ■ L. R. Valencia Pérez
Revista de Relaciones Internacionales, Estrategia y Seguridad ■ Vol. 17(1)
at the level of universities, industries, and gov-
ernment. e interaction between the triple helix
actors can be measured in terms of entropic prob-
abilities (Ranga & Etzkowitz, 2013).
Results
e triple helix creates new social and institutional
formats for the production, transfer and applica-
tion of knowledge that contribute to economic de-
velopment through knowledge societies. ese new
formats encompass creative destruction (which is
natural) and the development of creativity, which
arise within each of the three actors (Ranga &
Etzkowitz, 2013). In this way, this virtuous circle
allows humanity to access great technological
changes, because institutions and their relation-
ships provide a solid knowledge infrastructure
that is strengthened to take on increasingly com-
plex challenges (Leydesdor & Meyer, 2003).
One of these great technological changes
was produced by the Advanced Research Proj-
ects Agency () through the United States
Department of Defense. e was made up
of about 200 high-level scientists and had a large
budget and was focused on creating direct com-
munications between computers to connect the
dierent research bases through the ‘’
Network (see Figure 2. Network 1971)
connecting universities, private research centers
and state entities.
Subsequently, due to the success of the network,
computers began to be developed exponentially
and this evolved into the World Wide Web ()
network today known worldwide as the Internet.
While a political economy provides an institution-
al infrastructure, a knowledge-based economy de-
velops in terms of communication ows through
networks (Leydesdor & Meyer, 2003) and it is
here where the acts within the development
dynamic of its actors in the improvement of na-
tional innovation systems (Leydesdor, 2012),
forming transcendental knowledge networks that
facilitate the exchange, empowerment, generation,
sharing and creation of new knowledge.
Figure 2. ARPANET Network (1971)
Source: Univer sidad ICES I, 2019.
37
The Triple Helix and its Intervention in the Research and Development of Products
for International Security and Defense
Revista de Relaciones Internacionales, Estrategia y Seguridad ■ Vol. 17(1)
e knowledge base is fed back from the eco-
nomic exchange and the organization of knowl-
edge in innovation. Innovation arises from the
interaction and relationship between the three
helices: the potential for innovative knowledge,
economic resources in conjunction with market
possibilities and the norms and incentives of pub-
lic innovation policies, which generates economic
wealth, production based on new knowledge and
the geographic variety to place contributions ana-
lytically without requiring the basic presumption
of a priori integration (Leydesdor & Meyer, 2003).
Understanding these relationships is important
as it shows how the political economy gradually
transformed to adopt knowledge as its main base
as a consequence of the fact that the battle between
dierent ways of conguring political economies
had become obsolete (Leydesdor, 2012). e most
explicit reection of this transition can be seen
in the opening of China, where the change from
a communist economy to a capitalist one based
on knowledge, mainly committed to strength-
ening its industry, to positioning its universities
among the best in the world (understanding that
its growth was in the capacity to produce knowl-
edge), the generation of state policies of opening to
international trade and expansion of the Chinese
economy. At the same time, terms such as the “new
silk road” were grouped together, in which new ap-
proaches to development, cooperation and invest-
ments were proposed to geo-strategically position
it as an important international actor, as well as an
economic superpower of the 21st century (United
States Department of Defense, 2020; Zheng-hong,
2007).
is change proposed by Deng Xiaoping, who
considered that the only way for China to access
the status of a great power was through a system-
atic policy of modernization with emphasis on
economic development and maintenance, as has
been indicated, the control structure. All this was
encompassed under the motto of the four mod-
ernizations “agricultural, industrial, scientic and
technological of national defense” (Cesarín etal.,
2005; Cheung, 2016)
is caused China to focus on carrying out
structural reforms accompanied by an increase
in investment, to face environmental threats, im-
prove business productivity and create a higher
quality scientic workforce. Likewise, it took on
the role of imitation through the transfer of foreign
technology for dual use (civil and military) that
would improve the capabilities of their defense in-
dustry in technological absorption, generating sig-
nicant productive impact under an endogenous
innovation strategy that consisted of three steps:
introduction, assimilation, and re-innovation.
is made it possible to generate a guided model
of technological development based on advanced
imitation, integrating innovations and generating
original innovations from their country (Cheung,
2016).
China is the Asian leader in defense R & D,
which is linked to its economic development of
the last two decades, its geostrategic positioning
in the region and the increase in its investment in
defense spending in recent years above , with
an investment for the year 2019 of 177.418 bil-
lion dollars. Among its strategic objectives, China
increasingly seeks to take advantage of its grow-
ing economic, diplomatic, and military inuence
to advance its national objectives and expand its
international inuence. Xi Jinping has predicted
that China will become a world leader in science
and technology (S&T) by 2050, projecting that by
2022 China’s budget in R & D will exceed that of
the U.S. (Bitzinger, 2011; Budden & Murray, 2019).
is leads to the fact that functional and in-
stitutional roles can be exchanged on the basis of
knowledge based expectations, as in the case
of the “entrepreneurial university” (Leydesdor &
Meyer, 2003), with the transformation of the role
of the state in academia, the role of corporations
in innovation and of the university in economics
(Etzkowitz, 1983 and 1995). e university and the
company are taking on tasks that were once large-
ly each other’s province. e boundaries between
public and private, science and technology, univer-
sity and industry are constantly changing. As the
university crosses traditional boundaries in devel-
oping new links with industry, it develops formats
to make research, teaching, and economic devel-
opment compatible (Etzkowitz & Leydesdor,
1998).
38 ■ G. A. Giraldo Martinez ■ L. R. Valencia Pérez
Revista de Relaciones Internacionales, Estrategia y Seguridad ■ Vol. 17(1)
is forces the actors of the triple helix to
modify their actions; entrepreneurs must regain
condence in academia, universities must train
through their graduate programs managers in
commercialization of technologies that can create
the technology transfer oces within universities
and companies. Understanding that the third mis-
sion of the university (apart from teaching and re-
search) is to expand its role in the development of
the economy, it must create bridges to reduce the
technological gaps that are emerging. Although
companies have increased their interest in col-
laboration with other universities, companies and
government laboratories to develop technological
knowledge in dierent areas of knowledge, a sys-
tematic ow of knowledge must be strengthened
and guaranteed for the growth of the economy, in
which the actors understand the role and perspec-
tive of each other, to improve the decision-making
processes.
In Latin America, Brazil, due to its extensive
territory, has been forced to use military innova-
tion to contribute to local and regional develop-
ment through technological innovations and the
production of material, promoting the national de-
fense industry. From the point of view of national
defense, scientic and technological development
is essential to achieve greater strategic autonomy
and a better operational capacity of the Armed
Forces, especially in the three strategic sectors of
its national defense (cyber defense, nuclear and
aerospace) (Rodríguez et al., 2018).
e military has been in charge of developing
the sectors of military inuence with an economic
vision at the country level with successful cases
such as that of San Jose dos Campos (Rodríguez
et al., 2018). e industrialization of Brazilian
defense is an interesting case study of the ow of
technologies through the Brazilian defense sec-
tor, which has gone through three dierent stages.
e rst, from 1970 to the early 1990s, where the
defense sector in aerospace terms was dominated
by (aviation) and (missiles) and
showed solid development despite the economic
and political instability of the country, responding
to local needs; the second stage, one of lethargy
between 1990 and 2009 where production was
seriously attenuated by the decrease in military
spending; and the third stage beginning in 2009,
with the National Defense Strategy, to generated
new synergy in the sector where investments in de-
fense came to be considered essential to promote
industrial policy, generating much greater open-
ness to international cooperation, renewing the
ghter aircra eet and with an inclusive process
with rotation of leadership between the Brazilian
Air Force and the Brazilian industry (Amarante &
Franko, 2017).
e state must assume the leadership of the
organization of processes based on national and
regional policies, lighten paperwork and bureau-
cracy to streamline project management; must
support the business sector in the tax benets that
lead to increased competitiveness and productivity
of the country under the scheme of patent results
(Salazar & Valderrama, 2013). ese changes that
are being generated have led to conicts of interest
within the triad on issues such as intellectual prop-
erty and condentiality of information that some-
times hinder the uidity of the system. When the
triple helix system becomes complex, development
occurs through networks, with actors of the social
system playing specic roles in the established re-
lationships and in which changes and incentives
are caused, capable of varying the social system
itself (Mora, 2014).
An important example of this activity is the
case of Israel, in which the Infrastructure Units
for research and technology of the Israeli Minis-
try of Defense are in charge of guaranteeing and
maintaining collaboration between all &
units (Directorate of Defense Research and Devel-
opment) and stimulating their relationship with
other Israeli research organizations to maintain
contact with the highest levels of the international
research and development community, under a
long-term vision of obtaining operational capabili-
ties (IMoD, 2021).
e Ministry of Defense of Israel inuences
the defense requirements advanced by the Depart-
ment of Production and Acquisitions to stimu-
late the development of certain economic regions
of the country; an example of this type of sup-
port is the acquisition of the F-35 aircra from the
39
The Triple Helix and its Intervention in the Research and Development of Products
for International Security and Defense
Revista de Relaciones Internacionales, Estrategia y Seguridad ■ Vol. 17(1)
United States with oset credits involving market
and technology transfer to Israeli companies and
an order from Lockheed Martin of one billion dol-
lars in components for the F-35 from Israeli com-
panies (Donatas, 2019)
Another relevant aspect is that most of Israel’s
defense companies employ engineers and tech-
nicians who have served in the Israel Defense
Forces and understand the characteristics of the
systems and weapons they are developing. Like-
wise, the development of weapons is developed in
cooperation with the Israel Defense Forces; this
allows a signicant improvement in the competi-
tiveness of the industry. Israel understands that
its success as a country lies in having a healthy
defense industry, in technological superiority,
under a strategy of interaction with other defense
industries worldwide, with strong universities,
with continuously growing technology-based
entrepreneurship communities, with easy access
to public and private risk capital, with developed
and robust technology incubator programs, high-
tech clusters, and laws that favor foreign invest-
ment with tax benets (Broude et al., 2013).
e can be generated more easily in those
social systems whose actors have demonstrated lo-
cal and international competitiveness thanks to
local government policies, the local role of univer-
sities within the regional innovation system and
the degree of intervention of the private actors
(Mora, 2014). Likewise, the recognition of ideas by
the triad as economic goods necessary to gener-
ate economic growth and development, generates
a dynamic cycle: the more knowledge, the more
capital and vice versa (Dzisah, 2010).
erefore, the relationship between the univer-
sity, company and state seek to create conditions
for future innovations by taking advantage of ex-
isting resources to create niches for technological
innovation and ensure a place within the division
of labor in the global economy. (Etzkowitz & Ley-
desdor, 1998). All this, through the generation
of innovative technology management projects,
which are closer to the reality of companies to de-
velop joint ‘win-win’ benets to the triple helix ac-
tors, which are maximized when driven from the
highest levels of a government, company managers
and researchers (Aguilar et al., 2013). e simpli-
ed triple helix model can be an eective frame-
work for less advanced economies to promote
innovation and counteract the eects of the eco-
nomic crisis (Rodrigues & Melo, 2012), if the joint
evolution of scientic research and product devel-
opment research is properly stimulated by cross-
fertilization of a variety of academic disciplines
and industries and improved technology transfer
practices supported by a public policy eort.
e triple helix regime emerges as well as “a
recursive overlap of interactions and negotiations
between the three institutional spheres” (Etzkow-
itz & Leydesdor, 1999) which generate signicant
economic changes. is gives rise to the cre-
ation of new formats of organization or reinven-
tion, such as incubators, science parks or venture
capital companies, which support the translation
of research into products, new companies, and
the development of new productive capacities
(Etzkowitz, 2008).
It is here where the defense sector plays a rel-
evant role, such as the case of the United States,
which in 2017 allocated around 116 billion in
federal spending for research and development,
with a little more than 40%, 51 billion , for
defense purposes (Congressional Budget Oce,
2018). is not only pays for research and develop-
ment, but also plays a critical role in the growth
of new industries, such as satellite communica-
tions, jet planes, computing, and the internet; in
addition, it supports a large proportion of nations
that manufacture equipment and have oen led
the way in developing advanced manufacturing
technologies that have enabled these economies to
emerge from technical technological obsolescence
and bridge technology gaps (Gansler, 1988).
us, for the triple helix model to work, a
change of mentality is required in the possible
ways of working together, in the recognition of the
potentials of the other parties (sectors, organiza-
tions, institutions), in the credibility to sustain
programs and actions based on intervention, expe-
rience and the dynamics in which the triple helix
is interconnected by the generation of economic
wealth, production based on novel knowledge,
and the geographic variety to place contributions
40 ■ G. A. Giraldo Martinez ■ L. R. Valencia Pérez
Revista de Relaciones Internacionales, Estrategia y Seguridad ■ Vol. 17(1)
analytically, without demanding the basic pre-
sumption of a priori integration and with the un-
derstanding that economies are intertwined at the
market level and in multinational terms, corpora-
tions and the sciences are organized international-
ly and governance is no longer limited by national
borders (Leydesdor & Meyer, 2003).
Relationship and interaction of
the three helices
To better understand how the helices are related
and interact, it is important to breakdown each of
these components according to what is stipulated
by the and identify how they are presented in
the security and defense sector in dierent actors
at a global level.
e relationships between the triple helix ac-
tors are given by the following mechanisms (Ran-
ga & Etzkowitz, 2013):
1. Technology Transfer: is is the main activity
of innovation systems, since it allows universi-
ties to provide graduates with entrepreneurial
education and talent to contribute to economic
growth through the creation of companies
and jobs. e concept of university cities gains
importance for the cities of the world because
of the possibilities of accessing high-level em-
ployees, venture capital from investors and the
participation of entrepreneurs. Likewise, uni-
versities are extending their capacities from in-
dividual education to organizational education.
e government is a driver of demand, which
guide and motivate the execution of projects,
such as the case of the United States and its
‘’ strategies, which historically have sup-
ported the realization of technological-military
quantum leaps that close gaps and accelerate
the fulllment of strategies for the growth of
scientic and technological aspects that allow
them to maintain a predominant position re-
garding their geopolitical interests and to mod-
ernize, update and potentiate their knowledge
economy by strengthening companies and
universities.
is boosts the technological infrastructure
and it is for this reason that the United States
Department of Defense directly inuences the
economy through large investments in defense,
which for 2016 amounted to 611 billion ,
with more than 40% allocated to R&D, which
leads to almost a third of the scientists and en-
gineers in the United States working in activi-
ties related to Defense (Ministerio de Defensa
de Colombia, 2011). Not only does it pay for
nearly a third of the nation’s research, it plays
an important role in the growth of new in-
dustries, with defense-led technology transfer
plans to stimulate small business development.
deployed through all its research units.
2. Collaboration and conflict moderation: is
is the ability to transform tension and conicts
of interest into a convergence of interests, re-
lating common objectives and win-win situa-
tions, which allow both conict and tension to
imprint knowledge on societies, aligned with
the loads and workspaces and organizations.
Two dimensions of the conict can be
determined:
◾Conict tasks: understand the cognitive or
constructive functions of the conict and
generate dierences of opinions.
◾Conict relationships: these can be dysfunc-
tional aective or destructive of the conict,
this generates frustration and tension, with
negative repercussions.
To articulate the development of industry with
the state, reduce conicts and unite the Chi-
nese productive defense apparatus, the Min-
istry of Industry and Information Technology
of this country created the State Administra-
tion of Science, Technology, and Industry for
National Defense (), which works in
coordination with the Chinese People’s Army
to guide state entities and defense industrial ac-
tors (Department of Defense, 2018).
Likewise, the actors rely on the National Sci-
ence Foundation of China () and the
Chinese Academy of Science () for the de-
velopment of high technology for defense and
resolution of conicts of interest that could
arise between the triad, stimulating joint work
41
The Triple Helix and its Intervention in the Research and Development of Products
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Revista de Relaciones Internacionales, Estrategia y Seguridad ■ Vol. 17(1)
and eliminating tensions that may generate
negative eects in the pursuit of industrial ob-
jectives and geopolitical interests.
3. Collaborative leadership: aims to generate
the integration of dierent parties to create op-
portunities for knowledge exchange through
the development of projects, carry out prob-
lem-solving tasks and guarantee a high level of
satisfaction of the individual members of the
association. An interesting example is how
the university comes to play an important role
by integrating with the government and the pri-
vate sector through research centers such as the
Lincoln Laboratory, in charge of research-
ing and developing a wide range of advanced
technologies to satisfy critical security needs
of the . What sets it apart from many R&D
laboratories is its focus on creating operation-
al prototypes of the unique systems that they
design seeking the development of disruptive
technologies ( Lincoln Laboratory, 2019).
e internal organizational structure of the
Lincoln Laboratory encourages the exchange of
ideas among sta members and management.
is structure includes only three levels of pri-
mary administration: the director’s oce, di-
vision heads, and group leaders. e director’s
oce reports to the leadership. A joint ad-
visory committee comprised of representatives
from all the military services and an advisory
board comprised of leaders from government,
industry, and academia provide guidance on
the laboratory’s R&D portfolio ( Lincoln
Laboratory, 2019).
4. Substitution: is type of interaction arises
when there are weak actors or spheres that do
not fully fulll their functions, so one of the re-
maining actors assumes the spaces of the weak-
ness or when an actor, in addition to its control
and regulation functions, begins to generate
investment and provision of public capital,
or when the industry takes university roles;
for example, Pixar University, Intel Educator
Academy, Cisco Networking Academy, Apple
Universit y.
Substitution between spheres is only seen in
countries of the highest degree of scientic and
industrial evolution where companies and the
government can play interchangeable roles. An
interesting case is the one presented by the in-
vestment programs of the Advanced Research
Projects Agency (), which seeks to pro-
mote small businesses as investors by including
them in innovation and technology transfer
programs and supporting the transition and
commercialization phases of products, assum-
ing the role of angel investor to support the
growth of the defense industry in the country
(Department of Defense, 2019).
5. Networking: Formal and informal structures
at the national, regional and international lev-
els it is not unique to Triple Helix interactions;
research networks have been compared to Joint
Ventures. Networks reect the increasing non-
linearity and interactivity of innovation pro-
cesses. e need for a broad and multifaceted
relationship between organizations is needed
to carry out innovation and bring new prod-
ucts to market in the strict competitive climate
(Etzkowitz & Leydesdor, 1995).
e network created from the negotiation of
the 39 Gripen aircra of the Swedish com-
pany Svenska Aeroplan () to South Af-
rica led to, through the development of several
oset agreements, the outsourcing of the man-
ufacture of various components of this aircra
that modernized the South African defense
industry and opened the door to the interna-
tional network of distributors of aeronautical
products. A large part of the transfer consisted
of providing knowledge on the development of
subsystems and components for the industry
and passing on the commercial ‘know-how’
to enter international markets. is allowed
South African companies to enter and sell to
large companies such as ™, ™
and itself (Eliasson, 2010).
To seek faster organizational learning, an in-
ternational global outsourcing agreement
was made that led to an understanding of
the dynamics of foreign markets and the
42 ■ G. A. Giraldo Martinez ■ L. R. Valencia Pérez
Revista de Relaciones Internacionales, Estrategia y Seguridad ■ Vol. 17(1)
complications that arose, which forced the in-
dustry to carry out restructuring and major
business changes to evolve and opened doors
to enter other parallel markets (Eliasson, 2010).
Another important example is the European
Defense System that concentrated European
companies for the development of common
projects with long-term state budgets with
a complex strategy and network of civil and
military suppliers to preserve innovation and
competitiveness capabilities, improve exports
and horizontal cooperation (domestic or re-
gional or transatlantic), increase specialized
skills in the production of a wide variety of
diversied equipment that allow companies
from European countries to seek constant
cooperation opportunities to access comple-
mentary resources and shared technological
spillovers (Matelly & Lima, 2016).
Within the triple helix model, it is interesting
how the defense and security sector stimulates the
creation of a high-tech economy in its earliest stag-
es and the how concept of companies is addressed
through spin os, spin outs and start ups (Koster,
2004).
1. Start-ups are companies that are born with re-
sources from entrepreneurs, but do not require
specic experience. e United States Depart-
ment of Defense has venture capital programs
to invest in startups with programs such as
‘’ of the army that have been in operation
for more than 12 years, investing in small com-
panies for the development of advanced tech-
nologies, promoting the defense industry. For
this, they use venture capital companies such
as ‘Arsenal’, looking for entrepreneurs to scale
new technologies (VP, 2019).
2. Spin outs are technology-based ventures that
require specic knowledge that originates
from work experience to transfer this ‘know-
how’ to open new businesses. An example of
the stimulus that governments must generate
are the innovation funding programs that
support innovative small businesses with com-
mercialization potential. e Bayh-Dole Act
of 1980 and the Federal Technology Trans-
fer Act of 1986 help to facilitate the com-
mercialization of technology in early stages
and the undertakings related to these new
technologies (Wonglimpiyarat & Khaema-
sunun, 2015). e main programs to sup-
port the company in the early stages are the
Small Business Innovation Research and
the Small Business Technology Transfer (/
), strengthened by the Department of De-
fense, which in 2019 was the state agency that
contributed most to the development of the
program, with an approximately 1.8 billion
; this program’s mission is to support for-
prot companies. e focus is on carrying out
R&D, but not on buying equipment, in order
to market a technology that has already been
developed or for which there is very low risk
and only capital is needed (, 2020)
3. Spin os are companies that are born from
the actors of the triad with a group of experts
supported by the actors of the triad, and this is
where all their potential lies. Most of these t ypes
of ventures are successful due to the nancial
support they constantly receive. In South Af-
rica, the company ‘Denel’, with public-private
capital, made it possible to strengthen the aero-
nautical industry with the creation of several
spin-os such as Semprel™ that develops
tracking equipment and , which
produces entertainment services for airplanes
and interior design for commercial aircra and
manufactures sophisticated components for
Airbus (Eliasson, 2010).
Etzkowitz and Leydesdor emphasize that
the triple helix relationship is not static or stable,
since dierent strategies, intentions and projects
are generated according to the structures of the
organizations involved (Aguilar et al., 2013; Etz-
kowitz & Leydesdor, 2000). When the relation-
ship is mainly between university and industry, it
has been known as “academic capitalism”, a term
coined by S. Slaughter and L. Leslie in their epony-
mous book published in 1997 (Mora, 2014). How-
ever, when the relationship is generated between
43
The Triple Helix and its Intervention in the Research and Development of Products
for International Security and Defense
Revista de Relaciones Internacionales, Estrategia y Seguridad ■ Vol. 17(1)
more than two helices it can become chaotic due
to the interests of each of the parties.
Likewise, it must be understood that if the
investment in these relationships is made by
the state, there will be a greater interest in solving
problems of a social nature, and the funding calls
will seek that the entities that want to access these
resources be dierent in developed and develop-
ing countries. In developing countries, the entities
must meet certain prerequisites of qualication
and capacity under a social and idealistic and non-
productive approach; In developed countries, this
behavior is more pragmatic and seeks a direct im-
pact on the economic system of the country under
a more holistic vision that aects the improvement
of the quality of life of its citizens and geostrate-
gic interests. If the nancing comes from the pri-
vate initiative, the orientation will be primarily to
competitiveness and productivity, while if they are
carried out with university resources there will
be greater autonomy and less capacity to generate
interdependencies, since the orientation will be to
scientic production within the academic sector.
us, the great challenge is to develop co-
nanced projects where a clear relationship with
the triple helix is expressed, where there is a com-
mitment from the government and the company
to generate greater productive development in or-
ganizations as well as competitiveness (Aguilar et
al., 2013).
e general function of triple helix systems (the
generation, dissemination, and use of knowledge)
is carried out through a set of activities in knowl-
edge, innovation and spaces for consensus. From
the perspective of triple helix systems, the articu-
lation and non-linear interactions between spaces
can generate new combinations of knowledge and
resources that contribute to the theory and prac-
tice of innovation, especially at the regional level
(Ranga & Etzkowitz, 2013).
e spaces that have been considered suitable
for the interaction of the triple helix are given by
three types:
◾Knowledge spaces: seek to build the transition
towards knowledge societies, proposes to cre-
ate or develop knowledge resources in accor-
dance with local and regional knowledge bases.
(Ranga & Etzkowitz, 2013) For example, the
case of the New England regional innovation
system, named aer a postwar route “Route
128” and originated in the mid-19th century
with the founding of MIT, is a new type of
technological university designed to infuse in-
dustry with the results of what is now known as
“strategic research” (Etzkowitz, 1993).
◾Innovation spaces: multi-sphere (hybrid) spac-
es that come together to develop an intellectual
and entrepreneurial potential and a competi-
tive advantage for the region or the country
(Ranga & Etzkowitz, 2013).
◾Consensus spaces: the set of competences be-
tween the triple helix systems that allow the
discussion and evaluation of proposals towards
knowledge based on a regime. Various mecha-
nisms to create spaces for consensus are pos-
sible, from the creation or transformation of an
organization to analyze problems and formu-
late solutions to the provision of access to the
resources required to implement a project or
provision of solutions to conict or crisis situ-
ations. is is the key factor of interaction be-
tween the spaces of knowledge and innovation:
(Ranga & Etzkowitz, 2013).
In these spaces of consensus, organizations
such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
() and the European Union () have been
established, where the interests of various nations
converge and there are cooperation agreements
on defense and research and development issues
that in turn strengthen the advancement of the
industries and academies of each country, allow-
ing the transfer of technologies or knowledge and
cooperation for technological co-developments
that integrate multinational capacities that gen-
erate success, such as the alliances made for the
development of the Tiphon combat ghter or
the EuroFighter, which converge construction and
development in four European countries: United
Kingdom, France, Spain and Italy and its leading
aerospace and defense companies, Bae Systems,
Airbus Defense and Space and Leonardo (Euro-
ghter Typhoon, 2019).
44 ■ G. A. Giraldo Martinez ■ L. R. Valencia Pérez
Revista de Relaciones Internacionales, Estrategia y Seguridad ■ Vol. 17(1)
Conclusion
In response to the research question posed, we can
discern that the development of activities in re-
search and development in security and defense is
a transformative promoter of science, technology
and innovation activities that generate a produc-
tive change in a nation, which through R & D & I
projects and programs, with their high standards
and requirements, nd room in their dual appli-
cation to meet needs in other types of markets, a
fact that strengthens the relationship of the triple
helix players, making them more competitive in
knowledge-based economies.
e development of the triple helix in the de-
fense sector supports the growth and creation of
other economic sectors through relationships, in
which the actors exchange roles and through ac-
tivities such as networking, technology transfer
and resolution conict, articulate the productive
actors, enhancing their capacities to simultane-
ously impact dierent industries and acquire ca-
pacities for the development of knowledge-based
economies.
e cases presented from South Africa, China,
the European Union and the United States show
how the appropriate relationship of the Triple He-
lix actors generates products with high technologi-
cal and economic impact that can be projected in
the development and strengthening of knowledge-
based economies and in turn, lead to the well-
being and improvement of the quality of life of its
population, as well as the generation of military
advantages that eciently guarantee security and
defense of a nation, under concepts of technologi-
cal independence.
For defense R&D to play an important role in
economic development and ensure investment, it
must ensure the development of second-order ef-
fects in innovation with an impact on economic
growth and the national innovation system of a
country through the generation of knowledge that
can be di rected to civilian u se in the development of
products, services and processes and the growth
of the productivity of the research of the university
system, as occurred aer the cold war in the Unit-
ed States with the growth and strengthening of its
research infrastructure that has been an important
source of civilian innovations, new rms, and
trained scientists and engineers (Schmid, 2017).
e limitations of the research are in the col-
lection of data and the analysis of successful cases
of R&D&I projects in developing countries since
it is dicult to identify cases of this type in high-
impact defense security and safety projects involv-
ing the interaction of triple helix actors and the
concepts that encompass it. is may be due to
the low development of industries of this type and
their high technological dependence on developed
countries in sustaining their defense and security
capabilities.
Future research is proposed to determine how
the actors of the Triple Helix are articulated and
what are the factors that allow a successful integra-
tion for the development of security and defense
R&D&I projects, which strengthen the national
industry and that allow developing countries to
strengthen the generation of high-technology
products with high added value and to integrate
into the concepts of knowledge-based economies.
Investment in science, technology and innova-
tion activities in the defense sector generates a vir-
tuous circle, reducing technological dependence
and closing gaps, a fact that generates a technologi-
cal advantage that is expressed in the strengthen-
ing of the sustainable competitiveness of each of
the actors in the Triple Helix, with continuous sys-
tematic improvement processes.
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