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The United Nations War Crimes Commission and the Prosecution of War Criminals in Yugoslavia

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To understand the different developments that shaped the Yugoslav war crimes policy it is important to analyse the impact of international discussions on the Yugoslav criminal law and the Yugoslav involvement in the United Nations War Crimes Commission ( UNWCC ). During the Second World War two different institutions claimed to be the legal representatives of the Yugoslav people: The Yugoslav government in exile in London and the communist led AVNOJ (The Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia). With this in mind, this paper analyses Yugoslav war crimes policies from different perspectives and in different settings. It shows that the Yugoslav`s discussion about the punishment of war criminals was influenced by power struggles, geopolitical aims, and legitimacy. While Yugoslav government in exile got lost in internal nationalist struggles, it was the Yugoslav representative at the UNWCC , and the communist led State commission to investigate the crimes of the occupiers and their accomplices who took the active role and shaped the Yugoslav war crimes policy. In consequence the Yugoslav national law for prosecuting war crimes was developed from different sources: pre- WWII traditions, Soviet law, and the UNWCC .
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Published with license by Koninklijke Brill 󰎛󰃊󰎛󰂹󰆼󰆻󰂺󰆼󰆼󰇁󰆾󰃈󰆼󰇀󰇂󰆼󰇃󰆻󰇀󰆻󰄀󰆼󰆻󰆻󰇁󰇁
󰅺󰎛󰂶󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆽󰎛󰃊󰎛󰂹󰆼󰆾󰇃󰇃󰄀󰆼󰇄󰇄󰃍󰃎󰆼󰇀󰇂󰆼󰄀󰇃󰆻󰇀󰆻󰃍󰃎
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the 󰆗󰂺󰆓󰂺

󰆽󰆿󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆽󰃎󰆾󰇂󰆾󰄍󰆾󰇄󰆻
󰂺󰃈
The United Nations War Crimes Commission and

Sabina Ferhadbegovi | 󰂹󰆻󰆻󰆻󰆻󰄀󰆻󰆻󰆻󰆾󰄀󰆻󰇃󰇃󰇄󰄀󰇄󰆼󰆿󰇃
󰂶󰂶󰂶
󰂶󰂶
sabina.ferhadbegovic@uni-jena.de
󰂹󰆓󰆕󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆓󰂷󰂹󰆓󰆕󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆔󰂷
󰂹󰆔󰆘󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆔
󰂹󰆕󰆕󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆕


it is important to analyse the impact of international discussions on the Yugoslav crim󰄀

󰃍󰃎󰂺
     󰂹      
London and the communist led  󰃍 Anti󰄀 Council for the National
󰃎󰂺󰂶
       󰂺    

󰂶󰂶  󰂺 
󰂶󰂶
and the communist led State commission to investigate the crimes of the occupiers
and their accomplices who took the active role and shaped the Yugoslav war crimes
󰂺           
󰂹pre󰄀󰂶󰂶󰂺

   󰄍      󰄍   󰄍
Yugoslav government in exile
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󰆾󰇂󰆿 
󰆽󰆿󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆽󰃎󰆾󰇂󰆾󰄍󰆾󰇄󰆻
1 
After the invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1󰆜󰆗󰆔󰂶󰄀
    󰂺       󰄀
  󰂶     󰂺   
󰂶 󰄖
 󰄘󰂶    󰄀
󰂺󰇟󰂺
󰂶communist󰄀led󰂺
leaders contested the legitimacy of the Yugoslav government in exile from the
󰂺󰂶
󰂺󰇠 At
󰂶 
󰂺󰂶
󰂺
󰂶
󰂺

war crimes policy it is important to analyse the impact of international dis󰄀
󰂺  
            
󰂺󰄀
view of Yugoslavia`s two representatives at the 󰂶 
ivkovi󰂺 
󰂶communist󰄀led
󰃍Anti󰄀   󰃎󰂺
The third part examines how the Yugoslav war crimes policy changed after the
creation of the united Yugoslav coalition government in 1944 and the commu󰄀
󰂺
2 
      1941
󰂺   
󰆞 󰂶󰂺Im Schatten des Weltkrieges. Massengewalt der Ustaša gegen Serben, Juden
und Roma in Kroatien 1941–1945󰃍󰂹󰂶󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆖󰃎󰂷󰂶󰂺󰄖Nation󰄀
Building󰂹 󰂶󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆔󰄍󰆗󰆘󰄘󰂶  The Routledge
History of the Holocaust󰂶󰂺󰂺󰃍󰂹󰂶󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆔󰃎󰂶󰆕󰆜󰆔󰄍󰆖󰆓󰆕󰂺
󰆟  󰂶 󰂺 Serbia under the Swastika. A World War II Occupation 󰃍󰂹
󰂶󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆚󰃎󰂺
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󰆾󰇂󰇀
󰆽󰆿󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆽󰃎󰆾󰇂󰆾󰄍󰆾󰇄󰆻
󰂶
󰂺󰄘󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆕󰂶
󰇡 even expressed hope that the sol󰄀
    󰄖 󰂶
           󰂺󰄘󰇢 But
󰄘󰄖󰄘󰂶
󰂺
  󰂶       
󰂺󰇣 The corre󰄀
 and 󰂺󰂺󰂺󰂶󰄀
󰂶󰂶
󰂺󰇤 Although the government decided to form
the committee to investigate the punishment of war criminals in October 1󰆜󰆗󰆕󰂶
󰂺󰇥󰂶󰂶
was appointed as Yugoslav representative to the Allied Commission for the
   󰂶󰇦 the ministers did not discuss which objec󰄀
  should pursue regarding the punishment of war crimes in
  󰂺        󰂶
  󰂶    󰂶    󰂶
󰂶  
󰂺󰂶
minister appealed to Krnjevi’s ‘morality’ to understand that ‘in Belgrade it
would be hard to understand that a Croat is leading the case to punish the
󰂺󰄘󰇧󰂶  
 󰂶          󰂺
󰂶   󰂺       
󰆠 󰂺
󰆡 󰂶󰂺Punishment for War Crimes: The Inter-Allied Declaration Signed at St.
James’s Palace, London, on 13th January, 1942, and Relative Documents󰃍󰂹󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆕󰃎󰂶
󰆔󰆗󰂶  󰂹 󰂹󰃈󰃈󰂺󰂺󰃈󰂺obj󰄀󰆙󰆗󰆛󰆘󰆕󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆔󰃈󰂿󰈺󰂺obj󰄀󰆙󰆗󰆛󰆘󰆕󰆕󰆓󰆛󰆕 󰃍
accessed on 󰆕󰆖󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆕󰃎󰂺󰂺
󰂺
󰆢 󰂶
of the 󰂶󰂶ši󰂺Zapisnici sa
sednica Ministarskog saveta Kraljevine Jugoslavije 1941–1945󰃍󰂹  󰂶󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆗󰃎󰂶
󰆔󰆛󰆚󰄍󰆔󰆛󰆛󰂺
󰆣  󰂶  󰂶 
󰂶T󰂶󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆔󰄍
󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆕󰂶 󰂹󰂹󰃈󰃈󰂺󰂺󰂺󰃈󰃈󰃈󰈱󰆖󰆘󰆘󰆜󰆛󰆙󰆚󰃍
󰆕󰆖󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆕󰃎󰂺
󰆤 󰃈i󰂶Zapisnici sa sednica 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆗󰃍󰂺󰆜󰃎󰂶󰆔󰆛󰆚󰂺
󰆥 󰂺
󰆦 󰂶󰂺Londonski dnevnik. 1941–1945󰃍󰂹šnji󰂶󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆓󰃎󰂶󰆕󰆛󰆘󰂺
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󰆾󰇂󰇁 
󰆽󰆿󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆽󰃎󰆾󰇂󰆾󰄍󰆾󰇄󰆻
  󰂺󰂶  
󰂶 should also become a member
󰂺󰇟󰇞󰂶
󰂶
‘the Yugoslav government in exile was not able to conduct any serious busi󰄀
󰂷󰄘󰂶
on the main lines of state policy even when the British government asked for
󰂺󰄘󰇟󰇟
Before the   󰂶  󰄀
          󰂺 
󰂶idar Puri󰂶
Milanovi󰇟󰇠 to the 󰂺󰇟󰇡 The
representatives were all diplomats and intended merely to represent a tem󰄀
󰂺        
󰂶󰂶󰄖
󰄘󰂺󰇟󰇢
 and how he represented Yugoslavia before the
? Milanovi󰆔󰆛󰆜󰆙󰂺󰇟󰇣
󰂺󰂶
        3󰂶󰆓󰆓󰆓    
󰄖󰄘󰂶
  󰃍 
the ivkovi󰃎󰂺󰆔󰆜󰆔󰆜󰂶
received a diploma from the cole Libre des Sciences Politiques and in 1922
é
󰂺󰂶
󰂶󰆔󰆜󰆕󰆗

    󰆔󰆜󰆖󰆘󰂺    󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆔󰂶  worked as a
 
󰆞󰆝 󰃈i󰂶Zapisnici sa sednica 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆗󰃍󰂺󰆜󰃎󰂶󰆖󰆓󰆔󰂺
󰆞󰆞 󰂶󰂶󰂺Yugoslav Communism: A Critical Study󰂺󰂺󰂺󰂺
󰃍󰂹󰂶󰆔󰆜󰆙󰆔󰃎󰂶󰆚󰆚󰂺
󰆞󰆟 󰂺
󰆞󰆠 󰂺History of the UNWCC and the Development of the Laws of War󰃍󰂹
󰂶󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆛󰃎󰂶󰆔󰆔󰆕󰂺
󰆞󰆡 󰂶󰆔󰆓󰆖󰂶󰂶󰄀󰆗󰆜󰂺󰆓󰆓󰆗󰂶
󰆔󰂶󰂺󰆘󰆚󰆙󰂺
󰆞󰆢 More about Milanovi    󰂶     
󰂹 󰂹󰃈󰃈󰂺󰂺󰃈󰃈󰂹󰃈󰆔󰆖󰆓󰆖󰆓󰃈󰆜󰆓󰆜󰆕󰆛󰃈󰃈󰆒󰆕󰃍
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󰆾󰇂󰇂
󰆽󰆿󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆽󰃎󰆾󰇂󰆾󰄍󰆾󰇄󰆻
and chargé
  󰂺󰇟󰇤 Milanovi
engagement with the  was nothing more than one duty among many
󰂺          󰂶
Milanovi󰂺󰄖
police of the satellite countries had committed in Yugoslavia the same kind of
󰂶
󰂺󰄘󰇟󰇥 He called

󰂺 recom󰄀
mended ‘that the draft article which the Commission had recommended for
󰄀
󰄘󰂺󰇟󰇦 Cecil Hurst and Milanovi drew up an agreed
󰂶      
󰂺󰇟󰇧
󰆞󰆣 󰂶 Stevan K󰂺 󰄖ilo Nini and the European Policy of the Yugoslav
󰂶󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆔󰄍󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆖󰂹` The Slavonic and East European Review󰆙󰆕󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆛󰆗󰃎󰂶󰆗󰆓󰆓󰄍
󰆗󰆕󰆓󰂶󰆖󰂶󰆗󰆔󰆘󰂺
󰆞󰆤 󰂶󰆖󰆖󰂶󰆔󰄍M󰆔󰆖󰆘󰂶󰆕󰆕
󰆔󰆖󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆗󰂶󰆖󰂺
󰆞󰆥 󰂺󰂶󰆕󰆗󰆔󰆔󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆗󰂶󰆕󰂺
󰆞󰆦 󰂺󰂶󰆕󰆚8 August 1󰆜󰆗󰆗󰂶Amendment C󰂺󰆖󰆗󰂺
󰆼 
a member of the Yugoslav delegation during the Inter󰄀allied
󰂺󰆔󰆖󰆔942
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󰆾󰇂󰇃 
󰆽󰆿󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆽󰃎󰆾󰇂󰆾󰄍󰆾󰇄󰆻
            that the British
  󰂶   󰂶     sev󰄀
󰂺󰂶March 1󰆜󰆗󰆗󰂶  ivkovi󰂶
 󰂶
󰂶󰂺󰇠󰇞󰂶
󰂷
󰂺
It is little known about the man who was holding a key position at the
󰂺
short biography in the History of the 󰂶ivkovi was professor
agrégé󰂺󰇠󰇟 Existing documents
󰂺󰇠󰇠 But ivkovi was not a distinguished expert on international
    󰂺        
󰆔󰆜󰆖󰆜󰂺󰇠󰇡󰂶
he was a part of the circle established by the famous Serbian jurist ivojin
Peri󰂺󰇠󰇢    
War and left Yugoslavia for Cape Town after the occupation in 1941 ivkovi
󰂺󰂶󰂶
󰂺󰄀
󰂶
󰂶
ivkovi󰂺󰇠󰇣󰂶󰄀
  󰂺  󰂶
󰂶
󰂺
󰂶
󰆟󰆝         March 3󰆔󰂶 󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆗󰂺 󰃈i󰂶
Zapisnici sa sednica 󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆗󰃍󰂺󰆜󰃎󰂶󰆗󰆖󰆖󰂺ivkovi six months to apply to the position
at the 󰂺󰂶󰆖󰆖󰆔󰄍M󰆔󰆖󰆘󰂶󰆖󰆖
Meeting held on 󰆕󰆙󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆗󰂶󰆕󰂺
󰆟󰆞 History of the 󰂶󰆘󰆓󰆘󰂺
󰆟󰆟 󰂶󰂶󰂶
󰂶󰂺󰆔󰆓󰆓󰆕󰃈󰆗󰆘󰂷󰂺󰆔󰆓󰆗󰆓󰃈󰆗󰆘󰂺
󰆟󰆠 ivkovi󰂶  󰂺 Problem pravde prirode ugovora o radu u svetlosti savremenog
društva󰃍󰂹󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆓󰃎󰂺
󰆟󰆡 󰂶ivojin Peri󰆔󰆜󰆕󰆘󰄍󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆗󰂶󰂺󰆕󰆗󰂶󰂺󰆔󰆘󰆚󰂷󰆔󰆘󰆛󰂷󰆕󰆙󰆓󰂷󰆕󰆙󰆔󰂷󰆔󰆓󰆗󰆚󰂺
󰆟󰆢  󰄖󰄘 󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆕󰂶
 󰂶  󰂶
󰂺
Slijepevi󰂶Ð󰂺 󰂶󰂺󰆕󰃍󰂹
󰆔󰆜󰆚󰆛󰃎󰂶󰆚󰆚󰆖󰄍󰆚󰆚󰆘󰂺
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󰆾󰇂󰇄
󰆽󰆿󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆽󰃎󰆾󰇂󰆾󰄍󰆾󰇄󰆻
representative at the 󰂺
󰂶󰂶
󰄀
󰂺󰂶󰂺
󰂶
        󰂺 
ivkovi󰂺󰂶󰂶
󰂺󰂶󰂶
󰂺
er as well as
󰂺󰄀
󰂶󰂺
to Milan Bartoš󰂶󰂶
Commission and later Yugoslav representative of the 󰂺󰇠󰇤 Then meanwhile
󰂺
3 
󰂶󰂺
󰂺󰄀
󰂶󰆕󰆜3󰆓󰆔943
 annihilated all legal regulations proclaimed ‘by the occupiers and
their collaborators’ as well as all legal regulations that applied before the
󰂺󰇠󰇥 During the same session  proclaimed the building of the
Yugoslav State Commission to investigate crimes committed by the occupiers
󰂺
the  󰂶󰄘󰄀
󰂺
The State Commission’s objective was to ‘determine the responsibility of
all persons responsible for crimes that were committed in Yugoslavia on the
   󰂶󰇠󰇦   
󰆟󰆣 󰂶ivojin Peri󰂶󰂺󰆘󰆕󰆛󰂺
󰆟󰆤 󰂶󰂺󰄖󰄙󰄛󰄙󰄛󰄍
 󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆘󰄘󰂶 The -SS: A European History󰂶 󰂺öhler and
󰃍󰂹󰂶󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆚󰃎󰂶󰆗󰆘󰆕󰄍󰆗󰆚󰆔󰂶󰆗󰆘󰆗󰂺
󰆟󰆥  󰂶 󰆕󰆖󰂺󰆔󰆔󰂺󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆖󰂶      
  ina okupatora I njihovih pomaga󰂺  󰂶 󰆔 
1󰆜󰆗󰆘󰂶󰆘󰂺
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󰆾󰇃󰆻 
󰆽󰆿󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆽󰃎󰆾󰇂󰆾󰄍󰆾󰇄󰆻
󰂺󰄀
missioned to gather all information about
󰂶󰂶ill󰄀treatment󰂶󰂶󰂶󰂶
󰂶
󰂶 
󰂶󰄀
 󰂶       󰂶  
      󰃍󰂶 󰂶  
󰂶󰂺󰃎ill󰄀treatment of
󰂶
goods and of acts which contributed to the commission of any of the
󰂺󰇠󰇧
󰂶󰂶      󰂶 󰄀
bered later that he was trying to link the work of the State Commission to the
    󰂺󰇡󰇞 As
󰂶󰂶
of the war crimes adopted by the 󰂺󰂶󰄀
mulations which can be connected to the Soviet model of Aron Trainin and his
󰄖󰄘󰂺󰇡󰇟 It would be easy to sug󰄀
gest that Yugoslav communists were simply ideologically reproducing Soviet
concepts when incorporating the ‘extermination of peaceful inhabitants’ or
‘ill󰄀treatment󰄘 󰂺
󰂶
󰂺󰇡󰇠
󰄍󰄍
󰂺
󰂶󰂶
󰂺󰄖󰄘󰄖
󰆟󰆦 󰂶󰆖󰆖󰂶󰂶󰂶
󰂶󰂺
󰆠󰆝 󰂶󰂺󰃍󰂹󰂶󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆚󰃎󰂶󰆖󰆔󰆕󰂺
󰆠󰆞 󰂶󰂺
󰂶 󰂺 Hitlerite Responsibility under Criminal Law 󰃍󰂹 󰂶 󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆘󰃎󰂶
󰆛󰆓󰄍󰆛󰆔󰂺󰂶󰂺󰄖󰂹
󰄘󰃍󰂶󰂶󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆚󰃎󰂶󰆔󰆕󰆜󰂶󰂹
󰂹󰃈󰃈󰂺󰂺󰃈󰃈󰅨󰅨󰅨󰃈󰆙󰆘󰆚󰆜󰆔󰎛󰃍
accessed on 󰆕󰆖󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆕󰃎󰂺
󰆠󰆟 󰂶󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆚󰃍󰂺󰆕󰆜󰃎󰂶󰆖󰆔󰆗󰂺
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󰆾󰇃󰆼
󰆽󰆿󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆽󰃎󰆾󰇂󰆾󰄍󰆾󰇄󰆻
󰄘󰂶
󰂺
󰂺
󰂺
󰂶December 1941
        󰂶 
󰂺󰇡󰇡 It was not until the end of May 1944 that the
󰂶
    󰂺󰇡󰇢  󰂶
󰄖󰄘󰄖󰄘󰂺
󰂶󰄖󰄘󰄀
󰂶
󰂺 
󰂺󰂹󰄖󰂶󰄀
󰂶󰂶   
󰂶󰂶󰂶
 󰂶 󰂶 󰂶       󰂶
󰂶 
    
󰂶
󰄘󰄖󰂶
󰂶󰄀
󰂶󰂶
cause and were conspiring with the occupiers’ were to be charged as ‘enemies
󰄘󰂺󰇡󰇣
evi󰂶󰂶
󰂺󰇡󰇤 The original impulse was to cre󰄀
ate a legal instrument that could hold the perpetrators responsible for atroci󰄀
󰂺󰂶
󰆠󰆠 󰂶󰂺󰄖Handschar󰄀Division󰄘󰂺
Südost-Forschungen󰆙󰆜󰃈󰆚󰆓󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆓󰃈󰆔󰆔󰃎󰂶󰆕󰆕󰆛󰄍󰆕󰆘󰆔󰂶󰆕󰆗󰆓󰄍󰆕󰆗󰆔󰂺
󰆠󰆡  󰂶󰆕󰆗󰂺󰆓󰆘󰂺󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆗󰂶  propisana
󰆕󰆗󰂺󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆗󰂺 i  marš󰂶
in   󰂐  CK KPJ i
vrhovnog štaba NOVJ󰂺 1󰆖󰂶1 May󰄍31 August 1󰆜󰆗󰆗󰂺󰂺󰆕󰂶󰂺󰃍󰂹
󰂶󰆔󰆜󰆛󰆕󰃎󰂶󰆔󰆚󰆗󰂺
󰆠󰆢 󰂶Article 1󰆖󰃈󰆔󰆗󰂺
󰆠󰆣 Hrnjevi󰂶󰂺󰃍󰂹󰂶󰆔󰆜󰆛󰆗󰃎󰂶󰆜󰆔󰄍󰆜󰆕󰂺
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󰆾󰇃󰆽 
󰆽󰆿󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆽󰃎󰆾󰇂󰆾󰄍󰆾󰇄󰆻
󰂹󰂶󰄖󰄀
󰄘multi󰄀ethnic󰂶󰄖󰄘󰂺󰇡󰇥
 󰂶󰄘 󰄀
󰄖󰄘󰄖󰄘󰂺󰂶󰄖
󰂶
󰂶
󰄘󰂺󰇡󰇦󰂶󰃍󰂶
󰂶󰂶󰃎
󰄖󰄘󰂺󰂶
legal distinction between ‘war criminals’ and ‘enemies of the people’ repro󰄀
󰄖󰄘  󰄖󰄘󰂺󰄀
  󰂶  
󰂺󰄖󰄘󰂶󰂺󰄀
󰂶󰄖󰄘󰃈
misled by ‘domestic traitors’ and had therefore unintentionally become trai󰄀
󰂺󰇡󰇧 󰂶
󰄘󰄀
󰂶󰄖󰄘󰄖󰄀
󰄘󰂺
󰃍Mitläufer󰃎󰂺󰆖󰆛󰂶󰇢󰇞 although the
󰂺
󰂶
󰂺
4  in London
With the cooperation between the government in exile and Tito’s  in
󰆔944 the Yugoslav performance before the 󰂺
was surely ivkovi󰂶         
󰆠󰆤 󰂶 󰂺 󰄖    󰂹      
󰂶󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆗󰄍󰆔󰆜󰆚󰆗󰄘󰃍󰂶󰂶󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆛󰃎󰂶󰆔󰆓󰆓󰂺
󰆠󰆥 󰂶Hitlerite Responsibility󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆘󰃍󰂺󰆖󰆓󰃎󰂶󰆚󰆜󰂺
󰆠󰆦 Tito pred predsjedništvom 󰄀a󰂷Rad zakonodavnih odbora Pretsedništva AVNOJ-a
I Privremene narodne skupštine DFJ (3 april–25 okobar 1945)󰂶 󰂺  šovi
󰃍󰂹š󰂶󰆔󰆜󰆘󰆔󰃎󰂶󰆔󰆘󰂺
󰆡󰆝 Control Council Directive 󰂺󰆖󰆛󰂹 󰂶󰂶
 󰂶󰂶 
󰂶󰂶󰂺󰆔󰆔󰂶31 October 1󰆜󰆗󰆙󰂶
󰆔󰆛󰆗󰂷󰂶󰂶󰂺Documents on Germany under Occupation,
1945–1954󰃍󰂹󰂶󰆔󰆜󰆘󰆘󰃎󰂶󰆔󰆙󰆛󰄍󰆔󰆚󰆜󰂺
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󰆾󰇃󰆾
󰆽󰆿󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆽󰃎󰆾󰇂󰆾󰄍󰆾󰇄󰆻
Yugoslav representative to the 󰂺󰂶
the communists followed a clear agenda and instructed ivkovi unambigu󰄀
󰂺ivkovi󰂺
󰂶
󰂶šan Nedeljkovi󰂶
 to Belgrade and to coordinate his work with the State Commission
󰂺󰇢󰇟 ivkovi followed the order and even signed his reports over to
󰄖󰂶󰄘󰂺
󰂶󰂶󰄖󰄘󰇢󰇠 and the ‘records
󰄘󰂶 󰂺
communists gained direct insight into the discussions of the 󰂶
were developing the idea of ‘crimes against humanity’ and ‘crimes against
󰄘󰂺   and the lists
         󰂺 
 󰂺         
󰂺󰇢󰇡󰂶 in its
󰂺sub󰄀commissions
󰂶󰂶󰄀
󰂶 recommendations

󰂺
The 󰂺
and Bartoš came to London and learned 󰄀hand about the Allied concept of
󰂺󰇢󰇢 They learned about the idea of the simul󰄀
taneous operating by the 󰂶      
󰂶
󰂺    󰂶    
they would have to act within the framework of the  and make appro󰄀
 󰂺
󰂶 󰂺󰂶
󰂶󰂺
󰆡󰆞 󰂶󰄀󰆗󰆜󰂺󰆓󰆓󰆗󰂶󰃍󰆔󰆓󰆖󰃎󰂶󰆔󰂶󰂺󰆗󰆗󰆜󰂺
󰆡󰆟 󰂶  󰂺 󰄖 󰂹      
󰄙󰄛󰄘󰂺Modern Intellectual History
󰆔󰆚󰃍󰆕󰃎󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆓󰃎󰂶󰆘󰆓󰆚󰄍󰆘󰆕󰆘󰂺
󰆡󰆠 󰂶󰄀󰆗󰆜󰂺󰆓󰆓󰆗󰂶󰃍󰆔󰆓󰆖󰃎󰂶󰆔󰂹󰆘󰂶󰂺󰆖󰆘󰆜󰂺
󰆡󰆡 󰂶󰂶󰆖󰆖󰂶󰂹󰂹󰃈󰃈󰂺󰂺󰂺󰃈
unwcc󰄀national󰄀󰄀conference󰄀london󰄀󰆖󰆔󰄀may󰄀june󰄀󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆘󰄀minutes󰄀and󰄀documents
󰃍󰆕󰆖󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆕󰃎󰂺
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󰆾󰇃󰆿 
󰆽󰆿󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆽󰃎󰆾󰇂󰆾󰄍󰆾󰇄󰆻
󰃍󰃎󰂶
which was proclaimed on 15 August 1󰆜󰆗󰆘󰂶
󰂺󰇢󰇣 Terms such as ‘enemies of the people’
󰂺Article 3 declared the following as being guilty of
󰂹
󰆖󰂺       󰂶 󰂺󰂺     
 󰂶󰂶
󰂶󰄀
󰂶󰂶
󰂶󰂶󰄀
󰂶  󰂷  
󰂶
󰂶󰂷󰂶󰄀
󰂶󰂹
circumstances was responsible for any denunciation resulting in any of
󰂶
󰂶󰄀
󰂷󰄀
󰂶
󰂶
Yugoslav subjects and prisoners󰄀of󰄀war󰂺󰇢󰇤
󰄖󰄘󰄀
󰃎󰃎󰂶
󰂶󰂶󰂶󰂺
󰄘󰂶Article 3
󰂶󰂶
    󰂺     
which prosecuted cases of sexual and gender󰄀based crimes before national and
military tribunals and which brought charges against rape before the 󰂺
  󰂶   
󰂺  󰂹 󰄖      󰄘
󰂺
 󰂺   󰄖
󰆡󰆢  󰂶󰆔󰆘󰂺󰆓󰆛󰂺󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆘󰂶  󰃍󰃎 
dr󰂶 󰂺󰆙󰆙󰂶1 September 1󰆜󰆗󰆘󰂶󰆔󰄍󰆖󰂺
󰆡󰆣 󰂶󰆖󰆘󰂶󰂶󰂺󰂶󰆕󰆓󰆚󰂺
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󰆾󰇃󰇀
󰆽󰆿󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆽󰃎󰆾󰇂󰆾󰄍󰆾󰇄󰆻
to commit acts outlined in this law shall be punishable as a complete crimi󰄀
󰄘󰂺󰇢󰇥 󰄖󰄘
󰂺
membership of the 
󰂺󰂶󰄀
󰂺󰄖
󰄘󰂶
󰄖󰄘󰂺
ivkovi󰂺
played a more active role than Milanovi󰂺
before the 󰂶󰄀
󰂺May 1945 he pro󰄀
󰂶
by E󰂺󰇢󰇦󰂶
war crimes committed against the nationals of the Allies and he stressed that
the crimes committed by the Italian armed forces and occupation authori󰄀
󰂶󰂶
 󰂺   󰂶
ivkovi󰄖  
in Italian war crimes’ and complained that ‘the Allies had been in control in
󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆖󰄘󰂺󰇢󰇧 Immediately
󰂶
󰄖󰄘󰂶
󰂶  1  󰆔944 to
󰂺󰇣󰇞 The British and American
󰂺󰇣󰇟
󰄖
    󰄘󰇣󰇠 and it was
agreed that ivkovis proposal should be referred to Committee  for consid󰄀
󰂺󰂶󰂺ivkovi nor the Yugoslav
󰆡󰆤 󰂺󰂶󰆕󰆓󰆛󰂺
󰆡󰆥 󰂶 󰆖󰆖 󰆔󰄍M󰆔󰆖󰆘󰂶  󰆙󰆓  󰆔󰆓
1󰆜󰆗󰆘󰂶󰆘󰂺
󰆡󰆦 󰂶 󰆖󰆖 󰆔󰄍M󰆔󰆖󰆘󰂶󰆙󰆕  23 May
1󰆜󰆗󰆘󰂶󰆘󰂺
󰆢󰆝 󰂶 Andrew T󰂺 A Passing Fury. Searching for Justice at the End of World War II
󰃍󰂹󰂶󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆚󰃎󰂶󰆚󰆕󰆜󰂺
󰆢󰆞 󰂶 󰂺 󰄖  󰄘 󰂿      
󰄘󰂺Retrospectives 2󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆖󰃎󰂶󰆗󰆕󰄍󰆘󰆙󰂶󰆗󰆖󰂺
󰆢󰆟 󰂶 󰆖󰆖 󰆔󰄍M󰆔󰆖󰆘󰂶󰆙󰆕  23 May
1󰆜󰆗󰆘󰂶󰆘󰂺
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󰆾󰇃󰇁 
󰆽󰆿󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆽󰃎󰆾󰇂󰆾󰄍󰆾󰇄󰆻
󰂺󰂶
󰂶
post󰄀war󰂺
󰄖󰄘
󰂺
war criminals and the Yugoslav󰄀Italian
󰂶󰂺󰇣󰇡 Although Tito and
Churchill agreed to the demarcation line between Italy and Yugoslavia and
󰂶󰇣󰇢 the focus was on proving to the Allies that those
󰂶
󰂶
started after 󰂶󰄀
     󰂺󰇣󰇣 The suggestion

of the war crimes and crimes against humanity executed by the Italians before
󰂺ivkovi󰂺 accepted
his and E󰂶󰄖󰄘
     󰂺󰇣󰇤 During its existence the  listed more
󰆔󰂺󰆕󰆓󰆓󰂺󰇣󰇥 None of them was put on trial in
󰂶󰄀
ecution of war criminals in the aftermath of the 󰂺󰇣󰇦
5 
The           
󰂺󰂶󰂺
󰆢󰆠 History of the 󰂶󰆗󰆛󰆛󰂺󰄀
󰂶󰂶󰂺The Birth of the New Justice: The Internationalization of
Crime and Punishment, 1919–1950󰃍󰂹󰂶󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰃎󰂶󰆙󰆗󰄍󰆚󰆚󰂺
󰆢󰆡 󰂶 Marie󰄀󰂺 Geschichte Jugoslawiens im 20. Jahrhundert 󰃍󰂹 󰂺 󰂺 󰂶
󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆓󰃎󰂶󰆔󰆓󰆕󰂺
󰆢󰆢 󰂶󰆖󰆛󰂶󰂶󰂺
󰆢󰆣 󰂶  󰆖󰆖   󰆔󰄍M󰆔󰆖󰆘󰂶   󰆛󰆕   
24 October 1󰆜󰆗󰆘󰂶󰆚󰄍󰆜󰂺
󰆢󰆤           󰂶 󰂺 󰄖
  󰂹       󰄘
󰃍25 November 2󰆓󰆔󰆙󰃎󰂶  󰂹 󰂹󰃈󰃈󰂺󰃈󰈺󰆕󰆛󰆛󰆚󰆕󰆙󰆚  󰂹󰃈󰃈󰂺
󰂺󰃈󰆔󰆓󰂺󰆕󰆔󰆖󰆜󰃈󰂺󰆕󰆛󰆛󰆚󰆕󰆙󰆚󰃍󰆔󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆔󰃎󰂺
󰆢󰆥 󰂶 󰂺󰂺 󰄖󰄖Hand󰄀over󰄘󰂶
󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆘󰄍󰆗󰆛󰄘󰂺Journal of Contemporary History󰆖󰆜󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆗󰃎󰂶󰆘󰆓󰆖󰄍󰆘󰆕󰆜󰂺
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󰆾󰇃󰇂
󰆽󰆿󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆽󰃎󰆾󰇂󰆾󰄍󰆾󰇄󰆻
󰂶
󰄘󰂺󰄀
󰂶
󰂶  
path to assuring the Allies that they were a reliable partner in international
󰂺󰂶 created knowledge and the Yugoslav com󰄀
󰂶󰂶
󰂶
󰂶
󰂺󰂶
󰂺’s ideas
 󰂶      
based on hearsay and direct evidence regarding what witnesses themselves
󰂺󰂶
to be ‘less technical than those governing the proceedings of courts conducting
󰄘󰂶󰇣󰇧 but the State Commission
submitted unsigned testimonies in an oral󰄀history󰂶  
󰂺󰄖󰄘
󰂶󰂺
Documents show that the  played an important role in the devel󰄀
 󰄀
󰂺󰇤󰇞 ivkovi
did his best to establish a close connection between the  and the State
󰂺󰂶one󰄀sided regarding both the
   
of the 󰂺   󰄖 󰄘  
to become a reliable partner in international politics by taking the chance to
󰂺
󰂶󰂶
trials were organised in the ideologically high loaded post󰄀war and post󰄀civil󰄀
war󰂺󰇤󰇟
󰆢󰆦 ‘Case 󰂺󰆕󰆔󰂶󰄘󰂺Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals 4
󰃍󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆛󰃎󰂶󰆛󰆔󰂺
󰆣󰆝 󰂶           
󰂶󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆖󰄍󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆛󰂶
󰄀󰆗󰆜󰂺󰆓󰆓󰆘󰂶󰆔󰂶󰂺󰆔󰄍󰆕󰆘󰆔󰂺
󰆣󰆞 󰂶󰄖󰄖󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆓󰃈󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆔󰃍󰂺󰆖󰆖󰃎󰂶󰆕󰆘󰆔󰂺lkov󰂶󰂺󰄖Post󰄀Second
     󰄘󰂶  Historical Origins of International
Criminal Law󰂶󰂺󰆕󰂶󰂺󰂶󰃍󰂹
Opsahl Academic E󰄀Publisher󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰃎󰂶󰆚󰆔󰆔󰄍󰆚󰆔󰆖󰂺
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󰆾󰇃󰇃 
󰆽󰆿󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆽󰃎󰆾󰇂󰆾󰄍󰆾󰇄󰆻
󰂺󰇤󰇠󰂶
󰂺

Blkov󰂶 󰂺󰄖Post󰄀Second󰄘󰂶 
Historical Origins of International Criminal Law󰂶󰂺󰆕󰂶󰂺󰂶
󰃍󰂹E󰄀Publisher󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆗󰃎󰂶󰆙󰆜󰆚󰄍󰆚󰆖󰆖󰂺
󰂶Marie󰄀󰂺Geschichte Jugoslawiens im 20. Jahrhundert󰃍󰂹 󰂺󰂺󰂶
󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆓󰃎󰂺
 󰂶 󰆕󰆘  󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆗󰂶    avne
 ina okupatora I njihovih pomaga󰂺 beni
󰂶󰆔󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆘󰂶󰆘󰂺
 󰂶 󰆔󰆘  󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆘󰂶    󰃍󰃎 
naroda i dr󰂺beni list 󰆙󰆙󰂶󰆓󰆔September 1󰆜󰆗󰆘󰂶󰆔󰄍󰆖󰂺
󰂶 󰂺 󰄖   Handschar󰄀Division im Nachkriegsjugos󰄀
󰄘󰂺Südost-Forschungen󰆙󰆜󰃈󰆚󰆓󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆓󰃈󰆔󰆔󰃎󰂶󰆕󰆕󰆛󰄍󰆕󰆘󰆔󰂺
󰂶󰂺󰄖󰄙󰄛󰄙󰄛 󰄍󰄀
󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆘󰄘󰂶󰃖󰂐 󰂶󰂺
󰃍󰂹󰂶󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆚󰃎󰂶󰆗󰆘󰆕󰄍󰆗󰆚󰆔󰂺
󰂶 󰂺 󰄖    󰂶  1󰆜󰆗󰆙󰄘󰂶 
Lexikon der Politischen Strafprozesse󰂶󰂺 󰂶 
󰂶󰂹 󰂹󰃈󰃈󰂺lexikon󰄀der󰄀politischen󰄀󰂺󰃈
󰃈stepinac󰄀󰄀󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆙󰃈󰃍󰆔󰆕󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆔󰃎󰂺
󰂶󰂺Londonski dnevnik. 1941–1945󰃍󰂹šnji󰂶󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆓󰃎󰂺
Hrnjevi󰂶󰂺󰃍󰂹󰂶󰆔󰆜󰆛󰆗󰃎󰂺
󰂶 󰂶 󰂺      
ratu. Dokumenti CK KPJ i vrhovnog štaba NOVJ󰂺󰂺 1󰆖󰂶1 May󰄍31 August 1󰆜󰆗󰆗󰂺󰂺 2
󰃍󰂹󰂶󰆔󰆜󰆛󰆕󰃎󰂺
󰂶󰂺 󰄖  󰂹   
󰂶󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆗󰄍󰆔󰆜󰆚󰆗󰄘󰃍󰂶󰂶󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆛󰃎󰂺
󰂶 󰂺Prelude to Nuremberg: Allied War Crimes Policy and the Question of
Punishment󰃍󰂹󰂶󰆔󰆜󰆜󰆛󰃎󰂺
󰆣󰆟 󰂶
󰂺󰂶󰂺󰄖
󰂶󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆙󰄘󰂶Lexikon der Politischen Strafprozesse󰂶
󰂺󰂶󰂶󰂹󰂹󰃈󰃈󰂺lexikon
󰄀der󰄀politischen󰄀󰂺󰃈󰃈stepinac󰄀󰄀󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆙󰃈󰃍󰆔󰆕
2󰆓󰆕󰆔󰃎󰂺
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󰆾󰇃󰇄
󰆽󰆿󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆽󰃎󰆾󰇂󰆾󰄍󰆾󰇄󰆻
󰂶 󰂺 󰄖Nation󰄀Building   󰂹    
󰂶󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆔󰄍󰆗󰆘󰄘󰂶The Routledge History of the Holocaust󰂶󰂺󰂺riedman
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󰂶󰂺Im Schatten des Weltkrieges. Massengewalt der Ustaša gegen Serben,
Juden und Roma in Kroatien 1941–1945󰃍󰂹󰂶󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆖󰃎󰂺
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󰂶󰂺The Birth of the New Justice: The internationalization of Crime and Punish-
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󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆘󰄍󰆗󰆛󰄘󰂺Journal of Contemporary History󰆖󰆜󰃍󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆗󰃎󰂶󰆘󰆓󰆖󰄍󰆘󰆕󰆜󰂺
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󰄘󰃍󰂶󰃎󰂶1󰆕󰆜󰂶󰂹
󰂹󰃈󰃈󰂺󰂺󰃈󰃈󰅨󰅨󰅨󰃈󰆙󰆘󰆚󰆜󰆔
󰃍󰆕󰆖󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆕󰃎󰂺
󰂶   š i󰂶 󰂺 Zapisnici sa sednica Ministarskog saveta
Kraljevine Jugoslavije 1941–1945󰃍󰂹󰂶󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆗󰃎󰂺
󰂶 󰂺 󰄖   󰂹     
 󰄘 󰃍25 November 2󰆓󰆔󰆙󰃎󰂶  󰂹 󰂹󰃈󰃈󰂺󰃈
󰈺󰆕󰆛󰆛󰆚󰆕󰆙󰆚󰂹󰃈󰃈󰂺󰂺󰃈󰆔󰆓󰂺󰆕󰆔󰆖󰆜󰃈󰂺󰆕󰆛󰆛󰆚󰆕󰆙󰆚󰃍󰆔󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆔󰃎󰂺
󰂶 󰂺 Serbia under the Swastika. A World War II Occupation 󰃍󰂹
󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆚󰃎󰂺
  󰂶 󰂶 󰂺 Documents on Germany under Occupation, 1945–1954
󰃍󰂹󰂶󰆔󰆜󰆘󰆘󰃎󰂶󰆔󰆙󰆛󰄍󰆔󰆚󰆜󰂺
Slijepevi󰂶Ð󰂺󰂶󰂺󰆕󰃍󰂹
󰆔󰆜󰆚󰆛󰃎󰂶󰆚󰆚󰆖󰄍󰆚󰆚󰆘󰂺
The Inter󰄀Allied󰄘󰂶󰂶󰆔󰆖󰂶󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆕󰂶
󰃍󰂹󰂶󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆕󰃎󰂶󰂹󰂹󰃈󰃈󰂺󰂺󰃈
󰂺obj󰄀󰆙󰆗󰆛󰆘󰆕󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆔󰃈󰂿󰈺󰂺obj󰄀󰆙󰆗󰆛󰆘󰆕󰆕󰆓󰆛󰆕󰃍󰆓󰆕󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆕󰃎󰂺
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󰆾󰇄󰆻 
󰆽󰆿󰃍󰆽󰆻󰆽󰆽󰃎󰆾󰇂󰆾󰄍󰆾󰇄󰆻
󰂶󰂺Hitlerite Responsibility under Criminal Law󰃍󰂹󰂶󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆘󰃎󰂺
󰂺History of the UNWCC and the Development of the Laws of War󰃍󰂹
󰂶󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆛󰃎󰂺
󰂶󰂺History of the United Nations War Crimes
Commission and the Development of the Laws of War󰃍󰂹󰂶󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆛󰃎󰂺
󰂶󰂺󰃍󰂹󰂶󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆚󰃎󰂺
󰂶Andrew T󰂺A Passing Fury. Searching for Justice at the End of World War II
󰃍󰂹󰂶󰆕󰆓󰆔󰆚󰃎󰂺
󰂶󰂺Punishment for War Crimes: The Inter-Allied Declaration Signed
at St. James’s Palace, London, on 13th January, 1942, and Relative Documents󰃍󰂹
󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆕󰃎󰂶󰆔󰆗󰂶󰂹󰂹󰃈󰃈󰂺󰂺󰃈󰂺obj󰄀󰆙󰆗󰆛󰆘󰆕󰆕󰆓󰆓󰆔󰃈󰂿󰈺
󰂺obj󰄀󰆙󰆗󰆛󰆘󰆕󰆕󰆓󰆛󰆕󰃍󰆕󰆖󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆕󰃎󰂺
󰂶 󰂶 󰂺 Yugoslav Communism: A Critical Study.  󰂺 󰂺
󰂺󰃍󰂹󰂺󰂺󰂶
󰆔󰆜󰆙󰆔󰃎󰂺
ivkovi󰂶󰂺Problem pravde prirode ugovora o radu u svetlosti savremenog
društva󰃍󰂹󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆓󰃎󰂺
Archival Sources
󰂶ivojin Peri
   󰂶    󰂶  
󰂺
󰂶󰂺
󰂶󰆔󰆓󰆖󰂶󰂶
󰄀󰆗󰆜󰂺󰆓󰆓󰆗󰂺
    󰂶      
Investigate Crimes Committed by the Occupiers and their Collaborators on the
󰂶󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆖󰄍󰆔󰆜󰆗󰆛󰂶󰄀󰆗󰆜󰂺󰆓󰆓󰆘󰂺
 󰂶     󰂹󰃈󰃈󰂺󰂺󰃈unwcc
󰄀archives󰃈󰃍󰆔󰆕󰆓󰆕󰆔󰃎󰂺
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This study investigates the process of Jewish communal rebuilding in Yugoslavia after the Holocaust. Focusing on the activities of the central Jewish organization in the period, the Federation of Jewish Communities, it explores linkages between Jewish identity, politics, social memory, and ideology in the context of a multiethnic socialist state. It tells the story of the Jewish rebuilding efforts in the post-Holocaust era in Yugoslavia in order to show how commemorative practices and processes of identification emerge, position themselves in, and are shaped by a matrix of conflicting state and non-state political projects. Taking advantage of the political climate in postwar Yugoslavia, the leadership of the central Jewish organization situated its rebuilding efforts within a wider narrative of Yugoslav reconstruction spearheaded by the Communist government. From rebuilding communal infrastructure to dedicating monuments to Jewish victims of the Holocaust, the leaders of the Federation of Jewish Communities pushed through a rebuilding agenda that was a part of a wider Yugoslav narrative, and that defined Jewishness as an identity firmly rooted in the new Yugoslav political project. By focusing on several micro-level debates about the boundaries of Jewishness in Yugoslavia, the dissertation shows how patterns of Jewish identification formed within the discursive framework provided by the new Yugoslav socialist ideology. This dissertation aims to contribute to the integration of seemingly separate ???Jewish??? and ???non-Jewish??? histories, provide insights into the processes of creation of space for Jewish identification in socialism and the forging of diverse Jewish identities after the Holocaust, as well as into the politics of memory and the competing narratives of victimhood in postwar Europe and their consequences for different politics of nationhood.
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This article addresses the normative framework of the concept of “crimes against humanity” from the perspective of intellectual history, by scrutinizing legal debates of marginalized (and exiled) academic–juridical actors within the United Nations War Crimes Commission (UNWCC). Decisive for its successful implementation were two factors: the growing scale of mass violence against civilians during the Second World War, and the strong support and advocacy of “peripheral actors,” jurists forced into exile in London by the war. These jurists included representatives of smaller Allied countries from around the world, who used the commission's work to push for a codification of international law, which finally materialized during the London Conference of August 1945. This article studies the process of mediation and the emergence of legal concepts. It thereby introduces the concept of “legal flows” to highlight the different strands and older traditions of humanitarian law involved in coining new law. The experience of exile is shown to have had a significant constitutive function in the globalization of a concept (that of “crimes against humanity”).
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The 1941 Axis invasion of Yugoslavia initially left the German occupiers with a pacified Serbian heartland willing to cooperate in return for relatively mild treatment. Soon, however, the outbreak of resistance shattered Serbia’s seeming tranquility, turning the country into a battlefield and an area of bitter civil war. Deftly merging political and social history, Serbia under the Swastika looks at the interactions between Germany’s occupation policies, the various forces of resistance and collaboration, and the civilian population. Alexander Prusin reveals a German occupying force at war with itself. Pragmatists intent on maintaining a sedate Serbia increasingly gave way to Nazified agencies obsessed with implementing the expansionist racial vision of the Third Reich. As Prusin shows, the increasing reliance on terror catalyzed conflict between the nationalist Chetniks, communist Partisans, and the collaborationist government. Prusin unwraps the winding system of expediency that at times led the factions to support one-another against the Germans--even as they fought a ferocious internecine civil war to determine the future of Yugoslavia. © 2017 by the Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois. All rights reserved.
Article
(Draft version of a paper presented at "Debacles" Conference, held in November 2016 at the Max Planck Institute Luxembourg) In the aftermath of the Nuremberg and Tokyo trials, most international lawyers focused on their importance and legacy. Although the legal and moral value of the two major trials against the (surviving) members of the Axis Alliance appears indisputable, their success runs parallel with the almost untold story of the decision to conceal the responsibilities of the Italian forces. In October 1943, the Allied leaders had established the United Nations War Crimes Commission, an independent body tasked with investigating and recording the evidence of war crimes, and identifying where possible the individuals responsible; and reporting to the Governments concerned, when there was prima facie case for the prosecution of those individuals. Indeed, by March 1948 the Commission identified and listed more than 1,200 Italian nationals, who could have been held accountable for heinous war crimes, and in particular those committed on the territories of Ethiopia and Yugoslavia. On 1 November 1943 the Big Three (UK, USA and USSR) had also adopted the Moscow Declaration, agreeing that Italian war criminals had to be brought to justice. This proposition would be broadened by the Treaty of Peace with Italy, signed in February 1947, which Article 45 established that Italy should have arrested and surrendered for trial the persons accused of having committed, ordered, or abetted war crimes and crimes against peace or humanity by any Allied or Associated Power (including Ethiopia, since under Article 38 this provision would be applicable to all acts entailing the responsibility of Italy or Italian national towards it, from 3 October 1935). Despite these initiatives, apart from the 40 trials the British conducted in Italy immediately after the end of the conflict, no Italian would be held accountable for the commission of international crimes. In fact, since 1944 the Italian governments put in place diversionary strategies, with the effect of obstructing the enforcement of the obligations undertaken – and eventually the execution of the arrest warrants issued against Italian individuals. These strategies would never succeed, if at the same time the Italian governments hadn’t made significant efforts to build strong ties with the Allies (and in particular USA and UK) and to “reposition” the country. As a result, while on the one hand Italy was authorized to submit charges to the UNWCC (thus being recognized also as a victim of war crimes), to establish a national Commission of Inquiry to assess the charges brought by Yugoslavia (with the declared task of identifying the individuals to be brought to justice), and to adopt a generalized amnesty aimed at “pacifying the country”; on the other, its counterparts, and in particular Yugoslavia and Ethiopia, were actively discouraged from requesting the execution of the arrest warrants issued against Italian high officers, including Marshal Badoglio, who had been entrusted in September 1943 with creating a first post-Fascist government together with King Victor Emmanuel III. To sum up, the main proposition of this paper is that the missed prosecution of Italian alleged war criminals represents a debacle of the international community, for three main reasons. First of all, because the members of the international community, and in particular the Great Powers, were directly responsible for the non-enforcement of the new-born international criminal law, and in particular of the obligations undertaken by Italy between 1943 and 1947. Secondly, because for reasons of expediency, the victims of the crimes committed by Italy, and in particular Ethiopians and Yugoslavs, have never been provided with the same kind of justice which was granted to the victims of the other two members of the Axis. Lastly, because by granting a de facto amnesty to the individuals identified by the UNWCC as the most responsible for the crimes, the international community also paved the way for the adoption by the De Gasperi government of a generalized, de iure amnesty (the so-called “Togliatti Amnesty”), by which Italy “condoned” the crimes committed by Fascists and collaborators on the national territory. The combination of these initiatives would finally result in a “collective amnesia”, which constitutes a second victimization of the victims of those crimes, both at the national and international level.
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This article focuses on British policy towards the treatment of alleged Italian war criminals at the end of the second world war and, in particular, those requested by Yugoslavia for extradition. It reveals that far from conspiring to shield Italians registered as war criminals by the United Nations War Crimes Commission (UNWCC), Britain endeavoured to ensure that they were brought to justice. It also assesses the pressures that affected the implementation of British ‘hand-over’ policy and examines the developments that led to the decision by the British government to pass on to the Italians the responsibility of implementing ‘hand-overs’ and punishing Italian war criminals.