Optimising sustainable mobility: A performance assessment of non-motorised transport infrastructure in Johannesburg, South Africa

Abstract

Transportation systems are somewhat incomplete without integrating non-motorised transport (NMT) facilities to ensure safety, security, convenience, productivity and reduced environmental impact from such projects. This study examined the performance of NMT infrastructure and services provided to ensure smart transport and mobility in Johannesburg, South Africa. Two projects were identified as case studies, and a total of 21 semi-structured, open-ended interviews were conducted with residents and other road users in the vicinity of the projects to enable the acquisition of relevant information. Data was analysed using thematic content analysis supported with Atlas-ti software. Findings revealed that, although the facilities are in good condition and adequately maintained, the usage level is low. Incidents of poor safety and security were reported. Nevertheless, new value-added businesses operate along the routes and users indicated some satisfaction with their travel experience. To achieve value creation where NMTs are provided, it is crucial to ensure that the "smartness" of the cities is achieved and sustained. The practical implication of this study is the provision of invaluable information towards assisting road and NMT infrastructure stakeholders in improving the planning and delivery of sustainable transport infrastructure. Future studies will benefit from using more case study projects to strengthen these findings further and improve the generalisability.

Full text

67
DR CHIOMA OKO RO is a Senior Lec turer and
Research P rogramme Manage r within the
Department of Finance and Investment
Managemen t in the College of Bus iness and
Economics at the University of
Johannesburg. Her professional and
research e xperience cent res on real est ate
development, facilities management,
constru ction health a nd safety, and su stainable inf rastruc ture. She is the
Vice-Ch air and Treasurer of the S outhern Afr ican Chapter of the A frican
Real Est ate Society. She h as been a scienti c and technica l review
panellist f or internatio nal conferences a nd journals, and a gu est editor fo r
the International Journal of Construction Management.
Contact details:
School of Management
College of Business and Economics
University of Johannesburg
Auckland Park Campus
Auckland Par k 2006
Johannesburg
South Africa
T: +27 11 559 4926
E: chiomao@uj.ac.za
DR KENNET H LAWANI is a Senior Lec turer
and Researc her in Constru ction
Managemen t in the School of Com puting,
Engineer ing and Built Envir onment at
Glasgow Caledonian University. His research
interest s are in Constr uction Manage ment
and Waste, Construction Occupational
Safet y and Health, Workf orce Engagemen t,
applicati on of AR/VR tec hnologies in Con structi on Safety, Gener ative
Design, and M odular Constr uction and Aut omation. He is an ac tive
member of var ious profess ional bodies – Fe llow of the Higher Edu cation
Academy (FHE A), Chartered Me mber of the Asso ciation of Build ing
Engineer (C ABE), member of the Temp orary Works f orum (TWf ) Scotland,
and member of t he Internation al Council for Re search and Innovat ion in
Building and Construction (CIB) Working Group W099.
Contact details:
School of Computing, Engineering and Built Environment
Glasgow Caledonian University
Cowcaddens Road
Glasgow G4 0 BA
United Kingdom
T: +27 141 331 8958
E: kenneth.lawani@gcu.ac.uk
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1063-0615
Keywords: non-motorised transport, infrastructure, South Africa,
sustainable transport ation, feasibility studies
Okoro CS, Lawani K. Optimising sustainable mobility: A performance assessment of non-motorised transpor t infrastructure in Johannesburg,
South Afr ica. J. S. Afr. Inst. Ci v. Eng. 2022:64(2), Art. #1188, 10 pages. ht tp://dx.doi.org /10.17159/2309- 8775/2022/v64no2a 6
TECHNICAL PAPER
JOURNAL OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN
INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
ISSN 1021-2019
Vol 64 No 2, June 2022, Pages 67–76, Paper 1188
INTRODUCTION
The sustainability of transportation
systems is a global concern, and has been
for decades (Zhou 2012). Sustainable
transportation could provide the present
needs without compromising the ability
of future generations to fulfil their own
needs (World Commission on Environment
and Development 1987). The essence of
developing transportation infrastructure is
to provide an all-inclusive means of mobilit y
for users towards supporting daily oppor-
tunities with minimal externalities and
environmental impacts (Wang et al 2018).
Furthermore, sustainable transportation
infrastructure results in economic growth,
reduced poverty and improved quality of life
in urban areas (Litman 2016; Tsikai2016).
An indispensable aspect of sustainable
and economically efficient transportation
is non-motorised transportation (NMT).
NMT, also called active transport and
human-powered transport, includes all
forms of travel that do not rely on an engine
or motor for movement, including walking,
cycling, using small-wheeled transport
(skates, skateboards, push scooters and
hand carts) and wheelchairs (Yazid et al
2011; Vanderschuren 2012; Jain & Patil
2015). In most South African cities there is
an increase in population, and the reliance
on NMT will become inevitable over time.
Studies show that the adoption of NMT
and technological developments enhances
mobility and economic development in
many cities, while the attendant negative
impacts of motorised transportation can-
not be overlooked (Vanderschuren et al
2014; Ligege & Nyarirangwe 2015). The
inadequate management and poor mainte-
nance of vehicles, carbon emissions, traffic
congestion, road accidents and consumption
of finite resources pose worrying concerns
in transportation infrastructure delivery
(Ya zid et al 2011; Rastogi 2011; Balsas 2015).
Therefore, the significance of NMT is
crucial towards protecting the environment,
improving lives and making cities more
inclusive, as indicated in the United Nations’
Sustainable Development Goal (SDG)
number 11. NMT is important because it
aims to reduce the environmental impacts
Optimising sustainable
mobility: A performance
assessment of non-motorised
transport infrastructure in
Johannesburg, South Africa
C S Okoro, K Lawani
Transportation systems are somewhat incomplete without integrating non-motorised transport
(NMT) facilities to ensure safety, security, convenience, productivity and reduced environmental
impact from such projects. This study examined the performance of NMT infrastructure and
services provided to ensure smart transport and mobility in Johannesburg, South Africa.
Two projects were identified as case studies, and a total of 21 semi-structured, open-ended
interviews were conducted with residents and other road users in the vicinity of the projects
to enable the acquisition of relevant information. Data was analysed using thematic content
analysis supported with Atlas-ti software. Findings revealed that, although the facilities are in
good condition and adequately maintained, the usage level is low. Incidents of poor safety and
security were reported. Nevertheless, new value-added businesses operate along the routes
and users indicated some satisfaction with their travel experience. To achieve value creation
where NMTs are provided, it is crucial to ensure that the “smartness” of the cities is achieved
and sustained. The practical implication of this study is the provision of invaluable information
towards assisting road and NMT infrastructure stakeholders in improving the planning and
delivery of sustainable transport infrastructure. Future studies will benefit from using more case
study projects to strengthen these findings further and improve the generalisability.

Volume 64 Number 2 June 2022 Journal of the South African Institution of Civil Engineering68
of transport developments and maintains
a clean and healthy environment for good
quality of life (Steg & Gifford 2008). The role
and the effectiveness of NMT infrastructure
in enhancing economic development and
achieving SDGs were emphasised by the
World Bank (2017). The projections of
SDG11.2 indicate that by 2030 most societ-
ies should be capable of providing access to
affordable, accessible and sustainable trans-
port systems for all, improving road safety,
notably by expanding public transport,
with particular attention to the needs of the
vulnerable population (women, children,
disabled and elderly) (UN Habitat 2020).
Economically efficient, equitable and
sustainable urban transport planning can be
achieved by delivering multi-modal trans-
port systems inclusive of non-motorised
modes (Rastogi 2011). Similarly, most
people in many parts of the world are
reliant on NMT as a travel mode because
it is environmentally less damaging and
improves accessibility and social cohesion
(Nuriye et al 2014). However, the provision
and sustainability of NMT infrastructure
are fraught with challenges such as lack of
existing infrastructure, poor traffic safety
records, limited funding, lack of parking
facilities, and affordability (Yazid et al 2011;
Labuschagne & Ribbens 2014). Furthermore,
NMT users are seldom given due consider-
ation or consultation during the planning
and provision of sustainable transportation
infrastructure, making this study timely.
There are existing studies on NMT
infrastructure. Nuriye et al (2 014) showe d
the predominance and distribution (nature)
of NMT usage by households in Ethiopia,
while Mitullah and Opiyo (2012) highlight-
ed the challenges of implementing NMT
infrastructure in Nairobi. These studies
indicated that policy challenges, inappropri-
ate design and location, lack of supporting
measures to prevent encroachment on NMT
infrastructures such as footbridges, traffic-
calming measures and pedestrian crossing
signs hinder the implementation of NMT
infrastructure. Mkhize et al (2009), and
Labuschagne and Ribbens (2014) focused on
policies and planning framework to support
the delivery of NMT infrastructure, and
indicated the role of NMTs in South Africa
as an independent and primary mode in
transport planning and feeder systems to
public transport ser vices. Mokitimi and
Vanderschuren (2016) investigated the state
of NMT infrastructure in the Limpopo
Province of South Africa, emphasising
pedestrian safety improvement. The City of
Johannesburg’s (CoJ) efforts to improve the
state of NMT infrastructure along major
Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) linkages were also
captured in the planning and feasibility
studies (CoJ 2016). This study evaluates
the performance of NMT infrastructure
through the lens of the end-users to proffer
ways of improving its performance and sus-
tainability in two areas served mainly by the
BRT in Johannesburg. The study is signifi-
cant because there is a dearth of literature
focusing on the actual performance of such
NMT infrastructure in South Africa.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Non-motorised transport
infrastructure
NMT infrastructure plays an essential
and unique role in providing an efficient
transport system, thereby providing essential
mobility and accessibility to daily opportuni-
ties. NMT is a sustainable form of mobility
and is considered by most people in any
country as a reliable travel mode (Nuriye et
al 2014). In cities in Japan, Germany and the
Netherlands, 40% to 60% of all trips are made
by walking and cycling, and in large African
cities like Kinshasa in the Democratic
Republic of Congo, and Dar es Salaam in
Tanzania, walking accounts for two-thirds of
total trips (Vanderschuren 2012). Provision
and improvement of NMT infrastructure
result in the prevention of several diseases,
increased life expectancy, reduction in health
care costs, and improvement in health and
wellbeing – thus a beneficial investment
(Skayann is et al 2017; 2018). Sustainable
NMT infrastructure also reduces the
environmental impacts of transport develop-
ments towards maintaining a clean and
healthy environment for a good quality of life
(Steg & Gifford 2008). Therefore, major cities
are progressively moving towards NMT as a
sustainable transportation system (Mkhize et
al 2009; Rastogi 2011; Yazid et al 2011).
Performance indicators for non-
motorised transport infrastructure
The adoption of performance measure-
ment involves analysing how well policies,
programmes and projects perform concern-
ing their intended goals (Dhingra 2011). It
includes monitoring and evaluating different
aspects that commonly affect operating
conditions, such as traffic f low, safety,
road maintenance conditions, accessibility
and environmental impact (Fancello et al
2014). Key performance indicators for road
transportation infrastructure have tradition-
ally been associated with technical measures,
emphasising functional performance, visual
appearance and structural integrity (Horak
et al 2001). However, road infrastructure user
surveys should include various kinds of users,
including NMT users (Parkhurst et al 2015).
The performance of NMT infrastructure
can be viewed as sustainable when there
are good traffic calming and manage-
ment measures in place, reduced traffic
injuries and incidents, improvements in
infrastructure, reduction of environmental
impacts, enhancement in the quality of life
and health of users, as well as benefits to
the functionality of the city (Vanderschuren
2012; Skayannis et al 2018). Therefore, the
evaluation of the performance of NMT
projects was considered based on the follow-
ing indicators by authors Kenworthy (2006),
Vanderschuren (2012), Vanderschuren et al
(2015), Mokitimi and Vanderschuren (2016),
and Baufeldt and Vanderschuren (2017):
QLevel of usage of the facilities – sus-
tainable NMT mobility considers the
fact that NMT has a robust desire line
approach, which is based on identifying
the shortest and most used paths.
QTraffic management (in terms of speed
and volume) – traffic that conflicts with
NMT must be managed, and existing
traffic calming measures put in place to
control the speed and volume of traffic.
QUser satisfaction – an integrated
approach to providing NMT facilities,
which considers the various stakeholders
involved and their level of satisfaction.
QLevel of service – the services provided
by NMT infrastructure should serve the
needs of multiple users at a reasonable
cost within the physical constraints of
the available road reserve.
QSafety and security – the perceived
safety and security by users should be
improved with NMT infrastructure.
QQuality of facilities – the condition of
non-motorised modes and facilities is
a key dimension in the development of
sustainable cities.
QImproved commercial activities along
the route.
QComfort and convenience.
The performance of NMT infrastructure
was also assessed based on intended objec-
tives for implementing the projects at the
time of planning, such as the end-users’ pri-
orities and needs (Ramorobi et al 2010). The
projects included in this study were intended
to enhance accessibility to nearby BRT sta-
tions and improve the users’ quality of life.

Journal of the South African Institution of Civil Engineering Volume 64 Number 2 June 2022 69
METHODS
Research design
This study adopted a multiple case study
approach to obtain in-depth information
regarding the performance of NMT infra-
structure based on the end-users’ perception
from selected case study areas. The case
study method was fundamental because it
explores a real-life contemporary system (a
case) or multiple bounded systems (cases)
over time, through detailed, in-depth data
collection involving multiple sources of
information, and reports a case description
and case themes (Creswell 2013:97). It can
involve an in-depth investigation of a single
or small number of units at a specific point
in time. Case study approaches are some-
times criticised for being biased or capable
of selecting wrong cases, which could result
in the lack of theoretical generalisation, but
the use of multiple cases helps overcome
this shortcoming, and the use of a case
study approach is becoming increasingly
popular, thus demonstrating its credibility
(Thomas 2011; Hyett et al 2014). Adequately
contextualising this study meant investi-
gating the core issues through the lens of
the end-users of the NMT infrastructure
relative to their experiences, perceptions
and how they attribute meaning to specific
events through semi-structured interviews
(Creswell & Creswell 2018).
Sampling
A qualitative research method using a
purposive non-probability sampling strat-
egy was adopted as the most appropriate
strategy. The rationale for using purposive
sampling is to focus on specific predefined
groups (NMT users) assumed to be repre-
sentative (a cross-section) of the population
(Creswell 2014; Creswell & Poth 2017). A
total of 21 semi-structured interviews were
conducted in 2018, and it was identified
that no new information was emerging and
therefore having additional participants
would not necessarily add more value
(Mason 2010). Qualitative studies do not
require large sample sizes because the aim
is not generalisability but rather to obtain
rich information on the participants’ expe-
riences. Furthermore, saturation can occur
among a relatively homogenous population
of multiple case studies with a sample
of 12 participants (Boddy 2016). The 21
participants comprised thirteen males and
eight females, i.e. four students, two street
vendors, two security guards, two shop-
keepers, one receptionist, one delivery man,
one restaurant owner and one antiques
shop owner, while seven participants failed
to disclose their occupation.
Interview data collection
The data collection was based on the per-
ception of the users of the NMT infrastruc-
ture, and adopting a semi-structured open-
ended interview approach was useful in
gaining more insight through their lens. The
interview schedule addressed the following
context: perceived safety using the improved
routes, level of usage, cleanliness, cost,
maintenance, interference of motorists and
land-use patterns, the mode of transport
they predominantly use (demand or level of
usage), the improvements made in the area,
the level of satisfaction with the quality/con-
dition of infrastructure, frequency of infra-
structure maintenance and quality, traffic
management and control, safety manage-
ment programmes in the community, value-
added elements such as the attractiveness of
the area, street furniture and the emergence
of new business ventures. Other aspects
included accessibility of the infrastructure
to all, including the disabled (sidewalks with
wheelchair access and ramps) and com-
munity involvement in maintenance. These
items further build on existing contexts
identified in literature as performance meas-
ures for NMT infrastructure (Kenworthy
2006; Vanderschuren 2012; Vanderschuren
et al 2015; Mokitimi & Vanderschuren 2016;
Baufeldt & Vanderschuren 2017; Skayannis
et al 2018).
Out of the 21 interviews, 10 were in
two South African native languages (Zulu
and Sotho) because the people felt more
comfortable being engaged in their native
language. Therefore, the questions were
translated from plain English to Zulu and
Sotho, while the responses were tran-
scribed and translated verbatim to plain
English by the researchers. Eleven partici-
pants preferred to be interviewed in the
English language. The average length of the
sessions was 25 minutes. The purpose of
the study was explained, and participants’
consent was sought to audio-record the
sessions before commencement.
Data analysis
The data was thematically analysed with
the aid of ATLAS-ti scientific software to
identify common themes related to the
performance of NMT infrastructure. The
six-phase approach in Braun and Clarke
(2006) was adopted to ensure trustworthi-
ness in the research. These entailed famil-
iarisation with the data (immersing oneself
to understand the meaning of the words in
the transcriptions); generating initial codes
(identifying and collating codes relevant to
answering the research question); search-
ing for themes (identif ying codes with
similar patterns); reviewing themes (against
the collated data extracts and research
question); defining and naming themes
(in relation to literature, to capture many
realities and provide accuracy); and writing
up (compiling the report logically). The two
projects were analysed on a case-by-case
basis, but the ensuing discussion collec-
tively used cross-case analysis to identify
the factors captured in the performance of
both projects. Through cross-case analysis,
it was possible to identify, compare and
validate attributes common to these cases
(Ghauri & Firth 2009; Beermann 2017).
REFERENCE CASE STUDIES
The two case study projects are the
Rosebank–Sandton and Soweto–
Johannesburg Central Business District
(CBD) Line 1B NMT infrastructure. These
are presented in terms of the brief feasibil-
ity studies and factors considered during
the planning phase. Table 1 gives a profile
Table 1 Profile of the case study projects
No Project
Project characteristics
Description
Feasibility
study
timeline
Procurement/
financing
structure
Number
of private
partners
Project
amount
Number
of years in
operation
1NMT–Soweto, Johannesburg CBD and Line 1B New 2012–2013 Public Nil R2 315 000 3
2NMT–Rosebank–Sandton Upgrade 2014 Public Nil N /A 2

Volume 64 Number 2 June 2022 Journal of the South African Institution of Civil Engineering70
of the projects, which have been opera-
tional for three and two years, respectively.
Figure 1 shows the NMT routes as pro-
posed in 2009 along BRT lines within the
CoJ Metropole (Figure 2) in the Gauteng
Province of South Africa.
Case Study 1: Rosebank–Sandton
NMT infrastructure
The Rosebank–Sandton NMT project
was a rehabilitation project that entailed
improvements on existing NMT infra-
structure. The CoJ undertook these
improvements to cater for walking and
cycling passengers on these routes. The
facilities included sidewalks, cycle paths
and lanes; lighting to improve security;
signage, route markers and information
kiosks; landscaping and street furniture;
special needs passenger accessibility; and
pedestrian crossings (CoJ 2016). These
improvements were intended to address
critical aspects of the Johannesburg
Growth and Development Strategy
outcomes, including economic growth,
environmental quality, accessibility and
connectivity, liveability (create a vibrant
public realm with high-quality public
space), social cohesion and inclusivity;
and public transport orientated develop-
ment and intermodal integration. The
implementation comprised four routes in
the area, including Route 1, which con-
nects Rosebank to Sandton; Route 2, which
serves the Parkview area and links to the
Rosebank CBD; and Routes 3 and 4 linking
Melrose Arch to Rosebank. The Rosebank–
Sandton NMT project was included in this
study because of the sustainability and
socio-economic impact and the availability
of rich data on the feasibility studies con-
ducted for the project.
Rationale, processes and business case
The feasibility study for the project was
conducted in 2014, and it compared and
considered the proposed routes and initia-
tives with other NMT projects planned
in the area to align and integrate them
with existing proposals. Similarly, traffic
counts were conducted to determine the
demand along routes and major intersec-
tions. The NMT policy guidelines and
framework, as well as national, provincial
and municipal policies, included the
National NMT Policy 2008, Pedestrian
and Bicycle Facility Guidelines 2002,
National Public Transport Action Plan
2007, Gauteng Province Draft NMT Policy
2011, 2025 Gauteng Integrated Transport
Master Plan 2013, the CoJ Draft NMT
Policy, and the Department of Transport’s
NMT Facility Guidelines 2014. Another
international guideline and planning doc-
ument was the 2009 Connect2Greenways
Guidelines, Sustrans, United Kingdom
(Wray & Gotz 2014).
Selection criteria
For the Rosebank–Sandton NMT, factors
such as congestion levels (traffic), usage
of (demand for) the services, needs of the
users, safety, design, condition of exist-
ing infrastructure, natural environment,
parking facilities, accessibility (distances
Figure 1 Non-motorised transport routes as proposed in 2009 (CoJ 2013b)
Figure 2 Map of Gauteng showing the City of Johannesburg Metropolitan (SA Venues 2021)

Journal of the South African Institution of Civil Engineering Volume 64 Number 2 June 2022 71
to users), and cost were considered. In
addition, other specific conditions of the
environment (topography, condition of land
use, walking distances and integration with
existing motorised transport facilities) were
paramount considerations, similar to the
study conducted by Yazid et al (2011). The
provision of NMT facilities should cater to
a wide range of users by ensuring the safety
of road users, improved liveability, welfare,
and the environmental and sustainability
issues (Vanderschuren et al 2015).
Case Study 2: Soweto–Johannesburg
CBD and Line 1B NMT infrastructure
The CoJ proposed new pedestrian
linkages and infrastructure along the
Soweto–Johannesburg CBD and Line 1B
routes requiring facilities for NMT for
ease of access to BRT stations. The routes
included streets providing major link-
ages to the Rea Vaya Stations in Soweto,
and the Johannesburg CBD and Line 1B
project (including the UJ–Wits route, i.e.
University of Johannesburg and University
of the Witwatersrand) within the CoJ.
The estimated cost for the projects was
approximately R2 315 000 ($170 000) (CoJ
2013a:9). These included cost for light-
ing, sidewalks and cycling infrastructure
improvements. This study evaluated the
NMT projects because they are a strategic
form of transportation that attracts little
attention even though it provides variety
and contributes to a holistic inclusion of all
forms of transportation infrastructure.
Rationale, processes, and business case
The feasibility study was conducted in
2012–2013. It entailed site investigations,
interviews, and surveys to determine the
community’s needs based on passenger
volume and needs, the condition of facili-
ties and safety within the areas in accessing
the Rea Vaya stations by walking and
cycling. The stakeholder routes and pre-
ferred lines were identified, and the needs
of the community members and users
were investigated using interviews and site
observations. A passenger interview survey
was introduced to establish the peak hour
for commuter volume, station passenger
counts, condition of facilities, amenities
and pedestrian links, and accident occur-
rence rates along the networks. The UJ–
Wits proposed routes in the Johannesburg
CBD were further verified and updated
with stakeholder consultations and site vis-
its (CoJ 2013a), with references to existing
infrastructure audit observations.
Selection criteria
The criteria for selecting priority passenger
volume, community facilities, quality of
infrastructure (percentage of inadequate
or non-existent), pedestrian infrastructure
(areas with the greatest needs within the sta-
tion precinct), distances walked >30minutes
to access the stations (proximity to stations),
and pedestrian accident occurrence (places
within the station precincts which are
unsafe for pedestrians to use) (CoJ2013a:8).
The feasibility study (Johannesburg CBD–
UJ/Wits route) incorporated topography,
current land use and desire lines, urban
quality, impact on current accesses and
businesses, and personal security in addition
to traffic volume and speed. These variables
were deemed to inf luence the performance
of projects during the operational stage
because they pose potential risks to the
project and stakeholders (private investor or
society) and were considered at the feasibil-
ity stage (Bracarense et al 2016).
FINDINGS
The analysis identified common themes
related to the performance of NMT
infrastructure. The performance of the
Rosebank–Sandton NMT infrastructure
was evaluated based on the intended objec-
tives of improving accessibility and quality
of life of users viz-a-viz aspects, including
the level of usage (demand) for the non-
motorised facilities, state of the facilities,
congestion, new business ventures, uni-
versal accessibility, safety, and satisfaction
with the transport infrastructure condition
and services. Likewise, the performance
of the Soweto–Johannesburg CBD NMT
projects was assessed based on acces-
sibility, quality of infrastructure (pleasant
cycling and walking environment and state
of the sidewalks provided), as well as per-
ceived safety while accessing the Rea Vaya
stations. This study also reflects on the
maintenance of the facilities, the transport
needs and satisfaction, concerns with noise
pollution, and community involvement in
cleaning and maintenance of the facilities.
In addition, issues related to safety and
security of users residing farther from the
stations and needing to walk longer dis-
tances were considered.
Level of usage
The high level of dependence on privately
owned cars in urban areas and the low
population densities and developments
in the rural areas, coupled with lack of
accessibility to transport links or hubs,
can make mobility and commuting oner-
ous. Moreover, in developing countries
there is very little consideration of or a
sense of awareness regarding planning
for mobility in cities to incorporate NMT
infrastructure, and little attention is paid
to the needs of NMT users in terms of
road space, crossings and other ameni-
ties, thus resulting in increased accidents
(UNHabitat2009).
Although the NMT infrastructure
facilities were improved in the case study
areas to increase access to nearby BRT
stations, participants reported that the
facilities were in low demand as they (the
participants) had alternative modes of
transport besides the BRT (including taxis
and Uber), so they had little or no need
for NMT infrastructure nearby the BRTs.
According to the respondents:
There are cycling lanes along the route …
but I do not think anybody uses t hem …
maybe they use them at night or early in
the morning … but I seriously doubt it.
I have not used the BRT in a long time.
I drive now or use tax is when I wa nt to
save fuel.
I use taxi. I have no ot her options.
Access is not easy. I find it easier to use
taxis – I want to u se it, but I can’t, because
they do not have stations where I live. It is
about a 45-minute walk to access the BRT.
I use the BRTs more than taxis; there
are delays, but it is more efficient in the
morning [when] there are a lot of buses …
I do not use the BRT … I sometimes
use taxis. But mostly, I use the bike.
I use Uber when I need to get to work
quicker or to the airport or in a rush.
Otherwise, I use Gautra in …
The participants’ perceived level of usage
indicated minimal uptake of the use of the
NMT facilities. Issues highlighted were
accessibility and availability of alternative
modes of transport. The improvement of
the NMT facilities seemed to meet the
general needs of the pedestrians, but those
of the cyclists are inadequate.
Traffic congestion
Traffic congestion in South Africa relative
to other parts of the world contributes to
environmental, social and economic costs in
the form of high resource consumption and
greenhouse gas emissions. Therefore, devel-
oped nations and major cities around the
world are strategically improving their transit

Volume 64 Number 2 June 2022 Journal of the South African Institution of Civil Engineering72
networks with greener alternatives and com-
plementing these with NMT to avoid traffic
congestion. Regarding traffic congestion, the
participants in both areasreported:
… There are spaces for cyclists at the back
of the mal l. That improved because of the
Rea Vaya. They had to make provision
for the cyclists, but the problem is t hat
whenever they improve and add demarca-
tions, U ber and taxis always find a way to
blockthose …
The road is ver y busy because there
are taverns and food stalls there … so
instead of using t wo lanes, they use one
lane … most cars are parked by the food
stalls … so it is not t hat there is traf fic
congestion. Traffic is flowing, just that the
road is busy … generally, the busier roads
get congested sometimes … for example,
a circle by N17, there’s a lot of traf fic there
… it’s a central road … traffic of ficers
control traffic there during peak hours …
Traffic f low is horrendous and with
construction happening in each corner. …
Those construction companies are operat-
ing at the same time when we’re supposed
to be getting to work.
There is too much maintenance on the
roads now … we are all sharing one lane
and it is heavily congested.
From 14:00 to 19:0 0 the traffic is bad
… the buses just stop on the roads …
there is no bus stop. Even Rea Vaya stops
on the road. On some roads, there’s just a
shelter and sig npost … they cause traffic
congestion …
There are no la nes for the Rea Vaya …
The participants’ accounts indicated that
NMT facilities were being misused due to
inadequate parking facilities for motorised
transport and ongoing maintenance. Plans to
improve NMT infrastructure delivery should
include measures to incorporate and manage
design elements that could impact traffic
management and calming measures in the
areas. For example, strategies may include
lowering the speed limits of motorised traf-
fic, and increasing the number of road traffic
officers and speed cameras. In addition,
attention to design elements, such as the
provision of dedicated lanes for BRTs and
parking facilities for cyclists would alleviate
traffic problems (Vanderschuren et al 2014).
Quality and condition
of infrastructure
One of the significant difficulties with
NMT facilities is the ability to consistently
maintain the quality, cleanliness and
condition of these facilities to meet the
needs of users such as pedestrians, wheel-
chair users and cyclists. The following
are examples of study participants’ mixed
feedback, ranging from satisfactory main-
tenance and cleaning to relatively good
infrastructure (pedestrian walkways and
cycle lanes):
Road works are done … stormwater and
drainage issues are fi xed …
The streets mostly are clean … waste
disposal is okay … dumped in a f ield,
incinerated at times ...”
The roads are clean.
There is always someone doing some-
thing … In terms of cleanliness, they are
number 1.
… there are no potholes … Diepk loof
[in Soweto] is an area that is developed,
there are not a lot of things that need to be
improved … there aren’t much issues there
… they are in good condition …
Phase 2 is okay and clean because it
is relatively new … the cleaner side of
Soweto.
Happy with maintenance and cleaning
… but when there is a strike, no one comes
around.
Some of the participants strongly believed
that the level of maintenance could be
better:
Sandton roads are not good, even though
it is a nice area. I have never understood
that. It is not that amazing.
… they do the paving … drainage
issues happen once in a while …
They have done the sidewalks,
although they are not in good condition,
not maintained regula rly. They do not
maintain the pavements anymore.
There are streetlights, but they do not
work; things get vandalised … there a re no
cycle lanes around this side.
The condition of the roads [pavements]
is not good … some potholes here and
there … but the sidewalks are fine, clean
and maintained.
… General ly, the quality is good, but
there is always room for improvement.
Other comments on community participa-
tion in cleaning and maintenance were
proffered:
The residents clean their part of the street
… It is how we grew up … so t hat the part
of the street looks presentable … other
than that, some people clean these roads.
There is th is program called Jozi-At-
Work … they do waste management, try
to maintain the parks and roads … they
are community members … Pik-It-Up also
collects waste.
Pik-It-Up comes once a week on
Thursdays to clean.
Other issues raised were poor visibility
and lack of appropriate road demarcations
and markings. There was evidence of
inadequate maintenance with vegetation,
waste and loose paving along the walk-
ways in some of the areas. For the CoJ to
achieve cleaner streets and sustainable
NMT infrastructure quality, there should
be well-structured longterm strategic
policies for urban planning to effectively
ensure that the quality and conditions
of the available infrastructure are fit for
purpose, meet the demand for connectiv-
ity, safety and community goals (Handy
& McCann 2010). Decisions about where
and how to invest in NMT infrastructure
and how to prioritise investments that can
improve facilities are critical for metro-
politan areas (Handy & McCann 2010).
Furthermore, the maintenance cost of
NMT facilities requires careful considera-
tion and planning, as it can become signif-
icantly overwhelming for a municipality’s
budget. However, proper implementation
of such projects can improve accessibility,
inclusivity, acceptance and usage in the
local communities.
Safety and security
Safety and security issues are barriers
to NMT use, including other socio-
economic and geographic factors such
as land use developments that restrict
users’ movement, freeways and rail lines
with inadequate safe crossing points,
high-traffic roads, and security issues.
Therefore, adequate consideration regard-
ing pedestrian safety, and minimising
high traffic volumes and speeding are
requisite decisions rele vant to enhancing
safety within the locations. There are also
safety-related issues regarding cycling in
the lower-income areas of Johannesburg,
which explain the limited number of
cycling activities.
Overall, the participants were con-
cerned about safety and security while
using NMT infrastructure due to recurring
incidents and lack of resolving such issues
by the authorities:

Journal of the South African Institution of Civil Engineering Volume 64 Number 2 June 2022 73
The road is always congested, which
is not safe for c yclists … but there are
streetlights …
… once you leave the stations and have
to walk, it is not safe, especially at dawn
or at night …. when an incident occurs,
you find communities meeting and people
walk ing around at night, keeping a n eye …
we have community police forum … they
rotate vigilance …
… it is the hood … there is always
crime, but there’s guys from the secu rity
company, they come a nd say maybe
every household should contribute so
that they can do vigilante shif ts … the
police are not reliable, even when they are
around there is always crime and people
vandalising.
Security guards are around, but these
days, they all go next to the ma ll, then
there is a higher rate of crime this side and
phone snatches.
Some areas tend to be generally associated
with more crime and road safet y issues
(Morgan 2017). Therefore, users of NMT,
such as cyclist and pedestrians, perceive
that the facilities should have more
direct links to public transport stations
and increased safety and security levels
(Vanderschuren et al 2014). Approximately
40% of the total road traffic accidents
recorded in South Africa in 2012 were
NMT-related (Cooke et al 2017; Mokitimi
& Vanderschuren 2017). Increased CCTV
surveillance and continuous patrol of
law enforcement officers increased the
perception of safety for NMT users in
eThekwini Municipality in Durban, South
Africa (Cele 2018). Also, awareness initia-
tives focusing on road safety education
can provide opportunities for behavioural
changes (for motorised and NMT users
(Cele 2 018)).
User satisfaction
User satisfaction was assessed in terms
of reduced cost in using NMT facilities
due to increased walking and accessibil-
ity near the Rea Vaya, which were some
of the objectives for the provision and
improvement of NMT infrastructure in
the selected case study areas. However, the
participants reported mixed feedback about
savings and accessibility to the stations:
For some people, they have to ta ke more
than one taxi to get to the Rea Vaya.
I am satisfied, we do not have a choice,
there [is] no train station, there are no
options, we just have to use what is avail-
able …
Accessibility for the disabled is okay …
The facilities are not wheelchair-
friendly for anyone. There is nothi ng that
accommodates the disabled. Even the road
from Starbucks is slanted. So, if you roll
off, you roll off.
User satisfaction information captured
over a period of time has the potential to
contribute to infrastructure planning pro-
cesses for municipalities with the capability
of demonstrating user trends, patterns and
behaviour, e.g. cycling activities within
the lanes could serve as a basis for future
developments. Furthermore, with NMT
infrastructure users can enjoy benefits such
as reduced fuel costs, vehicular expenses,
licence fees, registration rates and related
taxes, as well as saving on public transport
fares (Cooke et al 2017). Similarly, to
promote social inclusion, NMT infrastruc-
ture should be accessible to all, including
the disabled (Vanderschuren et al 2015; UN
Habitat 2020).
New business ventures
Some key infrastructural components of
NMT have resulted in the funding of citywide
bicycle-transport infrastructure networks.
Bicycle micro businesses have sprung up
from NMT infrastructures, including other
schemes and initiatives such as lockers, secure
parking of bicycles, Wi-Fi, bicycle repairs/
maintenance services and shops, and sellers of
refreshments and light food along the routes.
According to the participants, such new
businesses have been established since the
improvement of NMT facilities in the areas:
There are business ventures there, the
ones with bicycle lanes … coffee shops,
printing places, lots of stuff going on at the
sides, restaurants.
There are a lot of stores/businesses
that have come up definitely.
I thin k Rosebank is attractive … it’s
central business-wise, so there [are] a lot
of smaller businesses …
Street vendors have mushroomed …
Therefore, the provision and improvement
of NMT facilities add value in terms of
the emergence of street vendors along
the routes and thus economic opportuni-
ties (Baufeldt 2016). Consultation with
local communities and businesses is vital
towards managing the expectations of local
projects in terms of investment and infor-
mal businesses, and supporting initiatives
for job and wealth creation within the local
communities as poverty relief measures.
Table 2 Key findings on the performance of the case study projects
Performance measures/themes Case 1: Rosebank–Sandton NMT Case 2: Soweto–Johannesburg Line 1B NMT
Level of usage Usage (demand) for the non-motorised facilities is low. Level of usage (demand) is high.
Traffic congestion High, partly due to on-going road maintenance.
Evident at peak hours and where Rea Vaya buses stop
along the road because there are no dedicated bus
lanes.
Quality and condition of infrastructure Good; sidewalks and cycle lanes are in good condition. Good; the roads are clean; good condition of the
sidewalks and cycling lanes.
Maintenance Maintenance on roads is on-going; sidewalks and cycling
lanes are well maintained.
Well maintained streets/facilities; the communit y
participates in cleaning and maintenance of the facilities.
Safety and security Poor safety and security reported. There are no safety management systems in place, but
effort is made after an incident.
User satisfaction Users are somewhat satisfied with infrastructure
condition and services.
Users are satisfied with the condition of transport
facilities and traf fic management; users’ transport needs
are satisfied.
New business ventures Exist along the routes. Exist along the routes.

Volume 64 Number 2 June 2022 Journal of the South African Institution of Civil Engineering74
The performance issues identified from
the projects are summarised in Table 2,
based on the participants’ statements on
the performance of the NMT infrastruc-
ture in the selected areas.
DISCUSSION
The provision of road infrastructure and
maintenance is seen as a social responsibil-
ity to the citizens (Wang et al 2018), and
road networks should offer safe, convenient
and efficient transportation services, and
adequate access to communities (Karlaftis
& Kepaptsoglou 2012). It is worth mention-
ing that users derive value from the use of
the road infrastructure assets and facilities
(Okoro et al 2018). For such users the
value for time and money, safety aspects,
comfort, amenities and road condition are
essential performance indicators (Suanmali
et al 2015). Furthermore, quality of service
is usually established based on customer
experience, and this study acknowledges
that NMT users pay fees for using the
facilities and thus their expectations and
input, in a bid to improve the performance
of such infrastructure, are vital.
On the Rosebank–Sandton project, the
performance of the NMT infrastructure
is considered somewhat unsatisfactory
concerning safety and security in the
area. These findings further reinforce the
reports on crime and accidents in the study
area (Magwaza 2018). The findings identif y
that, although the NMT facilities in the
area are maintained, they are not being put
to good use, which may be a result from
the relatively higher demand for motorised
facilities in the area, and thus limited
space for cyclists on the road networks,
with most road users in Sandton being
private vehicle occupants (Labuschagne
& Ribbens 2014). These findings are also
consistent with views expressed in Morgan
(2017) that more than 70% of households in
Johannesburg do not own bikes. According
to the 2014 Household Travel Survey,
only 28.7% of households within the CoJ
owned bicycles in working order (Morgan
2017). The issues of safety, congestion
and culture, in addition to social values,
alternative transport systems, priorities and
topography, pose significant hindrances to
the use of NMTs (Ana et al 2014; Morgan
2017). In addition, poor maintenance and
inadequate cleaning discourage using NMT
infrastructure, as rubble or blockages could
result in cycle accidents (Morgan 2017).
These challenges affect the optimum use of
NMT facilities, and as such, sustainability
of such infrastructure may be unattainable
in the long term. Attention to the differ-
ent elements that affect how people move
around could help garner more demand
for NMTs, and support the development
of policy and sustainable delivery of NMT
infrastructure (Okoro et al 2016; Morgan
2017). Furthermore, increased uptake of
NMT infrastructure can positively affect
congestion and the quality of life of the
citizenry. These effects include reduced
congestion with dedicated lanes designed
for cyclists, lower carbon footprint and
increased health benefits associated with
walking and cycling, as well as reduced
costs of motorised transportation (esti-
mated at 2.6% of GDP) (Ana et al 2014;
Vassi & Vlastos 2014).
The performance of the NMT infra-
structure is considered to be of an accept-
able standard for the Soweto–Johannesburg
project. The inspection of the NMT facili-
ties and participants’ accounts of the con-
dition and impact of the facilities in terms
of users’ satisfaction regarding accessibility,
affordability, condition, maintenance, traf-
fic, safety management and performance
were perceived as satisfactory. These find-
ings are consistent with results reported
in the National Road Users Satisfaction
Survey (NRUSS) in 2013/2014 in the United
Kingdom, in which users rated their overall
satisfaction level highly (89.63%) about
journey time (congestion), safety, informa-
tion provision, as well as network manage-
ment and upkeep (Parkhurst et al 2015).
Although the NRUSS survey was based
on motorists, it indicated that sustainable
transportation should cater to various
users and elements, including pedestrians
and pedestrian crossings, ease of crossing
side roads, availability of cycle lanes, and
condition of cycle lanes and pavements.
In addition, design aspects such as
universal accessibility, physical dimensions
and network specifications to properly inte-
grate NMT with other modes of transport,
traffic-calming measures, and alternative
design and delivery directions are critical
considerations in NMT infrastructure
delivery (Ana et al 2014). Improving the
design aspects would also ensure that
road space and safety are prioritised for
NMT users to have the same experience
and service as motorised transport users
(Baufeldt 2016). Non-prioritisation of
NMT, among other reasons, results in high
rates of pedestrian accidents (Cooke et al
2017; Mokitimi & Vanderschuren 2017).
Therefore, attention to safety aspects in
design is critical. Design for safety initia-
tives that prioritise the end users should
be holistically embedded from the plan-
ning phase of such projects. Further, it is
important to prioritise NMT educational
programmes for users and vehicle drivers
to improve their attitude and behaviour on
roads (Cele 2018).
Additionally, maintenance and
operational concerns are paramount, as
posited in the NMT Facility Guidelines
(Vanderschuren et al 2014). Non-motorised
transport should offer expected services,
and its appearance should be maintained
without compromising the value of the
facilities. Improvement in NMT facilities
results in improved levels of safety for both
cyclists and pedestrians and all categories
of users, including school children, physi-
cally challenged or disabled people, and the
elderly (Vanderschuren et al 2015; Baufeldt
& Vanderschuren 2017). A view shared by
the CoJ indicates that NMTs should cater
to a wide range of users to justify managed
lanes in the inner CoJ (COJ 2016). There
needs to be a shift from the use of private
cars for the existing NMT network to
become more efficient and deliver signifi-
cant economic and environmental benefits
to the CoJ, alongside tangible lifestyle ben-
efits (Vassi & Vlastos 2014; Baufeldt 2016).
NMT networks can be promoted through
discrete investments by improving the way
cities are planned or regulated, projects
and services are financed, and streets are
designed to achieve a Complete Street
concept (with features including roads with
sidewalks, bike lanes, and safe pedestrian
crossings) (World Bank 2017). Optimised
operational efficiency through traffic
management and roadside parking delinea-
tion can improve the quality of services
to NMT users (Baufeldt & Vanderschuren
2017) and increase the usage (demand) of
the facilities in the long run. Furthermore,
since cities are different geographically
(urban and traffic attributes), strategies to
promote NMT use could be tailormade
to suit particular localities. In some parts
of the world, for instance in Brazil’s third
most populous city Salvador, cycling is
used for rental and passenger (public)
transportation in line with the needs of
most of the populace (Ana et al 2 014).
However, this requires careful planning
and integration between different trans-
portation modes, land uses and design of
public spaces to encourage the use of NMT
by diverse users including the vulnerable

Journal of the South African Institution of Civil Engineering Volume 64 Number 2 June 2022 75
(Vanderschuren et al 2014). The CoJ’s Draft
Integrated Development Plan 2020/2021
outlines plans for integrating NMTs in
other parts of Soweto and Turffontein
near railway stations (CoJ 2021). It is
recommended that future developments
like these take into account the identified
performance aspects, ultimately with the
end-users at the forefront of the planning
and implementation processes.
CONCLUSION
This study established the performance
of non-motorised transportation infra-
structure using two case study projects,
i.e. the Rosebank–Sandton and Soweto–
Johannesburg CBD NMT projects. The
findings indicated that the performance of
the NMT projects on quality and mainte-
nance, and services provided, were consid-
ered satisfactory by the users. The NMT
projects have also facilitated new start-ups
(small businesses) and some of these busi-
nesses are rapidly developing to become
scalable business models, and these have
further improved accessibility of the NMT
infrastructure. However, traffic manage-
ment and safety issues were highlighted as
concerns due to conf licts with motorised
transport and road maintenance, and risk
while using NMT facilities.
This study provides useful user-
focused evidence beneficial to trans-
portation infrastructure planners and
stakeholders in designing, providing and
managing NMT infrastructure geared
towards sustainable mobility in South
African cities. The essence of sustainable
transportation infrastructure initiatives is
to cater to all and cover different dimen-
sions and perspectives, including end
users. This should be geared towards pro-
viding access to daily opportunities, social
inclusion and improving the liveability
prospects for all through economically
efficient and sustainable transportation.
Also, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development recognises that sustainable
urban development and management
are crucial to the quality of life of South
Africans in fostering community cohe-
sion, employment, personal security and
a means to stimulate innovation. Further
studies are recommended using alterna-
tive research techniques and additional
case studies to strengthen these findings
towards improved and evidence-based
decision-making for implementing these
types of NMT projects in SouthAfrica.
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