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Page 1 of 14
1
Thrust from electric devices as source for anomalous effects on space
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probes
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4
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Authors
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Elio B. Porcelli,1* Victo S. Filho1
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Affiliations
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1H4D Scientific Research Laboratory, São Paulo, São Paulo State, Brazil
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*Corresponding author. Email: elioporcelli@h4dscientific.com
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Abstract
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It was verified via telemetry that the space probes Pionner 10 and 11 have presented some
15
anomalous accelerations. A possible explanation for the origin of the phenomenon was to consider
16
thermal effects, but using estimates, approximations, simulations and also some assumptions.
17
Motivated by good results in similar electric devices as the Traveling Wave Tube Amplifier
18
(TWTA) in the probes, in this work it was proposed to explain the effect by means of our theoretical
19
framework based on generalized quantum entanglements, by considering its existence between the
20
on board TWTA and the outer environment. It was simulated the operation of this device in our
21
laboratory by handling the electrons beam. As result, it was detected an anomalous acceleration and
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it was also showed that its magnitude is in accordance with our theoretical framework from simple
23
models applying some classical macroscopic observables in a consistent way just taking into
24
account some known physical parameters of spacecraft projects. The characterization of that novel
25
property found paves the way for use in space propulsion without ejection of electrons, ions or
26
gases.
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Keywords: Electric Thrust, Space Probes, Quantum Entanglement, Pioneers, TWTA
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1. Introduction
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The main objective of this work is to show that it is possible to create thrust without the
35
exhaust of a propellant or ion acceleration and such anomalous forces can explain the effect of route
36
deviation on some space probes. Some closed systems electric devices as the electromagnetic drives
37
(EM-Drives) [1,2] presumably contradict the law of momentum conservation and also violate the
38
Newton's third law [3]. But our recent studies are consolidating that there is no really closed systems
39
investigating the reality of a preexisting quantum state of generalized entanglements between all
40
existing particles [4-6]. In fact, our previous works [7-14] have shown that the hypothesis of a
41
quantum correlation between the internal particles of devices -as capacitors, rotors, magnetrons and
42
others- and the external particles in the close environment can explain in a consistent way the
43
existence of anomalous forces or thrust of small magnitude verified in experiments involving such
44
devices and high fields applied. Such a theoretical framework can be more profoundly analyzed in
45
Refs. [5-7].
46
Some quantum effects on the macroscale seem to be extremely weak but they can be locally
47
amplified in some special conditions where a myriad of electric dipoles in dielectrics, magnetic
48
dipoles in solenoids or electric moving charges in conductors or superconductors transit mutually
49
to the same quantum state by applying strong local fields to the physical systems, such as electric
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Page 2 of 14
or magnetic fields. This explain why some considered unexpected thrusts can be measured in
1
different electric devices as solenoids [5], capacitors [7,8], electromagnetic cavities [9], magnetic
2
rotors [10], dielectric rotors [11], semiconductor laser diodes [12,13] and superconductor devices
3
[14,15].
4
Considering our studies based on such works, it is our conclusion that it is really positive the
5
existence of a thrust of weak magnitude from the operation of such electric devices and this has
6
motivated us to proceed with more advanced experimental setups in order to obtain a thrust of
7
higher magnitude for applications in aerospace industry. However, in the outer space, in which
8
there is no significant friction force, the thrust verified by us in our experiments would already be
9
strong enough to accelerate a spacecraft, so that it could reach a planet as Mars, for instance.
10
This small effect also encouraged us to investigate the deviations on the routes of space probes
11
that have been observed after many years of their travel in the outer space [16-18]. The so-called
12
Pioneer anomaly [16] refers basically to the discrepancy between the results of the theoretical model
13
of the routes and the values of data sent by both probes. It was seen by many as a fail of the
14
gravitational inverse square law of general relativity that reveals itself in the dynamics of the outer
15
solar system. Explanations for such an anomaly were also proposed with basis on a waste heat
16
emitted by the spacecraft radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) [19], their electrical
17
subsystems [20], or both [21], motivating a thorough investigation of the spacecraft systematics
18
[22]. In Ref. [23] it was reported a complete finite-element thermal model of the Pioneer 10
19
spacecraft by supposing a thermal origin, in which it was calculated a constant acceleration allowing
20
the correction for its route. But the model relies extensively on the project and spacecraft design
21
documentation, it was validated using redundant flight telemetry data and a parameterized form of
22
the thermal force model [24] incorporated into a Doppler analysis, so that only an estimate of
23
coefficients characterizing the thermal recoil force was obtained. So in this work the idea is to verify
24
if the effect can be explained with basis on our theoretical model constructed by considering the
25
framework of the generalized quantum entanglement (GQE) theory. The effect has been considered
26
up to now as being possibly due to complex thermal effects described previously, but here it was
27
shown an alternative explanation which one reveals simpler than the former.
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The devices on board of Pioneers 10 and 11 named Travelling Wave Tube Amplifiers (TWTA)
29
operate with an electron beam, that is, the root cause of the anomalous acceleration according to
30
our theoretical framework; therefore this encouraged us to carry out experiments with this resource
31
in order to confirm the existing of thrust and also characterize it accordingly. These experiments
32
were described in our paper as well as the theoretical development whose result matched with the
33
measurements.
34
Next, we described our analyses about the technical specifications of the TWTAs and the
35
Pioneers which resulted in the conclusion that the anomalous acceleration can be explained
36
qualitatively and quantitatively by our theoretical framework.
37
38
2. Experiments and Methods
39
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It has been performed by us a lot of experiments involving different electric devices mainly
41
researching about thrust, as published in Refs. [5,7-15]. In the case of capacitors subjected to high
42
voltage it was detected a weak anomalous force that decreases the weight of them [7,8]. The same
43
weight reduction effect can occur in magnetic cores [5] when subjected to intense magnetic fields.
44
Other different devices or physical systems comprise rotors [10,11], lasers [12,13] and
45
superconductors [14,15] subjected to high voltage. A similar effect was theoretically analyzed in
46
the case of EM-Drives [9], indicating the magnitude of the possible thrust generated on such
47
devices. The theoretical models based on GQE hypothesis were constructed and showed results in
48
good agreement with the experimental values measured for the Magnetron-Drive [9]. Each different
49
device was systematically characterized in order to understand the technical parameters that
50
determine the magnitude and behavior of the produced thrust.
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Page 3 of 14
In order to specifically focus on the characterization of longitudinal forces generated by
1
electron beams existence in the Travelling Wave Tube Amplifier (TWTA) it was performed by us
2
some experiments with this resource in laboratory using two electrodes enclosed in the hollow tube
3
to rule out any effect related to the ion wind and both had also supplied by a high voltage power
4
supply (direct current) or by a stun gun (pulsed direct current) via insulated wires.
5
The hollow tube was placed in the horizontal position by a support on a smooth surface and
6
an accelerometer was coupled above the tube by another support with its sensor axis Y aligned in
7
parallel direction to the electron beam as shown in figure 1.
8
9
Figure 1. Experimental diagram used in our work. A is the accelerometer supported on the block
10
B coupled in the hollow cylinder D where the electrodes E are placed inside. G is the smooth
11
surface, F is the electron beam (spark) and C are the insulated wires.
12
The plastic chamber has 2cm diameter and 13cm length. The parameters of environment as
13
temperature, pressure and humidity are respectively equal to 22°C, 923 hpa and 68% in average.
14
The DC power supply has 20W power and 30kV maximum output voltage.
15
The MEMS accelerometer with resolution equal to 0.0001g was configurated to 100Hz
16
regarding the collection rate. The first seconds of the measurement were taken place with the
17
electron beam switched off. In the next seconds it was measured with the electron beam switched
18
on when the spark in the gap of 1.5 cm between the electrodes separated were well visible.
19
The change of acceleration between the period on in comparison than the period off was
20
obtained via analysis of the average value of 100 samples per second of measurements contained
21
in the accelerometer’s data log (CSV file). There are a lot of runs that took place.
22
It is very clear that the “anomalous” acceleration happened when the electron beam was
23
switched on and its vector pointed in the same direction than the electron flow. The changing of the
24
electron flow direction from +Y to -Y and vice-versa was taken place appropriately changing the
25
polarization of electrodes.
26
Comparing the average of measurements related to 8 seconds of the period on with 8 seconds
27
of the period off it was obtained a magnitude of acceleration (module) equal to 0.00578 m/s² for
28
the electrons flowing to +Y . Similarly it was measured 0.00931 m/s² for the electrons flowing to -
29
Y when the electrodes were supplied by the high voltage power supply (DC).
30
Our theoretical framework requires to know the magnitude of the current related to the
31
electrons beam to forecast the magnitude of the longitudinal force. In this way, it was measured by
32
us the magnitude of the current related to the electron beam connecting a current probe model PA-
33
622 in the input channel of oscilloscope Tektronix model TBS1102B and also in one of the
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Page 4 of 14
supplying wires connected to the electrode supplied by the high voltage power supply (DC).
1
Isolated peaks of current until 550 A were measured as showed in the figure 2.
2
3
4
5
Figure 2. The graph indicates the period of 8 seconds of current peaks, some of them surpassing
6
the level of 500 A when the power supply was switched on. The accelerometer took measurements
7
both with the power on and off.
8
9
According to the amplitudes of the 10 peaks of current (Ipk) with 0.83ms of width, respectively,
10
of period analyzed with 1.39 s, it is possible to calculate the rms value of the current (Irms) for all
11
peaks in average applying for each one the equation Irms =
, where
12
is the peak width, is the time interval between the peaks, is the time of up ramp and is the
13
time of down ramp [25]. Considering that << and << , it is assumed here ~ ~ 0.
14
The calculation resulted in rms value of the current with 46.94 A when the electron beam was
15
switched on.
16
According to GQE theory, all particles in the Universe are in the quantum state of mutual
17
entanglement and the dynamic of all of them are governed by the joint-function | ѱ > showed in the
18
Schrödinger equation
19
(1)
20
The time evolution of the joint-function | ѱ > depends on the Hamiltonian Ĥ that represents
21
the sum of local binding energies that govern each particle. The dynamics of each particle depends
22
on its local interactions as well as the non-local interactions, that is, the local interactions with all
23
the others in the Universe. Therefore, an electron has its dynamics governed by the local interactions
24
as represented by the Hamiltonian Ĥelectron and also by the called non-local interactions involving
25
local ones from all other particles of Universe that can be represented by the Hamiltonian Ĥothers.
26
So, the relation Ĥ = Ĥ electron + Ĥ others can be considered accordingly (the local dynamics of the
27
electron also affect the dynamics of all other particles of Universe).The Hamiltonian Ĥelectron
28
describing the dynamics of the electron in an electromagnetic field can be represented as showed
29
by the equation
30
). (2)
31
From the left to the right, after 1/(2m) (m is the mass of electron), the terms of that equation
32
are related to the kinetics energy, magnetic vector potential, electric potential and the possible non-
33
electric potential, respectively. The two first terms in (2) represent the kinetic part of the
34
Hamiltonian and they are the most relevant in this study, representing the change of the electron
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Page 5 of 14
kinetic energy and also electron momentum according to its interaction with the electromagnetic
1
field. As described by Aharonov and Bohm [26], a moving electron can change the phase of wave
2
function of other ones or even exert a force on them, as demonstrated in recent experiment (27)
3
without being mediated via a field. This is the intrinsic non-local phenomenon predicted by the
4
Quantum Mechanics in which the longitudinal mode of the magnetic vector potential determines
5
the dynamics of other ones. The magnetic vector potential points in the parallel direction of
6
movement of an electron that moves in a straight line; and the same occurs in a current where there
7
is a myriad of electrons moving in an orderly manner.
8
In the macroscale, it is possible to apply some classical variables to calculate (28) the
9
longitudinal force F whose origin is intrinsically quantum related to the kinetic term of Hamiltonian
10
Ĥ electron via kinetic energy
, the current and total mass of electrons
11
considering the kinetics energy of the total mass
where I is the current, m is the
12
electron mass, is the length where the electrons move, e is the electron charge, v is the velocity
13
drift of electrons, M is the total mass of electrons, A is the cross-section area and n is the number
14
density defining also
, as the number of Avogadro, as the density of material and
15
MA as the atomic weight. The kinetic energy is related to the work along length , so that the
16
longitudinal force F can be calculated by doing the derivation
17
From the calculation shown and from our previous studies [9] [12-15] concluded that the
18
magnitude of thrust for each the electric devices in which there is a rms current I is governed by
19
(3)
20
One can see from the equation (3) the longitudinal thrust (F) in Newton, which is proportional
21
to the square value of the current (I²), to the parameter G corresponding to the gain rate of the
22
current (or gain factor) and to the value of vacuum permeability (µo) for the electric devices, such
23
as the electromagnetic cavity without dielectric, semiconductor laser diodes and superconductor
24
devices. This calculation that results in the equation (3) is related to a longitudinal force F. The
25
variable G was added in that equation to represent other local interactions that can affect the
26
dynamics such as external magnetic fields acting in the case of TWTA. That longitudinal force has
27
been researched both theoretically (29) and experimentally (30). It has been seen that both the
28
longitudinal force due to the longitudinal mode of the magnetic vector potential coupled to the
29
electron flow (current) and the manifestation of a thrust due to its non-local coupling with the
30
medium outside of the circuit are purely quantum phenomena. For the magnitude of the currents
31
mentioned before, the thrust can be calculated via equation (3) considering G = 1 because in our
32
experiments there is not other element that affects the electrons beam such as the resonant cavity
33
where there is a current flow in case of semiconductor laser diode, for example. When applied the
34
equation (3) the calculation results in thrust with 0.002769 N and considering the mass m of the
35
setup (wires, hollow cylinder, supports and accelerometer) equal to 0.5 kg, the acceleration a can
36
be also calculated according to a = F / m resulting in the theoretical value with 0.005538 m/s². The
37
proximity of this theoretical value to the experimental ones is remarkable even though there are
38
some factors that could affect the measurements that are not fully controlled.
39
In this experiment, the reality of the longitudinal force resulting from the electron beam in a
40
closed system (not explainable by current theories considering that there was no ejection of
41
electrons or plasma ions) was proven. It can be explained considering that the electrons interact
42
with the outside via generalized quantum entanglements, maintaining the validity of the principle
43
of conservation of momentum, that is, in fact there are no absolutely isolated systems. Using
44
equation (3) it is possible to theoretically calculate the magnitude of the force, given its good
45
agreement with the measurements.
46
In space travels, as there is no friction forces, the very weak forces that it has been obtained in
47
our experiments related to electric devices with electron beams would be enough to have useful
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Page 6 of 14
application: they could be the source of propulsion of the space crafts after the end of the fossil fuel
1
because in the outer space even the very weak magnitudes of acceleration (of the order of mgf)
2
could be enough to accelerate them at first with small velocities but with very high velocity after
3
some time. In the case of the vehicles in the Earth, due to the atmosphere friction, it is only needed
4
to enhance such effects here presented so that one can get some really useful application because
5
the effect is weak enough to be easily eliminated by higher forces as friction force, air force or
6
collisions with small obstacles or barriers.
7
It is also relevant to emphasize that experiments showing the existence of quantum
8
entanglement are well established [31]. In relation to generalized case (GQE), our experiments
9
provides us good evidences of its existence. Rather, in a more recent work we showed very stronger
10
verification of the existence of GQE in an experiment involving a laser beam and a distant and
11
shielded capacitor. The experiment indicated the preexistence of quantum entanglements between
12
discrete observables of electric dipoles and photons [32].
13
14
3 Anomalous Acceleration of Space Probes
15
16
The good agreement of the models described in the last section in the description of the
17
anomalous phenomena observed for electric devices applying electron beams motivated us to
18
analyze the possibility of a similar anomaly associated to space probes to be caused by quantum
19
mechanisms in the materials constituting the vehicle.
20
Basically, the small effect verified in the space probes Pioneer 10 and 11 [17,18] which
21
are travelling in the limits of our Solar System corresponds to an anomalous acceleration of the
22
order of (8.74±1.33) x10-10 m/s2 . The weak force generated points out to the Sun and can be caused
23
by the rotation of the probes around their own axes or due to the electric instrumentation aboard
24
[17,18]. An explanation to that phenomenon which was proposed in Ref. [23] and well accepted by
25
many researchers indicates that there is a thermal origin for the anomaly. However, the topic is still
26
polemic and gives margin to another hypothesis. According to our previous works, weak forces in
27
electric devices can have as source quantum mechanisms due to the generalized entanglement
28
among all the particles of the internal and external systems, so that it could be the case for this effect
29
as well. Thus, it was investigated by us the configuration of the probes and the instrumentation used
30
inside the devices. Our main objective here is to verify whether it is possible for such spacecrafts
31
and satellites to have onboard closed-system electric devices that can generate thrust.
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Page 7 of 14
Figure 3. Simplified diagram showing the parts of the TWTA, where an electron beam flows from
1
the cathode to the collector accelerated by the intense electric field and whose electrons are
2
bunching due to magnetic interaction with the spiral outer conductor (Helix), where the radio
3
frequency signal is amplified.
4
5
The vast majority of spacecrafts and satellites use on board a type of radio-frequency
6
amplifier called TWTA (traveling wave tube amplifier) [33] which consists of a tube in which flows
7
an accelerated and collimated electron beam flows inside it due to the difference of electric potential
8
between the cathode heated by a filament (heater) at one end of the tube and the anode. After passing
9
through the anode, the straight beam hits a collector placed at the opposite end of the tube. Figure
10
3 shows a simplified diagram of the TWTA.
11
A conductor wraps around the outside of the tube in a spiral form and at one of its ends a
12
radio frequency signal is injected an ad at the other end the signal is extracted. An intense magnetic
13
interaction occurs between the radio frequency signal of the loop (Helix) and the rectilinear beam
14
of electrons. The beam electrons are therefore highly coordinated and bunching [34].
15
As the electrons of the beam are highly collimated and bunching as occurs in a linear
16
accelerator of particles, that is, they do not behave like electrons flowing in an usual electric current
17
inside a conductor, then according to GQE hypothesis their interaction with the outside environment
18
in such special conditions is enhanced, considering that the particles are previously quantum-
19
entangled among themselves and supposing that the system is not really totally insulated in relation
20
to the outer space. The equation (3) must be used to calculate non-local forces generated by charges
21
in highly organized motion, so that it is worth to devices as semiconductor diode lasers,
22
superconductors, electromagnetic cavities associated with a magnetron, accelerators of particles
23
and in the present case to the TWTA system present in the space probes.
24
Although the electric power of the TWTA used in spacecrafts and satellites are much
25
smaller than those constituting ground radars and high-gain antennas, it is possible that even a weak
26
force is measurable through the Doppler shift in telemetry signals exchanged with the ground
27
control. Such a detection should be possible mainly in low-mass spacecrafts that have their
28
trajectories and attitudes highly stabilized without frequent or constant corrections.
29
Almost all of the spacecrafts have not met these conditions [34], but it is possible to
30
highlight the case of the anomalous acceleration detected in Pioneer 10 and 11 for decades without
31
undergoing trajectory corrections (after flyby the Jupiter orbit) and with their attitudes highly
32
stabilized due to rotations around their axes of symmetry when they depart towards the extremes of
33
the solar system.
34
The Figure 4 shows an artistic conception of those spacecrafts made by NASA [35], in
35
which one can realize that the dish-shape antenna is always turned to the Earth, its magnetometer
36
supported by a big stem and its nuclear batteries supported by smaller stems.
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Page 8 of 14
1
2
Figure 4. Artistic rendition of the Pioneer 10/Pioneer 11 spacecraft in the outer Solar System.
3
[Credits: NASA-JHUAPL-SWRI].
4
5
In the study published in 2012 [23], such an anomalous acceleration was attributed to the
6
probes Pioneer 10 and 11 themselves because their magnitude decreased with the drop in electric
7
power over time so that they stopped the communication with the ground control. Such an effect is
8
an indication that corroborates the cause of the anomalous acceleration as being due to the non-
9
local force F caused by the TWTA on board the spacecraft, despite the aforementioned study [23]
10
hypothesizing through estimates and approximations that the acceleration was caused by the
11
asymmetry in the propagation of radiation thermal emitted mainly by nuclear batteries with its
12
reflection in the spacecraft body (mainly in the dish of the antenna).
13
The magnitude of the anomalous acceleration in both Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 (twin
14
spacecrafts with the same specifications) can be calculated without the need for estimates or
15
approximations, knowing few parameters used in equation (3), regarding the non-local force
16
generated by the TWTA model WJ - 448 [36] with rated output power of 8 W on board (operating
17
at S-band frequency), the average magnitude of electron beam current I (79mA) (saturation) and
18
gain factor G equal to 30dB, equivalent to the current gain rate of 31.62 times, considering the usual
19
expression 20 log G. Thus, the magnitude of the non-local force F calculated by means of equation
20
(3) is F = 2.4798 x 10-7 N and as the spacecraft mass is m = 260 kg [37], one obtains via the
21
Newtonian equation a = F / m = 9.5379 x 10-10 m/s2.
22
Such a theoretical magnitude of acceleration a is very close to the experimental value of the
23
anomalous acceleration detected in the telemetry of the Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 spacecraft [23]
24
as being within the range between 7.41 x 10-10 m/s2 and 1.007 x 10-9 m/s2 further considering that
25
our theoretical calculation assumed a brand new TWTA and that its power dropped over the years.
26
It was also found that the anomalous acceleration always pointed in the opposite direction
27
to the displacement of the spacecraft, that is, there was a deceleration whose vector was parallel to
28
the symmetry axis of the same [23]. This experimental observation also corroborates, without
29
assumptions and estimates, the fact that the effect was caused by the TWTA, due to the position of
30
its electron beam whose flow is parallel to the direction of the anomalous force and also because it
31
points in the same direction to the electronic flow, given that the force generated nonlocal F points
32
in the opposite direction to the displacement of the spacecraft whose attitude is stabilized by the
33
spin, so that the antenna always points towards the Earth.
34
Page 9 of 14
Figure 5, based on Ref. [38], as well as the other data used here, shows on its left side the
1
front view of the spacecraft without the magnetometer stem and without the nuclear batteries stems,
2
where the position of the two TWTAs is highlighted (one of them only works when the other fails,
3
that is, both do not work at the same time) whose electron beams are parallel and close to the
4
spacecraft's axis of symmetry. On the right side, the side view of the spacecraft is shown, where the
5
position of the two TWTAs is also highlighted and the non-local reaction force points in the
6
opposite direction to the spacecraft's displacement vector, the first parallel and the second anti
7
parallel with respect to the Z axis (axis of symmetry), which makes the probe to slow down.
8
Note that the positions of the TWTAs are at points a and b. The point c indicates the position
9
of the spacecraft body, while point d indicates the position of the antenna dish. The vector ac is the
10
non-local reaction force caused by the activated TWTA which is parallel to the vector z (axis of
11
symmetry) while the vector v (spacecraft displacement) is anti-parallel. Then the stability
12
conditions in the trajectory presented by Pioneer 10 and 11 allow us to corroborate the presence of
13
weak non-local forces generated by their TWTAs. In addition, as discussed before, such conditions
14
were and are difficult to observe in other spacecrafts, but perhaps a deeper analysis of the most
15
recent space missions like the one of NASA's New Horizons spacecraft (shown in Figure 6) based
16
on Ref. [39] can give more subsidies.
17
18
19
20
Figure 5. Simplified scheme of the Pioneer 10 and Pioneer11. On the left side, one can see the front
21
view of the space probes and on the right side the lateral view. Details of both views are discussed
22
on the main text.
23
24
New Horizons made many measurements of the planet Pluto and its satellites, including
25
sensational photos, but before reaching this planet, more specifically in the path between Jupiter
26
and Pluto, this spacecraft was in a state of hibernation for years to save power and did not undergo
27
maneuvers of path correction [39] to keep its coordinates stabilized and its dish antenna pointing
28
towards planet Earth. In this condition, it is possible by means of the analysis of the Doppler shift
29
in the telemetry signal sent by the spacecraft to detect some anomalous acceleration like that
30
detected in Pioneers 10 and 11.
31
32
Page 10 of 14
1
2
Figure 6. Artistic rendition of New Horizons Spacecraft, showing a NASA artistic conception of
3
the New Horizons spacecraft close to the asteroid (486958) 2014 MU69, named Ultima Thule, at
4
the ends of the Universe. [Credits: NASA-JHUAPL-SWRI].
5
6
7
As New Horizons was launched much later (January, 2006) than Pioneers 10 and 11, it owns
8
more modern and better performing TWTAs on board. Each TWTA with a rated output power of
9
12 W operates in the X frequency band. With a gain G of at least 40 dB corresponding to a current
10
gain rate of 100 times and an electron beam current magnitude of at least 20mA (values much more
11
conservative than those of the TWTAs in the Pioneer 10 launch [40]), then it was obtained a fully
12
measurable acceleration of magnitude 1.0515x10-9 m/s2 calculated from equation (3) also
13
considering the spacecraft mass to be 478 kg [39]. Such a result encourages a more accurate study
14
related to the telemetry of such a spaceship.
15
These results encourage us to continue analyzing spacecrafts telemetry to understand the
16
correlation between the parameters of the onboard TWTAs and possible unexpected accelerations,
17
but more importantly to optimize such parameters as mainly the gain and magnitude of the electron
18
beam current so that such closed systems electric devices can be used alternatively as true thrusters.
19
The great advantage in TWTAs is to be able to amplify the generated thrust by increasing its gain,
20
a parameter that has been greatly optimized in recent decades and not just by increasing the electron
21
beam current. The use in spacecraft of models of high power TWTAs used in radars and antennas
22
on the ground would be a first step.
23
24
3. Discussion
25
26
Our studies with different types of electric devices working in closed systems are showing that
27
they really produce small thrust considering that there is no really closed systems when one considers
28
that all the systems are somehow connected by quantum entanglement mechanisms. In such physical
29
systems the momentum conservation and the third Newton’s law are preserved accordingly.
30
Rather, the most attractive and main topic in this investigation is to show that the anomalous
31
accelerations detected in the Pioneers spacecrafts can be explained so qualitatively as quantitatively
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in a very simple calculation and a basic hypothesis, consistent with our GQE theoretical framework,
33
from which it was supposed by us that there is no really a closed physical system if it is considered
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that all of the particles in the Universe are quantum entangled. In the case of such physical systems,
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only with the parameters of the TWTA present in such spacecrafts, that is, the current of the electron
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Page 11 of 14
beam, the spacecraft mass and the gain factor, it is possible to describe such an anomalous effect in
1
good agreement with the values experimentally observed. Despite of the thermal radiation
2
asymmetry to describe the anomaly as well, the explanation is based on many suppositions,
3
estimates, simulations and also approximations, so that the simpler explanation here proposed
4
seems to obey the Occam’s razor and to present an alternative to describe the anomaly with good
5
agreement in relation to the acceleration experimentally observed. In fact, as the experimental
6
anomalous acceleration as the theoretical one were obtained as being of the order of 5x10-3 m/s²,
7
that is, respectively and approximately aexp = 0.00578 m/s² and atheor = 0.00554 m/s².
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4. Declaration
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4.1 Funding
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No funds, grants, or other support was received.
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4.2 Availability of Data and Material
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The experimental data and materials used in this work are described in the text of this article.
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Additional raw data can be made available on request.
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4.3 Competing Interests:
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The authors state that there is no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the
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content of this article.
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4.4. Author Contributions:
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Both authors contributed in a significat way to the writing, analysis, conclusions and
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submission of this work.
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