The Impact of COVID-19 on Education: A Meta-Narrative Review

Abstract

The rapid and unexpected onset of the COVID-19 global pandemic has generated a great degree of uncertainty about the future of education and has required teachers and students alike to adapt to a new normal to survive in the new educational ecology. Through this experience of the new educational ecology, educators have learned many lessons, including how to navigate through uncertainty by recognizing their strengths and vulnerabilities. In this context, the aim of this study is to conduct a bibliometric analysis of the publications covering COVID-19 and education to analyze the impact of the pandemic by applying the data mining and analytics techniques of social network analysis and text-mining. From the abstract, title, and keyword analysis of a total of 1150 publications, seven themes were identified: (1) the great reset, (2) shifting educational landscape and emerging educational roles (3) digital pedagogy, (4) emergency remote education, (5) pedagogy of care, (6) social equity, equality, and injustice, and (7) future of education. Moreover, from the citation analysis, two thematic clusters emerged: (1) educational response, emergency remote education affordances, and continuity of education, and (2) psychological impact of COVID-19. The overlap between themes and thematic clusters revealed researchers' emphasis on guaranteeing continuity of education and supporting the socio-emotional needs of learners. From the results of the study, it is clear that there is a heightened need to develop effective strategies to ensure the continuity of education in the future, and that it is critical to proactively respond to such crises through resilience and flexibility.

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https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-022-00759-0
ORIGINAL PAPER
The Impact ofCOVID‑19 onEducation: AMeta‑Narrative Review
ArasBozkurt1,2,3 · KadirKarakaya4 · MuratTurk5 · ÖzlemKarakaya6 · DanielaCastellanos‑Reyes7
Accepted: 22 June 2022
© Association for Educational Communications & Technology 2022
Abstract
The rapid and unexpected onset of the COVID-19 global pandemic has generated a great degree of uncertainty about the
future of education and has required teachers and students alike to adapt to a new normal to survive in the new educational
ecology. Through this experience of the new educational ecology, educators have learned many lessons, including how to
navigate through uncertainty by recognizing their strengths and vulnerabilities. In this context, the aim of this study is to
conduct a bibliometric analysis of the publications covering COVID-19 and education to analyze the impact of the pandemic
by applying the data mining and analytics techniques of social network analysis and text-mining. From the abstract, title, and
keyword analysis of a total of 1150 publications, seven themes were identified: (1) the great reset, (2) shifting educational
landscape and emerging educational roles (3) digital pedagogy, (4) emergency remote education, (5) pedagogy of care,
(6) social equity, equality, and injustice, and (7) future of education. Moreover, from the citation analysis, two thematic
clusters emerged: (1) educational response, emergency remote education affordances, and continuity of education, and (2)
psychological impact of COVID-19. The overlap between themes and thematic clusters revealed researchers’ emphasis on
guaranteeing continuity of education and supporting the socio-emotional needs of learners. From the results of the study, it
is clear that there is a heightened need to develop effective strategies to ensure the continuity of education in the future, and
that it is critical to proactively respond to such crises through resilience and flexibility.
Keywords COVID-19· Coronavirus pandemic· Education during the pandemic· Teaching and learning in the new
normal· Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic
Introduction
The Coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has proven to be a
massive challenge for the entire world, imposing a radical
transformation in many areas of life, including education.
It was rapid and unexpected; the world was unprepared and
hit hard. The virus is highly contagious, having a pathogenic
nature whose effects have not been limited to humans alone,
but rather, includes every construct and domain of societies,
including education. The education system, which has been
affected at all levels, has been required to respond to the
crisis, forced to transition into emergency modes, and adapt
to the unprecedented impact of the global crisis. Although
the beginning of 2021 will mark nearly a year of experience
* Aras Bozkurt
arasbozkurt@gmail.com
Kadir Karakaya
karakaya@iastate.edu
Murat Turk
murat.turk@ou.edu
Özlem Karakaya
ozlem@iastate.edu
Daniela Castellanos-Reyes
casteld@purdue.edu
1 Distance Education Department, Anadolu University,
Eskişehir, Turkey
2 Distance Education Department, University ofSouth Africa,
Pretoria, SouthAfrica
3 Anadolu Üniversitesi, Açıköğretim Fakültesi, Kat:7,
Oda:701, Tepebaşı, Eskişehir, Turkey
4 Applied Linguistics & Technology Department, Iowa State
University, Ames, IA, USA
5 Educational Psychology, Learning Sciences, University
ofOklahoma, Norman, OK, USA
6 Educational Technology & Human-Computer Interaction,
Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
7 Curriculum andInstruction, Learning Design
andTechnology, Purdue University, WestLafayette, IN, USA
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in living through the pandemic, the crisis remains a phe-
nomenon with many unknowns. A deeper and more compre-
hensive understanding of the changes that have been made
in response to the crisis is needed to survive in these hard
times. Hence, this study aims to provide a better understand-
ing by examining the scholarly publications on COVID-19
and education. In doing this, we can identify our weaknesses
and vulnerabilities, be better prepared for the new normal,
and be more fit to survive.
Related Literature
Though the COVID-19 pandemic is not the first major dis-
ruption to be experienced in the history of the world, it has
been unique due to its scale and the requirements that have
been imposed because of it (Guitton, 2020). The economies
of many countries have greatly suffered from the lockdowns
and other restrictive measurements, and people have had
to adapt to a new lifestyle, where their primary concern is
to survive by keeping themselves safe from contracting the
deadly virus. The education system has not been exempt
from this series of unfortunate events inflicted by COVID-
19. Since brick-and-mortar schools had to be closed due to
the pandemic, millions of students, from those in K-12 to
those in higher education, were deprived of physical access
to their classrooms, peers, and teachers (Bozkurt & Sharma,
2020a, b). This extraordinary pandemic period has posed
arguably the most challenging and complex problems ever
for educators, students, schools, educational institutions,
parents, governments, and all other educational stakehold-
ers. The closing of brick-and-mortar schools and campuses
rendered online teaching and learning the only viable solu-
tion to the problem of access-to-education during this emer-
gency period (Hodges etal., 2020). Due to the urgency of
this move, teachers and instructors were rushed to shift all
their face-to-face instruction and instructional materials to
online spaces, such as learning management systems or elec-
tronic platforms, in order to facilitate teaching virtually at
a distance. As a result of this sudden migration to learning
and instruction online, the key distinctions between online
education and education delivered online during such crisis
and emergency circumstances have been obfuscated (Hodges
etal., 2020).
State oftheCurrent Relevant Literature
Although the scale of the impact of the COVID-19 global
pandemic on education overshadows previously experi-
enced nationwide or global crises or disruptions, the phe-
nomenon of schools and higher education institutions hav-
ing to shift their instruction to online spaces is not totally
new to the education community and academia (Johnson
etal., 2020). Prior literature on this subject indicates that
in the past, schools and institutions resorted to online or
electronic delivery of instruction in times of serious cri-
ses and uncertainties, including but not limited to natural
disasters such as floods or earthquakes (e.g., Ayebi-Arthur,
2017; Lorenzo, 2008; Tull etal., 2017), local disruptions
such as civil wars and socio-economic events such as politi-
cal upheavals, social turmoils or economic recessions (e.g.,
Czerniewicz etal., 2019). Nevertheless, the past attempts
to move learning and teaching online do not compare to
the current efforts that have been implemented during the
global COVID-19 pandemic, insofar as the past crisis situ-
ations were sporadic events in specific territories, affecting
a limited population for relatively short periods of time. In
contrast, the COVID-19 pandemic has continued to pose a
serious threat to the continuity of education around the globe
(Johnson etal., 2020).
Considering the scale and severity of the global pan-
demic, the impacts it has had on education in general and
higher education in particular need to be explored and stud-
ied empirically so that necessary plans and strategies aimed
at reducing its devastating effects can be developed and
implemented. Due to the rapid onset and spread of the global
pandemic, the current literature on the impact of COVID-19
on education is still limited, including mostly non-academic
editorials or non-empirical personal reflections, anecdotes,
reports, and stories (e.g., Baker, 2020; DePietro, 2020). Yet,
with that said, empirical research on the impact of the global
pandemic on higher education is rapidly growing. For exam-
ple, Johnson etal. (2020), in their empirical study, found that
faculty members who were struggling with various chal-
lenges adopted new instructional methods and strategies
and adjusted certain course components to foster emergency
remote education (ERE). Unger and Meiran (2020) observed
that the pandemic made students in the US feel anxious
about completing online learning tasks. In contrast, Suleri
(2020) reported that a large majority of European higher
education students were satisfied with their virtual learning
experiences during the pandemic, and that most were willing
to continue virtual higher education even after the pandemic
(Suleri, 2020). The limited empirical research also points to
the need for systematically planning and designing online
learning experiences in advance in preparation for future
outbreaks of such global pandemics and other crises (e.g.,
Korkmaz & Toraman, 2020). Despite the growing literature,
the studies provide only fragmentary evidence on the impact
of the pandemic on online learning and teaching. For a more
thorough understanding of the serious implications the pan-
demic has for higher education in relation to learning and
teaching online, more empirical research is needed.
Unlike previously conducted bibliometric analysis studies
on this subject, which have largely involved general analysis
of research on health sciences and COVID-19, Aristovnik
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etal. (2020) performed an in-depth bibliometric analysis
of various science and social science research disciplines
by examining a comprehensive database of document and
source information. By the final phase of their bibliometric
analysis, the authors had analyzed 16,866 documents. They
utilized a mix of innovative bibliometric approaches to cap-
ture the existing research and assess the state of COVID-19
research across different research landscapes (e.g., health
sciences, life sciences, physical sciences, social sciences,
and humanities). Their findings showed that most COVID-
19 research has been performed in the field of health sci-
ences, followed by life sciences, physical sciences, and
social sciences and humanities. Results from the keyword
co-occurrence analysis revealed that health sciences research
on COVID-19 tended to focus on health consequences,
whereas the life sciences research on the subject tended
to focus on drug efficiency. Moreover, physical sciences
research tended to focus on environmental consequences,
and social sciences and humanities research was largely ori-
ented towards socio-economic consequences.
Similarly, Rodrigues etal. (2020) carried out a biblio-
metric analysis of COVID-19 related studies from a man-
agement perspective in order to elucidate how scientific
research and education arrive at solutions to the pandemic
crisis and the post-COVID-19 era. In line with Aristovnik
etal.’s (2020) findings, Rodrigues etal. (2020) reported that
most of the published research on this subject has fallen
under the field of health sciences, leaving education as an
under-researched area of inquiry. The content analysis they
performed in their study also found a special emphasis on
qualitative research. The descriptive and content analysis
yielded two major strands of studies: (1) online education
and (2) COVID-19 and education, business, economics,
and management. The online education strand focused on
the issue of technological anxiety caused by online classes,
the feeling of belonging to an academic community, and
feedback.
Lastly, Bond (2020) conducted a rapid review of K-12
research undertaken in the first seven months of the COVID-
19 pandemic to identify successes and challenges and to
offer recommendations for the future. From a search of K-12
research on the Web of Science, Scopus, EBSCOHost, the
Microsoft Academic, and the COVID-19 living systematic
map, 90 studies were identified and analyzed. The findings
revealed that the reviewed research has focused predomi-
nantly on the challenges to shifting to ERE, teacher digital
competencies and digital infrastructure, teacher ICT skills,
parent engagement in learning, and students’ health and
well-being. The review highlighted the need for straightfor-
ward communication between schools and families to inform
families about learning activities and to promote interac-
tivity between students. Teachers were also encouraged to
develop their professional networks to increase motivation
and support amongst themselves and to include opportu-
nities for both synchronous and asynchronous interaction
for promoting student engagement when using technology.
Bond (2020) reported that the reviewed studies called for
providing teachers with opportunities to further develop
their digital technical competencies and their distance and
online learning pedagogies. In a recent study that examines
the impact of COVID-19 at higher education (Bozkurt,
2022), three broad themes from the body of research on
this subject: (1) educational crisis and higher education in
the new normal: resilience, adaptability, and sustainability,
(2) psychological pressures, social uncertainty, and mental
well-being of learners, and (3) the rise of online distance
education and blended-hybrid modes. The findings of this
study are similar to Mishra etal. (2021) who examined the
COVID-19 pandemic from the lens of online distance edu-
cation and noted that technologies for teaching and learning
and psychosocial issues were emerging issues.
The aforementioned studies indicate that a great majority
of research on COVID-19 has been produced in the field of
health sciences, as expected. These studies nonetheless note
that there is a noticeable shortage of studies dealing with
the effects of the pandemic in the fields of social sciences,
humanities, and education. Given the profound impact of
the pandemic on learning and teaching, as well as on the
related stakeholders in education, now more than ever, a
greater amount of research on COVID-19 needs to be con-
ducted in the field of education. The bibliometric studies dis-
cussed above have analyzed COVID-19 research across vari-
ous fields, yielding a comparative snapshot of the research
undertaken so far in different research spheres. However,
despite being comprehensive, these studies did not appear
to have examined a specific discipline or area of research in
depth. Therefore, this bibliometric study aims to provide a
focused, in-depth analysis of the COVID-19-related research
in the field of education. In this regard, the main purpose of
this study is to identify research patterns and trends in the
field of education by examining COVID-19-related research
papers. The study sought to answer the following research
questions:
1. What are the thematic patterns in the title, abstract, and
keywords of the publications on COVID-19 and educa-
tion?
2. What are the citation trends in the references of the sam-
pled publications on COVID-19 and education?
Methodology
This study used data mining and analytic approaches (Fayyad
etal., 2002) to examine bibliometric patterns and trends. More
specifically, social network analysis (SNA) (Hansen etal.,
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2020) was applied to examine the keywords and references,
while text-mining was applied (Aggarwal & Zhai, 2012) to
examine the titles and abstracts of the research corpus. Key-
words represent the essence of an article at a micro level and
for the analysis of the keywords, SNA was used. SNA “pro-
vides powerful ways to summarize networks and identify key
people, [entities], or other objects that occupy strategic loca-
tions and positions within a matrix of links” (Hansen etal.,
2020, p. 6). In this regard, the keywords were analyzed based
on their co-occurrences and visualized on a network graph by
identifying the significant keywords which were demonstrated
as nodes and their relationships were demonstrated with ties.
For text-mining of the titles and abstracts, the researchers per-
formed a lexical analysis that employs “two stages of co-occur-
rence information extraction—semantic and relational—using
a different algorithm for each stage” (Smith & Humphreys,
2006, p. 262). Thus, text-mining analysis enabled research-
ers to identify the hidden patterns and visualize them on a
thematic concept map. For the analysis of the references, the
researchers further used SNA based on the arguments that “cit-
ing articles and cited articles are linked to each other through
invisible ties, and they collaboratively and collectively build
an intellectual community that can be referred to as a living
network, structure, or an ecology” (Bozkurt, 2019, p. 498).
The analysis of the references enabled the researchers to iden-
tify pivotal scholarly contributions that guided and shaped the
intellectual landscape. The use of multiple approaches enables
the study to present a broader view, or a meta-narrative.
Sample andInclusion Criteria
The publications included in this research met the following
inclusion criteria: (1) indexed by the Scopus database, (2) writ-
ten in English, and (3) had the search queries on their title
(Table1). The search query reflects the focus on the impact of
COVID-19 on education by including common words in the
field like learn, teach, or student. Truncation was also used in
the search to capture all relevant literature. Narrowing down
the search allowed us to exclude publications that were not
education related. Scopus was selected because it is one of the
largest scholarly databases, and only publications in English
were selected to facilitate identification of meaningful lexical
patterns through text-mining and provide a condensed view of
the research. The search yielded a total of 1150 papers (arti-
cles = 887, editorials = 66, notes = 58, conference papers = 56,
letters = 40, review studies = 30, book chapters = 9, short sur-
veys = 3, books = 1).
Data Analysis andResearch Procedures
This study has two phases of analysis. In the first phase, text
mining was used to analyze titles and abstracts, and SNA
was applied to analyze keywords. By using two different
analytical approaches, the authors were able to triangulate
the research findings (Thurmond, 2001). In this phase, using
lexical algorithms, text mining analysis enabled visualiz-
ing the textual data on a thematic concept map according
to semantic relationships and co-occurrences of the words
(Fig.1). Text mining generated a machine-based concept
map by analyzing the co-occurrences and lexical relation-
ships of textual data. Then, based on the co-occurrences and
centrality metrics, SNA enabled visualizing keywords on a
network graphic called sociogram (Fig.2). SNA allowed
researchers to visually identify the key terms on a connected
network graph where keywords are represented as nodes and
their relationships are represented as edges. In the first phase
of the study, by synthesizing outputs of the data mining and
analytic approaches, meaningful patterns of textual data
were presented as seven main research themes.
In the second phase of the study, through the examination
of the references and citation patterns (e.g., citing and being
cited) of the articles in the research corpus, the citation pat-
terns were visualized on a network graphic by clusters (See
Fig.3) showing also chronical relationships which enabled
to identify pivotal COVID-19 studies. In the second phase of
the study, two new themes were identified which were in line
with the themes that emerged in the first phase of the study.
Strengths andLimitations
This study is one of the first attempts to use bibliometric
approaches benefiting from data mining and analysis tech-
niques to better understand COVID-19 and its consequences
on published educational research. By applying such an
approach, a large volume of data is able to be visualized
and reported. However, besides these strengths, the study
also has certain limitations. First, the study uses the Scopus
database, which, though being one of the largest databases,
does not include all types of publications. Therefore, the
publications selected for this study offer only a partial view,
as there are many significant publications in gray literature
(e.g., reports, briefs, blogs). Second, the study includes only
publications written in English, however, with COVID-19
being a global crisis, publications in different languages
would provide a complementary view and be helpful in
understanding local reflections in the field of education.
Table 1 Search strings used to create research corpus
Title ("covid-19" OR "covid*" OR "coronavirus" OR "pandemic")
AND
Title ("education*" OR "learn*" OR "teach*" OR "student*" OR
"school*" OR "universit*")
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Fig. 1 Thematic concept
mapping of COVID-19 and
education-related papers
Fig. 2 Social networks analysis of the keywords in COVID-19 and education-related papers
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Findings andDiscussion
SNA andText‑Mining: Thematic Patterns intheTitle,
Abstract, andKeywords ofthePublications
This section reports the findings based on a thematic concept
map and network graphic that were developed through text
mining (Fig.1—Textual data composed of 186.234 words
visualized according to lexical relationships and co-occur-
rences) and sociograms created using SNA (Fig.2—The top
200 keywords with highest betweenness centrality and 1577
connections among them mapped on a network graph) to
visualize the data. Accordingly, seven major themes were
identified by analyzing the data through text-mining and
SNA: (1) the great reset, (2) digital pedagogy, (3) shifting
educational landscape and emerging educational roles, (4)
emergency remote education, (5) pedagogy of care, (6) social
equity, equality, and injustice, and (7) future of education.
Theme 1: The Great Reset (See path Fig.1: lock-
down + emergency + community + challenges + dur-
ing > pandemic and impact > outbreak > coronavi-
rus > pandemic and global > crisis > pandemic > world;
See nodes on Fig.2: Covid19, pandemic, Coronavirus,
lockdown, crisis). The first theme in the thematic concept
map and network graphic is the Great Reset. It has been
relatively a short time since the World Health Organi-
zation (WHO) declared the COVID-19 a pandemic.
Although vaccination had already started, the pandemic
continued to have an adverse impact on the world. Ever
since the start of the pandemic, people were discuss-
ing when there would be a return to normal (Bozkurt &
Sharma, 2020a, b; Xiao, 2021); however, as time goes
by, this hope has faded, and returning to normal appears
to be far into the future (Schwab & Malleret, 2020). The
pandemic is seen as a major milestone, in the sense that
a macro reset in economic, social, geopolitical, environ-
mental, and technological fields will produce multi-fac-
eted changes affecting almost all aspects of life (Schwab
& Malleret, 2020). The cover of an issue of the interna-
tional edition of Time Magazine reflected this idea of a
great reset and presented the COVID-19 pandemic as an
opportunity to transform the way we live and work (Time,
2020). It has been argued that the pandemic will generate
Fig. 3 Social networks analysis of the references in COVID-19 and education-related papers 2019–2020 (Only the first authors were labeled –
See Appendix Fig.4 for SNA of references covering pre-COVID-19 period)
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the emergence of a new era, and that we will have to adapt
to the changes it produces (Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020). For
example, the industrial sector quickly embraced remote
work despite its challenges, and it is possible that most
industrial companies will not return to the on-site work-
ing model even after the pandemic ends (Hern, 2020).
We can expect a high rate of similar responses in other
fields, including education, where COVID-19 has already
reshaped our educational systems, the way we deliver
education, and pedagogical approaches.
Theme 2: Digital pedagogy (See path on Fig.1: distance
learning > research > teacher > development > need > train-
ing + technology + virtual > digital > communication > sup-
port > process > teaching > online > learning > online
learning + course > faculty > students > experience; See
nodes on Fig.2: online learning, distance learning, com-
puter-based learning, elearning, online education, distance
education, online teaching, multimedia-based learning,
technology, blended learning, online, digital transforma-
tion, ICT, online classes, flexible learning, technology-
enhanced learning, digitalization). Owing to the rapid
transition to online education as a result of COVID-19,
digital pedagogy and teachers’ competencies in informa-
tion and communication technology (ICT) integration have
gained greater prominence with the unprecedented chal-
lenges teachers have faced to adapt to remote teaching and
learning. The COVID-19 pandemic has unquestionably
manifested the need to prepare teachers to teach online, as
most of them have been forced to assume ERE roles with
inadequate preparation. Studies involving the use of SNA
indicate a correspondence between adapting to a digital
pedagogy and the need to equip teachers with greater com-
petency in technology and online teaching (e.g., Blume,
2020; König etal., 2020). König etal. (2020) conducted a
survey-based study investigating how early career teachers
have adapted to online teaching during COVID-19 school
closures. Their study found that while all the teachers
maintained communication with students and their parents,
introduced new learning content, and provided feedback,
they lacked the ability to respond to challenges requiring
ICT integration, such as those related to providing quality
online teaching and to conducting assessments. Likewise,
Blume (2020) noted that most teachers need to acquire
digital skills to implement digitally-mediated pedagogy
and communication more effectively. Both study find-
ings point to the need for building ICT-related teaching
and learning competencies in initial teacher education and
teacher professional development. The findings from the
SNA conducted in the present study are in line with the
aforementioned findings in terms of keyword analysis and
overlapping themes and nodes.
Theme 3: Shifting educational landscape and emerg-
ing educational roles (See path on Fig.1: future > educa-
tion > role > Covid19; See nodes on Fig.2: higher education,
education, student, curriculum, university, teachers, learn-
ing, professional development, teacher education, knowledge,
readiness). The role of technology in education and human
learning has been essential during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Technology has become a prerequisite for learning and teach-
ing during the pandemic and will likely continue to be so
after it. In the rapid shift to an unprecedented mode of learn-
ing and teaching, stakeholders have had to assume different
roles in the educational landscape of the new normal. For
example, in a comprehensive study involving the participa-
tion of over 30K higher education students from 62 countries
conducted by Aristovnik etal. (2020), it was found that stu-
dents with certain socio-demographic characteristics (male,
lower living standard, from Africa or Asia) were significantly
less satisfied with the changes to work/life balance created
by the COVID-19 pandemic, and that female students who
were facing financial problems were generally more affected
by COVID-19 in their emotional life and personal circum-
stances. Despite the challenges posed by the pandemic, there
is likely to be carry over in the post-pandemic era of some of
the educational changes made during the COVID-19 times.
For example, traditional lecture-based teacher-centered
classes may be replaced by more student-centered online col-
laborative classes (Zhu & Liu, 2020). This may require the
development and proliferation of open educational platforms
that allow access to high-quality educational materials (Boz-
kurt etal., 2020) and the adoption of new roles to survive in
the learning ecologies informed by digital learning pedago-
gies. In common with the present study, the aforementioned
studies (e.g., Aristovnik etal., 2020; König etal., 2020; Zhi &
Liu, 2020) call for more deliberate actions to improve teacher
education programs by offering training on various teach-
ing approaches, such as blended, hybrid, flexible, and online
learning, to better prepare educators for emerging roles in the
post-pandemic era.
Theme 4: Emergency remote education (see path Fig.1:
higher education > university > student > experience > remote;
See nodes on Fig.2: Covid19, pandemic, Coronavirus, higher
education, education, school closure, emergency remote
teaching, emergency remote learning). Educational insti-
tutions have undergone a rapid shift to ERE in the wake of
COVID-19 (Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020a; Bozkurt etal., 2020;
Hodges etal., 2020). Although ERE is viewed as similar to
distance education, they are essentially different. That is, ERE
is a prompt response measure to an emergency situation or
unusual circumstances, such as a global pandemic or a civil
war, for a temporary period of time, whereas distance edu-
cation is a planned and systematic approach to instructional
design and development grounded in educational theory and
practice (Bozkurt & Sharma, 2020b). Due to the urgent nature
of situations requiring ERE, it may fall short in embracing
the solid pedagogical learning and teaching principles repre-
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sented by distance education (Hodges etal., 2020). The early
implementations of ERE primarily involved synchronous
video-conferencing sessions that sought to imitate in-person
classroom instruction. It is worth noting that educators may
have heavily relied on synchronous communication to over-
come certain challenges, such as the lack of available materi-
als and planned activities for asynchronous communication.
Lockdowns and school closures, which turned homes into
compulsory learning environments, have posed major chal-
lenges for families and students, including scheduling, device
sharing, and learner engagement in a socially distanced home
learning environment (Bond, 2020). For example, Shim and
Lee (2020) conducted a qualitative study exploring university
students’ ERE experiences and reported that students com-
plained about network instability, unilateral interactions, and
reduced levels of concentration. The SNA findings clearly
highlight that there has been a focus on ERE due to the school
closures during the COVID-19 pandemic. It is key to adopt
the best practices of ERE and to utilize them regularly in dis-
tance education (Bozkurt, 2022). Moreover, it is important to
note that unless clear distinctions are drawn between these two
different forms of distance education or virtual instruction, a
series of unfortunate events in education during these COVID-
19 times is very likely to take place and lead to fatal errors in
instructional practices and to poor student learning outcomes.
Theme 5: Pedagogy of care (See path Fig.1: role > educa-
tion > Covid19 > care; See nodes on Fig.2: Stress, anxiety,
student wellbeing, coping, care, crisis management, depres-
sion). The thematic concept map and network graphic show
the psychological and emotional impact of the COVID-19
pandemic on various stakeholders, revealing that they have
experienced anxiety, expressed the need for care, and sought
coping strategies. A study by Baloran (2020), conducted in
the southern part of the Philippines to examine college stu-
dents’ knowledge, attitudes, anxiety, and personal coping
strategies during the COVID-19 pandemic, found that the
majority of the students experienced anxiety during the lock-
down and worried about food security, financial resources,
social contact, and large gatherings. It was reported that
the students coped with this anxiety by following protec-
tive measures, chatting with family members and friends,
and motivating themselves to have a positive attitude. In a
similar study, Islam etal. (2020) conducted an investigation
to determine whether Bangladeshi college students expe-
rienced anxiety and depression and the factors responsible
for these emotional responses. Their cross-sectional survey-
based study found that a large percentage of the participants
had suffered from anxiety and depression during the pan-
demic. Academic and professional uncertainty, as well as
financial insecurity, have been documented as factors con-
tributing to the anxiety and depression among college stu-
dents. Both studies point to the need for support mechanisms
to be established by higher education institutions in order to
ensure student wellbeing, provide them with care, and help
them to cope with stress, anxiety, and depression. Talidong
and Toquero (2020) reported that, in addition to students’
well-being and care, teachers’ perceptions and experiences
of stress and anxiety during the quarantine period need to
be taken into account. The authors found that teachers were
worried about the safety of their loved ones and were suscep-
tible to anxiety but tended to follow the preventive policies.
A pedagogy of care has been presented as an approach that
would effectively allow educators to plan more supportive
teaching practices during the pandemic by fostering clear
and prompt communication with students and their families
and taking into consideration learner needs in lesson plan-
ning (e.g., Karakaya, 2021; Robinson etal., 2020). Here it
is important to stress that a pedagogy of care is a multifac-
eted concept, one that involves the concepts of social equity,
equality, and injustice.
Theme 6: Social equity, equality, and injustice (See
path on Fig.1: Impact > outbreak > coronavirus > pan-
demic > social; See nodes on Fig.2: Support, equity, social
justice, digital divide, inequality, social support). One of
the more significant impacts of COVID-19 has been the
deepening of the existing social injustices around the world
(Oldekop etal., 2020; Williamson etal., 2020). Long-term
school closures have deteriorated social bonds and adversely
affected health issues, poverty, economy, food insecurity,
and digital divide (Van Lancker & Parolin, 2020). Regarding
the digital divide, there has been a major disparity in access
to devices and data connectivity between high-income and
low-income populations increasing the digital divide, social
injustice, and inequality in the world (Bozkurt etal., 2020).
In line with the SNA findings, the digital divide, manifest-
ing itself most visibly in the inadequacy and insufficiency
of digital devices and lack of high-speed Internet, can easily
result in widespread inequalities. As such, the disparities
between low and high socio-economic status families and
school districts in terms of digital pedagogy inequality may
deepen as teachers in affluent schools are more likely to
offer a wide range of online learning activities and thereby
secure better student engagement, participation, and inter-
action (Greenhow etal., 2020). These findings demonstrate
that social inequities have been sharpened by the unfortunate
disparities imposed by the COVID-19, thus requiring us to
reimagine a future that mitigates such concerns.
Theme 7: Future of education (See word path on Fig.1:
Future > education > Covid19 > pandemic > changes and
pandemic > coronavirus, outbreak, impact > world; See
nodes on Fig.2: Sustainability, resilience, uncertainty,
sdg4). Most significantly, COVID-19 the pandemic has
shown the entire world that teachers and schools are invalu-
able resources and execute critical roles in society. Beyond
that, with the compulsory changes resulting from the pan-
demic, it is evident that teaching and learning environments
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are not exclusive to brick-and-mortar classrooms. Digital
technologies, being at the center of teaching and learning
during the pandemic period, have been viewed as a piv-
otal agent in leveraging how learning takes place beyond
the classroom walls (Quilter-Pinner & Ambrose, 2020).
COVID-19 has made some concerns more visible. For
example, the well-being of students, teachers, and society
at large has gained more importance in these times of cri-
sis. Furthermore, the need for educational technology and
digital devices has compounded and amplified social ineq-
uities (Pelletier etal., 2021; West & Allen, 2020). Despite
its global challenges, the need for technology and digital
devices has highlighted some advantages that are likely to
shape the future of education, particularly those related to
the benefits of educational technology. For example, online
learning could provide a more flexible, informal, self-paced
learning environment for students (Adedoyin & Soykan,
2020). However, it also bears the risk of minimizing social
interaction, as working in shared office environments has
shifted to working alone in home-office settings. In this
respect, the transformation of online education must involve
a particular emphasis on sustaining interactivity through
technology (Dwivedi etal., 2020). In view of the findings of
the aforementioned studies, our text-mining and SNA find-
ings suggest that the COVID-19 impositions may strongly
shape the future of education and how learning takes place.
In summary, these themes extracted from the text-mining
and SNA point to a significant milestone in the history of
humanity, a multi-faceted reset that will affect many fields
of life, from education and economics to sociology and life-
style. The resulting themes have revealed that our natural
response to an emerging worldwide situation shifted the
educational landscape. The early response of the educa-
tional system was emergency-based and emphasized the
continuance of in-person instruction via synchronous learn-
ing technologies. The subsequent response foregrounded
the significance of digitally mediated learning pedagogy,
related teacher competencies, and professional development.
As various stakeholders (e.g., students, teachers, parents)
have experienced a heightened level of anxiety and stress,
an emerging strand of research has highlighted the need for
care-based and trauma-informed pedagogies as a response
to the side effects of the pandemic. In addition, as the global
pandemic has made systemic impairments, such as social
injustice and inequity, more visible, an important line of
research has emerged on how social justice can be ensured
given the challenges caused by the pandemic. Lastly, a siz-
able amount of research indicates that although the COVID-
19 pandemic has imposed unprecedented challenges to our
personal, educational, and social lives, it has also taught us
how to respond to future crises in a timely, technologically-
ready, pedagogically appropriate, and inclusive manner.
SNA: Citation Trends intheReferences
oftheSampled Publications
The trends identified through SNA in citation patterns indicate
two lines of thematic clusters (see Fig.3 -A network graph
depicting the citing and being cited patterns in the research
corpus. Node sizes were defined by their citation count and
betweenness centrality.). These clusters align with the results
of the analysis of the titles, abstracts, and keywords of the
sampled publications and forge the earlier themes (Theme 4:
Emergency remote education and Theme 5: Pedagogy of care).
Thematic Cluster 1: The first cluster centers on the abili-
ties of educational response, emergency remote educa-
tion affordances, and continuity of education (Bozkurt &
Sharma, 2020a; Crawford etal., 2020; Hodges etal., 2020)
to mitigate the impact of COVID-19 on education, especially
for more vulnerable and disadvantaged groups (UNESCO,
2020; Viner etal., 2020). The thematic cluster one agrees
with the theme four emergency remote education. The first
trend line (See red line in Fig.3) shows that the education
system is vulnerable to external threats. Considering that
interruption of education is not exclusive to pandemics – for
example, political crises have also caused disruptions (Rapp
etal., 2016) – it is clear that coping mechanisms are needed
to ensure the continuity of education under all conditions.
In this case, we need to reimagine and recalibrate education
to make it resilient, flexible, and adaptive, not only to ensure
the continuity of education, but also to ensure social justice,
equity, and equality. Given that online education has its own
limitations (e.g., it is restricted to online tools and infrastruc-
tures), we need to identify alternative entry points for those
who do not have digital devices or lack access to the internet.
Thematic Cluster 2: The second cluster centers on the
psychological impact of COVID-19 on learners, who dur-
ing these times suffered a sense of uncertainty (Bozkurt, &
Sharma, 2021; Cao etal., 2020; Rose, 2020; Sahu, 2020)
which suggest that learners are experiencing difficult times
that can result in psychological and mental problems. The
thematic cluster two agrees with theme five which is peda-
gogy of care. Therefore, it can be argued that learners' psy-
chological and emotional states should be a top priority.
Brooks etal. (2020) reported the potential of post-traumatic
issues with long-lasting effects, on top of the trauma that has
already been suffered during the COVID-19 pandemic. In
other words, the effects of the COVID-19 crisis may prove
to extend beyond their current state and add long-term chal-
lenges. Additionally, it has further been reported that the
socio-economic effects of the pandemic (Nicola etal., 2020)
may cause inequality and inequity in educational communi-
ties (Beaunoyer etal., 2020). The research also shows that
learners’ achievement gaps are positively associated with
psychological issues, while support and care are negatively
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associated with their traumatic states (Cao etal., 2020).
In this context, the second thematic cluster reveals that
researchers have seriously considered the psychological and
emotional needs of learners in their publications. Care (Nod-
dings, 1984) and that trauma-informed pedagogy (Imad,
2020) can be a guideline during and after the COVID-19
pandemic. It is quite clear that learners have experienced
educational loss (e.g., drop-outs, achievement gaps, aca-
demic procrastination, etc.), as well as social and emotional
impairments (e.g., fear, frustration, confusion, anxiety, sense
of isolation, death of loved ones, etc.). Therefore, we need
to critically approach the situation, focusing first on healing
our social and emotional losses, and then, on the educational
losses. As Bozkurt and Sharma (2020a, 2020b) put it:
“What we teach in these times can have secondary
importance. We have to keep in mind that students
will remember not the educational content delivered,
but how they felt during these hard times. With an
empathetic approach, the story will not center on how
to successfully deliver educational content, but it will
be on how learners narrate these times” (p. iv).
Conclusion andSuggestions
The results from this study indicate that quick adaptability
and flexibility have been key to surviving the substantial chal-
lenges generated by COVID-19. However, extreme demands
on flexibility have taken a toll on human well-being and have
exacerbated systemic issues like inequity and inequality. Using
data mining that involved network analysis and text mining as
analytical tools, this research provides a panoramic picture of
the COVID-19-related themes educational researchers have
addressed in their work. A sample of 1150 references yielded
seven themes, which served to provide a comprehensive meta-
narrative about COVID-19 and its impact on education.
A portion of the sampled publications focused on what we
refer to as the great reset, highlighting the challenges that the
emergency lockdown brought to the world. A publication pattern
centered around digital pedagogy posited distance and online
learning as key components and identified the need for teacher
training. Given the need for adaptability, a third theme revealed
the demand for professional development in higher education
and a future shift in educational roles. It can be recommended
that future research investigate institutional policy changes and
the adaptation to these changes in renewed educational roles.
The ERE theme centered on the lack of preparation in instituting
the forced changes brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic.
The publications related to this theme revealed that the COVID-
19 pandemic uncovered silent threads in educational environ-
ments, like depression, inequality, and injustice. A pedagogy of
care has been developed with the aim of reducing anxiety and
providing support through coping strategies. These research pat-
terns indicate that the future of education demands sustainability
and resilience in the face of uncertainty.
Results of the thematic analysis of citation patterns (Fig.3)
overlapped with two of the themes found in our thematic con-
cept map (Fig.1) and network graphic (Fig.2). It was shown
that researchers have emphasized the continuity of educa-
tion and the psychological effects of the COVID-19 crisis on
learners. Creating coping strategies to deal with global crises
(e.g., pandemics, political upheavals, natural disasters) has
been shown to be a priority for educational researchers. The
pedagogy of resilience (Purdue University Innovative learn-
ing, n.d.) provides governments, institutions, and instructors
with an alternative tool to applying to their contexts in the face
of hardship. Furthermore, prioritizing the psychological long-
term effects of the crisis in learners could alleviate achievement
gaps. We recommend that researchers support grieving learn-
ers through care (Noddings, 1984) and trauma-informed peda-
gogy (Imad, 2020). Our resilience and empathy will reflect our
preparedness for impending crises. The thematic analysis of
citation patterns (1: educational response, emergency remote
education affordances, and continuity of education; 2: psycho-
logical impact of COVID-19) further indicates suggestions for
future instructional/learning designers. Freire (1985) argues
that to transform the world we need to humanize it. Support-
ing that argument, the need for human-centered pedagogical
approaches (Robinson etal., 2020) by considering learning a
multifaceted process (Hodges etal., 2021) for well-designed
learning experiences (Moore etal., 2021) is a requirement and
instructional/learning designers have an important responsibil-
ity not only to design courses but an entire learning ecosystem
where diversity, sensitivity, and inclusivity are prioritized.
ERE is not a representative feature in the field of online
education or distance education but rather, a forced reaction to
extraordinary circumstances in education. The increasing con-
fusion between the practice of ERE and online learning could
have catastrophic consequences in learners' outcomes, teachers'
instructional practices, and institutional policies. Researchers, edu-
cators, and policymakers must work cooperatively and be guided
by sound work in the field of distance learning to design nourish-
ing educational environments that serve students’ best interests.
In this study, text mining and social network analy-
sis were demonstrated to be powerful tools for exploring
and visualizing patterns in COVID-19-related educational
research. However, a more in-depth examination is still
needed to synthesize effective strategies that can be used
to support us in future crises. Systematic reviews that use
classical manual coding techniques may take more time but
increase our understanding of a phenomenon and help us to
develop specific action plans. Future systematic reviews can
use the seven themes identified in this study to analyze pri-
mary studies and find strategies that counteract the survival
of the fittest mindset to ensure that no student is left behind.
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Appendix
Fig. 4 SNA of references covering pre-COVID-19 period (Only the first authors were labeled)

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Acknowledgements This paper is dedicated to all educators and
instructional/learning designers who ensured the continuity of educa-
tion during the tough times of the COVID-19 pandemic.
This article is produced as a part of the 2020 AECT Mentoring
Program.
Authors’ Contributions AB: Conceptualization, Methodology, Soft-
ware, Formal analysis, Investigation, Resources, Data Curation, Writ-
ing—Original Draft, Writing—Review & Editing, Visualization,
Funding acquisition.; KK: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing—
Original Draft, Writing—Review & Editing.; MT: Conceptualization,
Investigation, Writing—Original Draft, Writing—Review & Editing.;
ÖK: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writing—Original Draft, Writ-
ing—Review & Editing.; DCR: Conceptualization, Investigation, Writ-
ing—Original Draft, Writing—Review & Editing.
Funding This paper is supported by Anadolu University, Scientific
Research Commission with grant no: 2106E084.
Data Availability The dataset is available from the authors upon
request.
Declarations
Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate This is a systematic review
study and exempt from ethical approval.
Competing Interests The authors declare no competing interests.
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