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THE TURKISH JOURNAL ON ADDICTIONS
www.addicta.com.tr
176
Physical Activity and Nomophobia
Torlak et al.
2
9
Cite this article as: Torlak, M. S., Gerçek, H., & Ünüvar, B. S. (2022). Relationship between physical activity and Nomophobia in university
students: A cross-sectional study.
Addicta: The Turkish Journal on Addictions
, 9(2), 176-181.
DOI: 10.5152/ADDICTA.2022.22010
©Copyright by 2022 Türkiye
Yeşilay Cemiyeti (Turkish
Green Crescent Society) -
Available online at
www.addicta.com.tr
Received: February 9, 2022
Accepted: May 23, 2022
Available Online Date:
June 30, 2022
Corresponding Author:
Mustafa Savaş Torlak,
E-mail:
musta fa.sa vas.t orlak @
kara tay.e du.tr
Main Points
• Smartphone use is more common in young people than in other age groups. For this reason, university
students are more likely to have nomophobia and anxiety.
• Smartphone addiction negatively affects individuals both psychologically and physically.
• Physical activity has positive effects on mental health.
Abstract
This study aimed to examine the relationship between physical activity and nomophobia in university
students. A total of 300 university student volunteers aged 17–25 years were included. Measurements
were applied online via Google Forms. The nomophobia scale and the International Physical Activity
Questionnaire Short Form were used. The number of vigorous physical activity days in the last week, daily
vigorous physical activity levels, and metabolic equivalent of task values spent for vigorous activity were
higher in male than in female participants (
p
< .01). No significant difference was found between the par-
ticipants’ moderate-intensity physical activity, walking, and sitting times (
p
> .05). A negative correlation
was found between the physical activity of the female participants and their nomophobia levels (
r
= −.217,
p
= .001). The university students had insufficient physical activity and high levels of nomophobia. A nega-
tive correlation was found between physical activity and nomophobia levels. Approaches to increase physi-
cal activity may reduce anxiety and depression levels caused by nomophobia in young individuals with high
nomophobia levels.
Keywords: Addiction, anxiety, nomophobia, physical activity, university students
Introduction
Anxiety disorders are characterized by extreme
fear and avoidance, usually in response to certain
objects or situations and in the absence of real
danger, and are extremely common in the general
population. An epidemiological study revealed that
the lifetime incidence of any anxiety disorder was
approximately 28.8% (Kessler et al., 2005). Anxiety
disorders impair one’s job performance and incur
heavy economic costs (Greenberg et al., 1999). It is
also associated with an increased risk of cardiovas-
cular morbidity and mortality (Albert et al., 2005;
Kawachi et al., 1994; Smoller et al., 2007). Anxiety
disorders include post-traumatic stress disorder,
panic attacks, social phobia, specific phobias, obses-
sive-compulsive disorder, and generalized anxiety
disorder (Shin & Liberzon, 2010).
At present, communication technology has become
an integral part of daily life. The mobile phone,
which is the most important tool of communication
technology, has evolved into a smartphone, which
is not only a communication tool but also a data
storage, camera, music, and game device. However,
unlimited use of smartphones leads to the develop-
ment of behavioral addictions (Hamilton-Ekeke
et al., 2016). Nomophobia is the abbreviation
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Relationship between Physical Activity
and Nomophobia in University Students:
A Cross-Sectional Study
MustafaSavaşTorlak ,HasanGerçek , Bayram Sönmez Ünüvar
Department of Physical Therapy, KTO Karatay University, Vocational School of Health Services, Konya, Turkey
ORCID iDs of the authors: M.S.T. 0000-0002-8084-6203, H.G. 0000-0001-7459-4452, B.S.Ü. 0000-0003-2095-3645.
Addicta: The Turkish Journal on Addictions, 9(2), 176-181
177
of “no mobile phone phobia” and is defined as the fear of not
being able to use or reach one’s smartphone (King et al., 2013).
Briefly, it is a modern-day phobia resulting from the interaction
with new technologies (Salehan & Negahban, 2013). The term
“nomophobia” was first used in a study by YouGov, an inter-
national research and analysis group established in the United
Kingdom in 2008 (Notara et al., 2021). Nomophobia also neg-
atively affects the psychological health of a person (Harwood
et al., 2014). The phobia of being away from mobile phones was
reported to increase stress, depression, and anxiety symptoms,
especially in young individuals (Kuscu et al., 2020; Mir & Akhtar,
2020). Antipsychotic drugs can be used in the treatment of
nomophobia. However, these drugs have the potential to cause
addiction (Tiller, 2013). Another treatment option is cognitive
behavioral therapy and existential psychotherapy approaches
(Tathan Bekaroğlu & Yılmaz, 2020). However, this treatment
option is both continuous and costly. Physical activity is a prom-
ising, cost-effective, and easily accessible treatment option for
individuals with anxiety (Stonerock et al., 2015). Many studies
have stated that physical activity has positive effects on mental
health in all age groups (Biddle et al., n.d.; Fibbins et al., 2018;
Mochcovitch et al., 2016). In addition, the risk of anxiety in men
and women with high physical activity in daily life is reduced
(Svensson et al., 2021). Despite the positive effects of physical
activity on mental health, no study has explored its relation-
ship with nomophobia. Thus, this study aimed to examine the
relationship between physical activity level and nomophobia in
young individuals.
Methods
Participants
The study approval was obtained from KTO Karatay University
Faculty of Medicine Drug and Non- Medical Device Research
Ethics Committee (decision no. 2021/005).
A total of 300 university student volunteers aged 17–25 years
were included in the study. All stages of the study were in compli-
ance with the Declaration of Helsinki. The inclusion criteria were
having a smartphone and using the Internet over a smartphone.
The exclusion criteria were exercising regularly and having a dis-
ability that limits physical activity.
Procedure
Measurements were applied online via Google Forms. Informed
consent was obtained from each study participant, and they were
required to answer all the questions.
Data about the demographic information, physical activity lev-
els, and nomophobia levels of the participants were collected.
The International Physical Activity Questionnaire Short Form
(IPAQ-SF) was used to determine the physical activity levels of
the participants. IPAQ-SF, consisting of seven questions and col-
lecting information about the time spent by the participants for
vigorous physical activity, moderate-intensity physical activity,
and walking and sitting in the last week, was developed by Craig
et al., and its Turkish validity and reliability test was performed
by Sağlam et al. (Craig et al., 2003; Saglam et al., 2010). Metabolic
equivalent of task (MET) values of the participants were calcu-
lated as follows:
Vigorous physical activity: number of days × day duration × 8.
Moderate-intensity physical activity: number of days × day dura-
tion × 4 Walking: number of days × day duration × 3.3.
Total MET: vigorous physical activity + moderate-intensity phys-
ical activity + walking (Saglam et al., 2010).
The nomophobia scale, a 7-point Likert scale consisting of
20 questions developed by Yildirim and Correia, was used to
evaluate the nomophobia levels of the participants (Yildirim &
Correia, 2015). The scale consists of four sub-dimensions: “not
being able to communicate,” “losing connectednes,” “not being
able to have access to information,” and “giving up convenience.”
In the scale, “1” represents “I strongly disagree,” whereas “7” rep-
resents “strongly agree.” The nomophobia levels of the partici-
pants were calculated by taking the sum of the scores obtained
from the scale. Those with a total score <20 did not have nomo-
phobia, 21–59 had mild, 60–99 had moderate, and 100–140 had
extreme nomophobia.
Statistical Analysis
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences software version 25
(IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA) package program was used to
analyze the data. The Kolmogorov–Smirnov and histogram
method were used to test the conformity of the data to normal
distribution. The difference between data conforming to the nor-
mal distribution was evaluated with the
t
-test and those that did
not fit the normal distribution were evaluated with the Mann–
Whitney
U
test. Results are given as mean ± standard deviation
(X ± SD), median (Q1–Q3), and percentage values (%). The
relationship between nomophobia and physical activity was ana-
lyzed with Spearman’s correlation test. All statistical analyses
were evaluated at a significance level of
p
< .05.
Results
A total of 300 volunteers were included in the study, of which, 84
(28%) participants were male and 216 (72%) participants were
female. Demographic information of the participants is given in
Table 1.
The physical activity levels of the participants were evaluated
separately in terms of gender. The number of vigorous physical
activity days in the last week, daily vigorous physical activity
levels, and MET values spent for vigorous activity were higher
in male participants than in female participants (
p
< .01). No
significant difference was found between the participants’
moderate-intensity physical activity, walking, and sitting times
(
p
> .05). The MET values of the participants are given in
Table 2.
Table 1.
Demographic Information
Age X ± SD BMI X ± SD
Female (
n
= 216) 20.12 ± 2.35 22.12 ± 3.96
Male (
n
= 84) 20.26 ± 3.43 22.67 ± 4.17
Total (
n
= 300) 20.16 ± 2.69 22.27 ± 4.02
X = mean; SD = standard deviation;
n
= number; BMI = body mass index.
Torlak et al. Physical Activity and Nomophobia
178
Of the participants, 102 (34%) had mild, 161 (53.7%) had moder-
ate, and 37 (12.3%) had severe nomophobia. While 68 (31.5%) of
the female participants had mild, 118 (54.5%) had moderate and
30 (13.9%) had severe nomophobia. Among the male participants,
34 (40.5%) had mild, 43 (51.2%) had moderate, and 7 (8.3%) had
severe nomophobia. The nomophobia scores of the participants
are presented in Table 3.
A negative correlation was found between the physical activity
levels of the female participants and their nomophobia levels (
r
= −.217,
p
= .001). A negative correlation was found between the
physical activity levels of the female participants and the sub-
dimensions of the nomophobia scale (
p
< .005). By contrast, no
significant correlation was found between the physical activity
levels of the male participants and their nomophobia levels and
sub-dimensions of the scale. The relationship between the physi-
cal activity levels of all participants and the nomophobia scale
and its sub-dimensions is given in Table 4.
Discussion
The physical activity level of most of the university students par-
ticipating in our study was not sufficient, and their nomophobia
levels were high. A relationship was also found between the level
of physical activity and nomophobia.
This study revealed that 66% of our participants had moderate
and high levels of nomophobia, and all of the participants had
nomophobia. These rates are similar to those in previous studies
in Turkey (Dalbudak et al., 2020; Gurbuz & Ozkan, 2020). This
shows the high prevalence of nomophobia among Turkish uni-
versity students. In a study conducted on university students in
2016 by Yıldırım et al., who adapted the nomophobia scale into
Turkish, 42.6% of the students were nomophobic (Yildirim et al.,
2016). In the study by Burucuoğlu et al. on students with associ-
ate degree, 73.7% of the participating students had moderate and
high levels of nomophobia, 25.9% had low levels of nomophobia,
Table 2.
Physical Activity Levels of the Participants
Male Median (Q1–Q3) Female Median (Q1–Q3)
p Z
Vigorous physical activity
(MET.min/week)
32
(0–1380)
0
(0–160)
.000 3.949
Moderate-intensity physical activity
(MET.min/week)
28
(0–540)
70
(0–295)
.405 .832
Walking
(MET.min/week)
693
(462–1386)
693
(396–1039.5)
.280 1.080
Total 1807.5 1372.5 .001 3.257
(MET.min/week) (1025.625–3287.25) (931.5–2170)
Q1 = rst quartile; Q3 = third quartile;
Z
= Mann–Whitney
U
test; MET = metabolic equivalent of task.
Table 3.
Nomophobia Scores of the Participants
Not Being Able to
Have Access to
Information X ± SD
Giving Convenience
up X ± SD
Not Being Able to
Communicate
X ± SD
Losing Connectedness
X ± SD TotalX± SD
Female (
n
= 216) 16.19 ± 6.29 17.52 ± 7.40 25.83 ± 10.63 12.66 ± 7.27 72.19 ±25.65
Male (
n
= 84) 16.13 ± 6.02 16.60 ±7.33 21.61 ± 9.32 13.13 ± 7.66 67.46 ± 24.34
Total (
n
= 300) 16.13 ± 6.02 16.60 ± 7.33 21.61 ± 9.32 13.13 ± 7.66 70.87 ± 25.34
X = mean; SD = standard deviation;
n
= number.
Table 4.
Relationship Between MET Values and Nomophobia Scores
123456
1 MET 1
2 Not being able tohave access to information −.091 1
3 Giving up convenience −.136* .594** 1
4 Not being able to communicate −.172** .419** .567** 1
5 Losing connectednes −.188** .468** .664** .487** 1
6 Nomophobia −.193** .712** .864** .821 .786* 1
*
p
< .05; **
p
< .01.
r
, Spearman’s correlation coecient.
Addicta: The Turkish Journal on Addictions, 9(2), 176-181
179
and 1 (.4%) had nomophobia (Burucuoğlu, 2017). In 2019, Akman
et al. reported that .6% of their participants did not have nomo-
phobia, 23.7% had mild, 59.9% had moderate, and 16.8% had
extreme nomophobia (Akman, 2019). Regarding the years that
studies were conducted, the rate of nomophobia is higher in
recent studies. This can be attributed to innovations brought by
technology and the introduction of smartphones to young popu-
lations at a very early age. Although the rates of nomophobia
vary among studies, the level of nomophobia in each study should
be considered. The difference in the results of the study can be
related to the average age of the study group, environment and
culture, year in which the study was conducted, and pandemic
conditions.
Although high scores were obtained in all sub-dimensions of
the nomophobia scale in this study, similar to previous studies
(Yasan Ak & Yildirim, 2018; Yildirim et al., 2016), the most com-
mon sub-dimension was the sub-dimension of not being able to
communicate. The importance of social media and communica-
tion for university students has been emphasized in the literature
(Gezgin, Hamutoglu et al., 2018). This result revealed that uni-
versity students needed social communication.
In our study, although the nomophobia levels of the female
participants were higher than that of the male participants, no
significant difference was noted. Early studies on technology
addiction have shown that male participants are more addicted
to technology than female participants. In a study conducted in
the United Kingdom in 2008 in which the concept of nomophobia
was mentioned for the first time, 58% of the male and 48% of
the female participants had features of nomophobia (Dixit et al.,
2010). This has been attributed to males’ acquaintance with tech-
nology at an earlier age and being more inclined to technology
(Augner & Hacker, 2012). However, in recent studies, addiction
symptoms were higher in female participants. This difference is
thought to be due to the more social nature of women and the
longer time spent on the phone to communicate (Yang et al.,
2010). Previous studies have also reported that women use smart-
phones more for communication and social purposes than men
(Bianchi & Phillips, 2005; van Deursen et al., 2015). This is con-
sistent with previous studies. As a result, the nomophobia scores
were higher in women than in men (Gezgin, Cakir et al., 2018;
Mallya et al., 2018; Yildirim et al., 2016). Because previous studies
have reported different results in the relationship between gen-
der and nomophobia, the finding in the present study may help
clarify the relationship between gender and nomophobia.
The results of our study reveal that the physical activities of
the participants were not sufficient, which is consistent with
the results of previous studies that university students have low
physical activity levels (Irwin, 2004, 2007). In our study, male stu-
dents were more active than female students. In the literature,
studies conducted on university students have demonstrated that
male students are exercising regularly and have higher physical
activity levels than female students (Aslan et al., 2007; Demirtürk
et al., 2017; Kargün et al., 2016).
In our study, a relationship was found between the physical activ-
ity and nomophobia levels of the university students. This rela-
tionship was noted among female university students. Although
a relationship was found between physical activity and all sub-
dimensions of the nomophobia scale, this was not observed on
the sub-dimension of not being able to have access to informa-
tion. Excessive use of smartphones may cause social isolation,
decreased academic achievement, decreased physical activity,
and psychiatric disorders (Boulos et al., 2011; Lepp et al., 2013).
Making calls, sending and receiving messages, installing and
using applications, and spending time on the Internet using
smartphones reflect a sedentary lifestyle (Rosenberg et al., 2010).
A study reported that excessive use of a smartphone or computer
decreases physical activity (Kautiainen et al., 2005). Another
study showed that university students have insufficient physical
activity levels and a relationship exists between physical activ-
ity level and anxiety in female students (Ölçücü et al., 2015).
This may cause psychiatric disorders such as nomophobia. The
findings of our study reveal that increasing the physical activ-
ity levels of students can reduce their risks for nomophobia. The
relationship between physical activity and the risk of nomopho-
bia in female students was higher than that in male students. This
might be due to the finding that the physical activity levels of
male students were higher than that of female students. In the
literature, no studies have evaluated the relationship between
physical activity and nomophobia. Studies have generally focused
on the relationship between variables such as physical activity,
Internet addiction, smartphone addiction, digital game addic-
tion, and psychiatric symptoms. Nevertheless, our study has
some limitations. First, a certain age group was considered in our
study. Second, the mental states of the individuals were not taken
into account. Thus, comprehensive studies are warranted to shed
light on the subject.
In this study, the physical activity was insufficient and nomopho-
bia levels were high in university students. A negative correlation
was also found between physical activity and nomophobia levels.
We think that approaches to increase physical activity are impor-
tant in reducing anxiety and depression levels possibly caused by
nomophobia in young individuals with high nomophobia levels.
Limitations and Direc tions /Sugg estio ns for Future Research
There are some limitations of the study. The study data were col-
lected online due to pandemic conditions. In addition, data were
collected from one university in the study, so the results may
not reflect the entire population. However, this is the first study
to examine the relationship between nomophobia and physical
activity in university students. Smart technologies make life eas-
ier in daily life. However, these technologies have many negative
effects on mental and physical health. Physical activity is a cheap
and effective method to protect both mental and physical health.
We think that the findings of this study will shed light on future
studies on smartphone addiction and its treatment in university
students. In addition, the relationship between physical activity
and addiction in different age groups can be examined in future
studies.
Ethics Committee Approval: The study protocol was approved by the
KTO Karatay University nonclinical research Ethics Committee (num-
ber: 2021/005).
Informed Consent: Written informed consent was obtained from all par-
ticipants who participated in this study.
Torlak et al. Physical Activity and Nomophobia
180
Peer-review: Externally peer-reviewed.
Author Contributions: Concept - M.S.T, B.S.Ü.; Design - M.S.T.;
Supervision - M.S.T., H.G.; Materials - B.S.Ü., H.G.; Data Collection and/
or Processing - M.S.T, B.S.Ü.; Analysis and/or Interpretation - H.G.;
Literature Review - M.S.T, B.S.Ü., H.G.; Writing - M.S.T, B.S.Ü., H.G.;
Critical Review - M.S.T.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank the students of KTO
Karatay University for supporting the study.
Declaration of Interests: The authors have no conicts of interest to
declare.
Funding: The authors declared that this study has received no nancial
support.
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