Advancements and Future Prospects of Electric Vehicle Technologies: A Comprehensive Review

Abstract

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are one of the major problems that the world is facing nowadays. The transportation sector, where vehicles run on oil, contributes a large amount of GHG. The development of electric vehicles to meet the allowed GHG limits has recently been the main focus of research worldwide. Research in electric vehicles (EVs) has observed a tremendous upsurge in recent years. However, reviews that analyze and present the demand and development of EVs comprehensively are still inadequate, and this integrative review is an effort to fill that gap. This study has revealed many thought-provoking understandings related to specific developments, specifically global demand and growth of EVs along with electricity and battery demand, current technological developments in EVs, energy storage technologies, and charging strategies. It also details the next generation of EVs and their technological advancements, such as wireless power transfer. The development of a smart city concept by EV implementation added a new aspect to this review. The summary would be advantageous to both scholars and policymakers, as there has been a lack of integrative reviews that assessed EVs’ global demand and development simultaneously and collectively. This review concludes the intuitions for investors and policymakers to envisage electric mobility.

Full text

Review Article
Advancements and Future Prospects of Electric Vehicle
Technologies: A Comprehensive Review
M. S. Hossain ,
1
,
2
Laveet Kumar ,
3
Mamdouh El Haj Assad,
4
and Reza Alayi
5
1
College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
2
Institute for Energy Research, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
3
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro 76090, Sindh, Pakistan
4
Sustainable and Renewable Energy Engineering Department, University of Sharjah, P.O. Box 27272, Sharjah, UAE
5
Department of Mechanics, Germi Branch, Islamic Azad University, Germi, Iran
Correspondence should be addressed to M. S. Hossain; m.shossein@yahoo.com and Reza Alayi; reza.alayi@yahoo.com
Received 19 March 2022; Revised 25 May 2022; Accepted 2 June 2022; Published 1 July 2022
Academic Editor: Xiaoqing Bai
Copyright ©2022 M. S. Hossain et al. is is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are one of the major problems that the world is facing nowadays. e transportation sector,
where vehicles run on oil, contributes a large amount of GHG. e development of electric vehicles to meet the allowed GHG
limits has recently been the main focus of research worldwide. Research in electric vehicles (EVs) has observed a tremendous
upsurge in recent years. However, reviews that analyze and present the demand and development of EVs comprehensively are still
inadequate, and this integrative review is an effort to fill that gap. is study has revealed many thought-provoking understandings
related to specific developments, specifically global demand and growth of EVs along with electricity and battery demand, current
technological developments in EVs, energy storage technologies, and charging strategies. It also details the next generation of EVs
and their technological advancements, such as wireless power transfer. e development of a smart city concept by EV
implementation added a new aspect to this review. e summary would be advantageous to both scholars and policymakers, as
there has been a lack of integrative reviews that assessed EVs’ global demand and development simultaneously and collectively.
is review concludes the intuitions for investors and policymakers to envisage electric mobility.
1. Introduction
Electric vehicle (EV) adoption rates have been growing
around the world due to various favorable environments,
such as no pollution, dependence on fossil fuel energy, ef-
ficiency, and less noise [1]. e current research into EVs is
concerned with the means and productivity of expanding
transportation, reducing costs, and planning effective
charging strategies. Regardless of whether it is a hybrid, a
modular crossover, or one of a multitude of functional EVs,
people’s interest will increase with falling costs. Moreover,
the development of EVs is based on current and future
global demand, which is interconnected to electricity and
battery demand. Besides that, the productive development of
EVs depends on the improvement of global values, EV
policies, comprehensive frameworks, related peripherals,
and easy-to-use programming [2]. However, the primary
energy source of fossil fuel still commands the world’s road
transportation, but it is only a matter of time before EVs are
adopted; in the next decade, people will begin to rely on
electric vehicles.
Although there is virtually no scope for greenhouse gas
emissions in EVs, the benefits of transport electrification in
mitigating environmental changes become more apparent
when the organization of EVs matches the DE (distributed
energies) carbonization of the intensity structure. Strategies
continue to improve electrical flexibility. e use of EVs
usually begins with the formulation of many goals, followed
by specifications for receiving and charging vehicles. Electric
vehicle approval plans typically include acquisition pro-
grams to arouse interest in EVs and stand out from the
public charging infrastructure system. On the other hand,
the technological development of showcases for EVs has led
to the creation of countless charging stations for EVs, with
Hindawi
Complexity
Volume 2022, Article ID 3304796, 21 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/3304796

which the electric vehicle network (EV-grid integration) can
be connected. Newer charging stations can be divided into
private and nonprivate charging stations, which can stim-
ulate medium charging (levels 1 and (2) and fast charging
(levels 3 and DC) [3]. e high tolls for EVs are private in
moderately charged ports. However, future charging stations
are to be developed at commercial locations to make them
petrol stations for electric cars with extensive charging ports
[4]. Wireless innovation is at the center of the future ver-
satility of electrical equipment. ese progressive develop-
ments cover the entire value chain of the project and the
whole circular economy: research of managers, production
and processing of crude oil, battery design, as well as the
production, use, and disposal (sorting, reuse, and reuse) of
the battery and the solution to overall savings and main-
tainability [5]. Most of the current progress of the battery
depends on lithium particles, polymers of lithium particles,
or nickel-cadmium, nickel-metal hydride [6]. Naumanen
et al. and their team reported on the method of solid lithium-
ion battery cars in China, the European Union, Japan, and
the United States. ey summarized the bulk of the use of the
national battery improvement system at the point of an
electric vehicle. China and the United States are the leading
licensors and countries that monitor batteries [7]. However,
the developing countries can lean on them to maintain the
EV-related development and manufacturing R&D sectors.
Despite the advancement of battery-based innovations, the
battery testing phase, the construction of measuring in-
struments, the disposal and reuse of batteries, and the
conduct of assessments are significant [8]. ere will be a
change in the amount of CO
2
emitted from the EV fleet’s
well-to-wheel (WTW) greenhouse gas emissions as energy
use and electricity generation carbon intensity both decrease
[9]. us, EVs could lead the decarbonization of the
transportation sector towards carbon neutrality.
Besides that, smart cities are looking for new solutions to
address some of the urban dilemmas (environmental, social,
and financial) caused by the grid network, development, and
the operation of underlying conditions (such as vehicles,
waste, energy). However, this cooperation is not always
recognizable and should be tested for the most considerable
advantage [10, 11]. e use of petroleum products in the
transport system causes atmospheric pollution due to the
formation of particles and unnatural meteorological changes
caused by carbon dioxide and primary air pollutant emis-
sions. ere are many mineral-filled vehicles in the world
that can carry substances that deplete the ozone layer, which
is one of the significant challenges facing the world [12, 13].
Consider that the benefit of answering the request is to
improve the charge coordination of using low-carbon or
low-carbon energy. Another essential aspect of EVs is the
charging of batteries. e charging speed of the battery
depends on the type of EV and the main battery charge. In
most cases, the charger is divided into four levels, from level
1 to level 4. To complete the checkpoint, an accurate as-
sessment of the relevant conditions for the electric vehicle
must be made. Coordination between energy and land use
and issues related to changes in global temperature and air
pollution are fundamental prerequisites for the
transportation sector. erefore, car manufacturers only
need to establish more apparent incentives to see increas-
ingly effective results. In this particular case, there has re-
cently been a concentration of vehicles with selective fuel
and EVs. e International Energy Agency (IEA) is taking
measures to reduce the similar outflow of carbon dioxide
(CO
2eq
), and many countries have made the introduction of
EVs on the market an important goal [14, 15].
To overcome those difficulties, this study presents an
innovative approach to EV development to provide an
appropriate guideline for developing and nondeveloping
countries. EVs coordinate various types of individual
achievements and divide the overall field of EVs into several
key areas, which can give increasingly important point-by-
point data. Consider the benefit of answering the request: to
improve the charge coordination of using low-carbon or
low-carbon energy. It is assumed that the strength structure
representation of the use of DG (distributed generation)
assets will be further enhanced and combined with sus-
tainable energy. e following article summarizes EV status,
policies, future demand, and EV-related technology, spe-
cifically delving into next-generation EVs and their ap-
proaches. Nowadays, smart city development and
maintenance are hot topics, and electric vehicles are playing
an essential role in renewable energy growth. In this regard,
this study went through an impact-related discussion. Lastly,
the study summarizes and explores some different methods
and their advantages and disadvantages. ese discussions
will give a general framework for increasing EV growth in
the world.
However, it is important to see EV growth in the world.
Figure 1 shows a summary of the global EV stock and EV
sales market. e market share report shows that 3% of the
total newly sold vehicles are EVs. As indicated in the
Navigant Research report, this number may exceed 7%, or
6.6 million a year worldwide by 2020 [9]. e transportation
of EVs has developed rapidly in the last ten years; in 2018, the
worldwide transportation volume of EVs was more than 5
million. is is an increase of 63% over the previous year. In
2018, around 45% of EVs were produced in China, where the
total number of EVs was 2.3 million, an increase of 39% over
the previous year. In any case, 24% of the world’s fleet is in
Europe, while the United States has 22%. On the other hand,
Norway is still a worldwide pioneer in the production of
electric cars. About 49.10% of new electric car transactions in
2018 were almost twice as much as Iceland, an increase of
17.50%, and six times as much as Iceland as Sweden, an
increase of 7.20% [16]. Most of the existing EVs have been
manufactured in recent years, and more than 300 million
vehicles will be manufactured by the end of 2018. Of course,
most of them are in China. In contrast, two-wheeler electric
vehicle sales are hundreds of times larger than anywhere in
the world. Transactions with EVs are also increasing. In
2018, more than 460,000 cars are already on the world’s
roads. In addition, 5 million passenger cars and slow EVs
were sold in 2018. All low-speed electric vehicles (EVs) are in
China. Shared electric foot scooters, often known as “free-
floating” scooters, became extremely popular in major cities
throughout the world in 2018 and early 2019. ese foot
2Complexity

scooter conspiracies are currently active in approximately
129 urban areas in the United States; 30 in Europe; 7 in Asia;
and 6 in Australia and New Zealand.
Moreover, the structure and configuration of EVs can be
found in the next section. e development of EVs is based
on current and future global demand, which is inter-
connected to electricity and battery demand. Besides that,
the productive development of EVs depends on the im-
provement of global values, comprehensive frameworks,
related peripherals, and easy-to-use programming [2]. ere
are several challenges to making EVs inexpensive in the
market, such as efficient charging to the battery, battery
price, flexibility in charging stations, EV technology inno-
vation systems, EV sharing, and impacts related to EV and
policy development. us, this review will provide signifi-
cant approaches to EV growth in the world, which are based
on technological advancement, identifying problems, and
smart solutions. e following section summarizes the EV
status, future EV material demand, and EV-related tech-
nology. We can see next-generation EVs and their ap-
proaches. Nowadays, smart city development and
maintenance are some of the hot topics, and electric vehicles
are playing an essential role in renewable energy growth. In
this regard, the review went through an impact-related
discussion. ese discussions will give an overall dimension
to resolving EV growth and development in the world.
2. Electric Vehicles (EVs) Status
EVs can be divided into two categories: hybrid EVs (HEV)
and each type of all-electric vehicle (AEV) [18, 19]. An AEV
is only equipped with a motor controlled by the power
supply. AEV can also be divided into battery EV (BEV) and
EV fuel cells (FCEV). A BEV is contained within an energy
storage system (ESS) and a power control unit (PCU). e
difference between BEV and FCEV is that the PCU is
connected to a hydrogen tank (HT) and fuel cells (FCs).
us, the FCEV does not require an external charging
system. However, BEV only relies on the external power
supply of the network to load a storage unit. A plug-in
hybrid EV (PHEV) is a type of HEV that can be powered by a
grid. e difference between a PHEV and a mild hybrid
electric vehicle (MHEV) is that a PHEV has a smaller fuel
engine and can be powered exclusively by a large battery
pack. An MHEV blends traditional internal combustion
(ICE) with electric power. All BEVs and PHEVs are called
EVs. Figure 2 illustrates the classification of EVs and power
sources for their wheels [17].
Figure 3 provides specific information about affordable
EVs produced by different manufacturers [20–33]. e
figure also shows the estimated charging time required to
charge the car from 0% to 80% based on various charging
principles. Here, the charging voltage in the first stage is
equivalent to 110–120 V, the charging voltage in the second
stage is 220–240 V, and the charging voltage in the third
stage or DC fast charging (DCFC) is 200–800 V. It can be
seen that the range of an electric vehicle is based on the
battery charge. However, at about 100 kilometers, in some
vehicle models and some other models, the battery runs for
200 to 400 kilometers. On the other hand, most of the
current EV models run over 400 kilometers in China [34].
3. The Demand of EVs
3.1. Future Global Demand for EVs. To determine the base
metals in future energy-based transportation, the first step is
to create a situation where the number of EVs and future
demand for subsequent metals can be estimated. Figure 4
shows an annual growth of three different types of EVs
(BEV, PHEV, and HEV) with historical (2010), and future
(2050) year scenarios, such as baseline (BS), Moderate (MS),
and Stringent (SS) outcomes. e information used to
improve the situation is taken from the integrated model to
assess greenhouse effects (IMAGE), which was developed for
the database of the shared socioeconomics pathways (SSP).
An SSP is a long-term situation that enters the network due
to changes in the environment. ey depend on five different
accounts, which translate into quantitative forecasts of three
major financial factors, namely population, currency flows,
and urbanization [35].
10000
Number of Vehicles (Thousands)
8000
6000
4000
2000
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
Global Electric Car stock (2010-2020)
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
0
50%
Percentage of market share
40%
30%
20%
10%
Norway
Iceland
Sweden
Netherlands
EV market share
Finland
China
USA
UK
0%
Figure 1: Global EV stock and EV sales market share in 2020. Redrawn and taken permission from Elsevier [17].
Complexity 3

According to the outcomes of improving the situation, the
absolute number of drivers in the basic situation is estimated
to go from 1.13 billion in 2011 to 2.6 billion in 2050. Under
moderate conditions, the number of station wagons is likely
to increase to 2.55 billion by 2050, and to 2.25 billion. In
difficult conditions, Figure 4 shows that in these three cases,
the supply of three EVs increased from year to year.
3.2. Electricity Demand for EVs. e demand for EVs in the
new political scenario is expected to reach only about 640
terawatt-hours (TWh), and the light-duty vehicle (LDV) is
the largest pantograph of all EVs in 2030. Facts have proved
that EVs are increasingly suitable for power supply systems,
so make sure that management does not prevent their use
through mandatory electrical structures. It is estimated that
by 2030 globally, slow chargers that can be used to provide
flexibility services to power systems will account for more
than 60% of all electrical energy consumption. Meanwhile,
fast charging demand periods such as at night will seriously
affect the pile shape in the power structure [16].
3.3. Battery Demand for Electric Cars. e consumption of
EVs and the relevant prerequisites for the production of
batteries indicate that the automotive sector is more in-
terested in new materials. Overall, by 2030, interest in cobalt
and lithium should increase in both cases. Generally,
cathode science influences the ability to control investment
in metals, especially cobalt. It is necessary to increase the
reserves of cobalt and lithium to ensure the expected EV
absorption rate [35]. e scale of raw material interest
adjustment for EVs also indicates the increase in raw ma-
terial supply. Difficulties related to raw materials are mainly
associated with the growth of creativity, natural impact, and
social issues. e identification and directness of raw ma-
terials are essential tools to deal with some of these criticisms
by maintaining the actual harvesting of minerals [6, 16].
4. EV-Related Technology
4.1. Current EV Technology. e innovation of EVs has
aroused great interest from experts, organizations, and
strategic developers in many countries. EVs coordinate
various types of individual achievements and divide the
overall field of EVs into several key areas, which can provide
increasingly important point-by-point data [36]. Due to the
positive aspects of use and low pollution levels, EVs can
promote the decarbonization of transportation, and the
growth of low-carbon emission urban areas has thus become
one of the models to increase the enthusiasm of the auto-
mobile industry [37–39]. In any case, the future success of the
electric vehicle business depends to a great extent on inno-
vation [40, 41]. Politicians in many countries, such as Sweden,
China, Malaysia, and South Korea, are serious about change
in the field of EVs and are developing strategies to support the
technological innovation of EVs [42, 43]. However, tech-
nological innovation in the field of EVs is an incredibly
exciting topic. Figure 5 shows the analysis of the estimated
improvement rate, where PE is the power electronics and EM
is the electric motor. e figure also shows the estimation
steps to improve the domains (power electronics, battery,
electric motor as well as charging and discharging sub-
domains), which is the estimated density of the technological
improvement of each domain or subdomain in the EV field.
An improved version of the HNS model (Human,
System, and Nature) is offered for the mechanical navigation
of EVs. ey considered the need for angles (H, N, and S),
although they were balanced as another base for support.
e model is converted to NHS to show versatility from N to
H, then switched to H to S. An increasingly accurate idea of
the relationship between people, nature, and systems is that,
in practice, the frame within the circle of people is floating
around, and two of them fall into the sphere of nature, as
shown in Figure 6. As shown in Figure 6, according to the
previous model, each of the three representations has been
similarly adjusted, but according to their proposed model
(NHS), case (a) is more supportable than (b), and (b) more
practical and therefore is better than (c). In the proposed
model, we need to consider nature, humans, and systems
separately. Unlike humans, nature depends on us and will
remain without people as long as the structure depends on
both humans and nature. As a rule, support implies a
reasonable approach, which can limit negative environ-
mental impacts, trying to maintain harmony between all
three “columns.” e opinions of people and structures
should be determined from a natural point of view [44].
Charger
Charger
Batteries
FC boost
Converter
Motor
Motor/
Generator PCU
PCU FCs
HT
ESS
FCEVBEV
All Electric Vehicle
Electric Vehicle
MHEV PHEVFull-HEV
Hybrid Electric Vehicle
FCEV MHEV
Networks
BEV
Transmission
Charger
Batteries
Power
Converter
Motor/
Generator
Transmission
Clutch
Engine
Transmission
Full-HEV
Charger
Batteries
FC boost
Converter
Motor/
Generator Engine
Clutch
Fuel
Tan k
Transmission
PHEV
Charger
Batteries
Power
Converter
Motor/
Generator ICE
Fuel
Tan k
Transmission
Figure 2: Classifications of EVs.
4Complexity

Human and financial factors are critical factors in
making progress. Countless people around the world have
increased traffic. ere are three types of EVs: HEV, FCEV,
and EV. According to [45], all PHEVs in a municipal fleet
can be divided into six categories:
(1) electric bicycles and bicycles,
(2) street electric cars,
(3) high-speed urban EVs,
(4) low-speed electric cars,
(5) supercars, and
(6) electric bus and electric truck.
We are talking about EVs in highway road cars (level 2).
ese types of vehicles are modular EVs that are driven by at
least one electric motor and that use the energy that is
regularly stored in battery-powered batteries. e use of
petroleum products in the transport system causes atmo-
spheric pollution due to the formation of particles and
unnatural meteorological changes caused by carbon dioxide
Fit
Honda
132 km
20 kwh
Level 1 (15h)
Level 2 (3h)
DCFC (N/A)
Battery EV
2014
Spark
Honda
132 km
19 kwh
Level 1 (N/A)
Level 2 (7h)
DCFC (0.75h)
Battery EV
2016
Ford
Focus
161 km
23 kwh
Level 1 (15h)
Level 2 (3h)
DCFC (N/A)
Battery EV
2016
Renault
Zoe
400 km
41 kwh
Level 1 (16h)
Level 2 (4.5h)
DCFC (2.67h)
Battery EV
2017
Renault
Twi zy
100 km
61 kwh
Level 1 (N/A)
Level 2 (3h)
DCFC (N/A)
Battery EV
2017
Model-3
Tes la
354 km
50 kwh
Level 1 (N/A)
Level 2 (12h)
DCFC (52/60h)
Battery EV
2017
i-MiEV
Mitsubishi
180 km
16 kwh
Level 1 (25h)
Level 2 (6h)
DCFC (0.5h)
Battery EV
2017
e-Golf
Volkswagen
201 km
35.8 kwh
Level 1 (N/A)
Level 2 (6h)
DCFC (1h)
Battery EV
2017
Leaf
Nissan
243 km
40 kwh
Level 1 (35h)
Level 2 (7.5h)
DCFC (0.5h)
Battery EV
2018
Mode S & X
Tes la
506 & 465 km
100 kwh
Level 1 (96.7 & 89h)
Level 2 (10.7 & 9.5h)
DCFC (1.33h)
Battery EV
2018
Chevrolet
Vol t
85 km
18.4 kwh
Level 1 (13h)
Level 2 (4.5h)
DCFC (0.33h)
2018
Toy ot a
Prius Prime
40 km
8.8 kwh
Level 1 (5.5h)
Level 2 (2.1h)
DCFC (N/A)
2018
Honda
Clarity
75 km
25.5 kwh
Level 1 (12h)
Level 2 (2.5h)
DCFC (N/A)
Plug-in hybrid EVPlug-in hybrid EVPlug-in hybrid EV
2018
BMW
i3
183 km
33 kwh
Level 1 (13-16h)
Level 2 (5h)
DCFC (0.5h)
Battery and
Pluf-in hybrid EV
2018
Kia Soul
Kia
177 km
30 kwh
Level 1 (24h)
Level 2 (4.8h)
DCFC (0.75h)
Battery EV
2018
E-up
Chevrolet
19 km
20 kwh
Level 1 (N/A)
Level 2 (7h)
DCFC (0.5h)
Battery EV
2018
Bolt
Chevrolet
383 km
60 kwh
Level 1 (N/A)
Level 2 (9.3h)
DCFC (1.33h)
Battery EV
2019
Figure 3: e most popular electric vehicle currency positions are listed.
Complexity 5

600
500
400
300
200
100
2010 2015 2020 2025
Million Vehicles
2030 2035 2040 2045 2050
0
BEVs (BS)
PHEVs (BS)
HEVs (BS)
BEVs (SS)
PHEVs (SS)
HEVs (SS)
BEVs (MS)
PHEVs (MS)
HEVs (MS)
Figure 4: Annual growth of three different types of EVs stocks from 2010 to 2050 in three scenarios. Redrawn and taken permission from
Elsevier [35].
1.8
PE
PE-Hybrid
EM
EM-PM
38.50
39
5
Improvement
rate (%)
34.31
30.13
25.95
21.75
17.56
13.38
9.188
5.000
EM-Induction
Discharging
Discharging
Battery
Battery-Li-ion
Battery-Ni
Battery-L-asid
Charging &
PE-Other
1.61.41.210.8
Predicted
Domain & Sub-domain Improvement
Estimated density
0.60.40.20-0.2
-0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
Discharging
EM
EM-PM
EM-Induction
Charging & Discharging
Charging
PE-Hybrid
PE
PE-Other
Figure 5: e estimated technological improvement rates of domains and subdomains. Redrawn and taken permission from Elsevier [36].
Nature
Nature
Nature
Sustainable Unsustainable Unsustainable
Human
Human
Human
System System
System
Figure 6: Models for humans, structures, and nature (HNS): (a) Sustainable and (b and c) Unsustainable. Redrawn and taken permission
from Elsevier [44].
6Complexity

and primary air pollutant emissions. Conventional vehicles
on transport chassis have the most significant influence on
dangerous atmospheric forms. ere are many mineral-
filled vehicles in the world that can carry substances that
deplete the ozone layer.
Human progress has resulted in present atmospheric
changes and ozone-depleting chemical emissions, which
are the world’s major challenges [12, 13]. According to the
announcement issued by the European Commission,
transportation is the second most crucial factor in the
release of ozone-depleting substances. is is equivalent to
a quarter of the ozone layer in the European Union (EU).
One of the primary ozone-depleting materials is CO
2
gas,
and about 15% of the ozone-depleting elements (i.e., CO
2
)
are emitted by light vehicles such as pickup trucks and
automobiles [46]. In recent years, some research projects
involving the integration of electric vehicles into low-
voltage grids have been carried out in Denmark, Norway,
and Sweden. Figure 7 depicts a model of a grid-connected
vehicle. e solar energy is connected to the home power
supply for EV charging (during the daytime), which is
called a solar to a vehicle (S2V) power supply. is charging
process will reverse in the evening when the EV will dis-
charge to home power by way of the vehicle-to-home
(V2H) and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) processes. e issue of
local area network constraints for locating electric vehicles
with sufficient power in low-voltage residential area net-
works has been researched [13, 47].
4.1.1. Flexible and Innovative System in the Car. e ad-
vantages of EVs connected to the network include two-way
dynamics. erefore, this application (Dynamic Mobility
between EVs and PHEV) will become an important choice
for the smart grid area [48]. In addition, it is often used as the
source of an energy crisis. An energy management mech-
anism is needed to promote the link between household
business taxes and fast car charging. e power control
mechanism is fractioning in two directions. For example, it
works with an inverter to convert the direct current dis-
charged by the battery into alternating current for home use
and works with a rectifier (for example, when the current
direction is opposite) to charge the battery. However, electric
vehicles can be the best option to supply the various utilities
because of their facilities and advantages [13, 49], such as the
following:
(1) e charging station has large-scale loads compared
to residential loads.
(2) In this situation, the transmission capacity has better
response speeds.
(3) e charging points are available and have high
flexibility.
4.1.2. Future Development Model of Electric Vehicle Network
(EVGI). EVs can be used not only for transportation but
also as electrical loads (grid-to-vehicle (G2V)), the corre-
sponding energy stock of the grid (vehicle-to-grid (V2G)),
the energy stock of various EVs (vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V)),
and the energy stock of buildings (vehicle-to-building
(V2B)) function system compliance center [17, 50]. In the
field of vehicles, some new results are proposed, which can
improve the availability and applicability of EVs in the most
modern power grids. e latest innovations include pro-
prietary wireless power transfer (WPT), connected mobility
(CM), autonomous or autonomous EVs, and EVs’ economic
saving, and life-saving power network. By using these in-
novations, the fate of the transportation sector is reversed.
Besides, how the future electrical transportation unit is
firmly connected to the grid will affect the strength and
energy of the automotive industry’s innovation in creating
these titles. Figure 8 shows a classification, and Figure 9
shows a proposed model for the future development of the
EV network.
4.1.3. Renewable Energy Sources. While researching the
impact of EV grid integration, it is difficult to overlook the
work of environmentally friendly energy sources and the
significant impact of the combination of EVs and systems.
is section studies the effects of sustainable energy. In
Knezovic et al. [52], the analysts considered the possibility
and difficulty of coordinating inexhaustible energy sources
(for example, based on wind and sun) to provide energy for
battery charging, and then started again from the per-
spective of limiting greenhouse gas emissions. When
adaptable loads are used, the problem of reducing the
stability of the power structure due to the abuse of sus-
tainable energy has not yet been significantly resolved.
PEVs can charge EVs in peak-off hours or when renewable
energy is available. Consider that the benefit of answering
the request is to improve the charge coordination of using
low-carbon or low-carbon energy. It is assumed that the
strength structure representation of the use of DE (dis-
tributed energies) assets will be further improved and
combined with sustainable energy. ere is a lack of co-
ordination between the host and the distributed generation
energy system (DESS) with sustainable energy, which can
be completed under the basic and maximum loads. At the
optimal time, additional energy is fed into the grid. From
what is written, the work in this field basically meets the
broader prospects, which represents the study of the entire
future interesting grid system and network [13].
4.1.4. Smart Grid Structure. Currently, the construction of
the power grid does not meet the required flexibility. e
smart grid is a complex system that is connected to all grid
networks. To exhibit all system screen characters for this
application, various networks need to be effectively copied,
connected, and approved. However, the architect did not pay
much attention to the plan of the grid network. e fol-
lowing are the main components of planning a keen system
[13, 17].
(1) e substructure of the system must be adaptable
and its components must be considered.
(2) e structured grid model should be able to support
future expansion.
Complexity 7

(3) When planning the structure, the structure and
points of the programming/device/grid structures
should be considered.
(4) If the system update program is activated, it should
be executed automatically.
4.2. Energy Storage Technology. Battery innovation is the so-
called hot topic related to electric cars. e junction point is
the anode, and the electrons move toward the cathode. At
the same time, there is no electrical prevoltage during the
movement of particles in the electrolyte. Lithium particles
(Li particles) and nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) are two
types of batteries used in EVs. Cars like the Nissan LeFeng
and Mitsubishi iMiev use lithium batteries as an indis-
pensable source of energy. On the other hand, in half of the
EVs, such as the Toyota Prius, nickel-metal hydride batteries
are used as primary resources [53]. e only source of energy
that is remembered in EVs is batteries. It should be mea-
sured satisfactorily in order to promote energy transfer
continuously. Before the battery is completely discharged, it
can now confirm the additional charge generated by the
regeneration process, for example, decelerating. Experts
note that the safe zone is about 20%, which means that the
emission zone should not exceed 80%, although it is possible
to determine the state of a slow regenerative charge.
EVs
V2H
V2G
V2G
controller
Household
Electricity Electric vehicles
EVs
Home
power
Home
power
S2V
Evening time
Discharging
Charge to EVs
Day time
EV/PEV
Renewable
Energy
EV/PEV
Grid Grid
Grid
Grid stability
EVs
Figure 7: e relationship between EVs and the grid.
Wireless power transfer
Connected mobility
Auton omous EVs
EV shared economy
Energy intennet
Wireless power transfer is the latest
technique to charge / discharge the EVs
without any physical contac between source
and load. WPT transfers electrical energy
through electromagnetics.
Connected mobility (CM) is the concept of
communication between vehicle-to-vehicle,
vehicle to a roadside base station, passenger,
traffc signal, power grid, etc.
With the technological advancement in EV
technologies, a new concept of vehicle
ownership may evolve in the near future using
theshared economy or collaborative
consumption concept.
EVs may play a vital role in the development of
the energy internet (EI) technology. The EI
concept, frst introduced by Jeremy Rifkin, is to
unify the power, transportation, gas, and thermal
systems in a single platform.
Autonomous or self driving vehicles are the next
generation vehicles, which have the ability to
sense their surroundings and act upon it. It is a
driverless technology, where the vehicle itself
decides the travelling route, identifes road
conditions, operates the vehicle to reach the
destination set by the user.
Figure 8: Classification of EV network.
8Complexity

Figure 10 shows an example of the EV battery charging
capacity.
For this reason, during the hour of charging the battery
[54], the stock increases by about 5%. If the highest state of
charge (SOC) is 95% of the first SOC and the highest release
rate is 20% of the first SOC, the battery size must be de-
termined so that the required limit is correctly reached. e
charge state is the current battery charge limit (upper limit),
and deep discharge is the battery level released as the upper
limit. Although the vehicle battery at the intersection is the
primary source of energy for the traction, the goal is that, as
with the device being measured, the limit of the required
battery should be a series of hybrid organized vehicles [13].
Due to the fact that the internal combustion engine of a plug-
in hybrid vehicle of this design distributes the required
energy for the pedaling force, the required limit for the
battery is small. In addition, batteries used in plug-in hybrid
vehicles must flexibly meet the activity requirements. When
the car stops at a low speed, it behaves like an electric car
battery. In this sense, it is necessary to improve the battery to
limit its highest point, freeing its depth to a higher level. To
know the energy storage device, energy generation system,
and energy sources for PEVs, the details of the approach can
be found in Figure 11.
e energy storage (ES) system is a rapidly growing
technology. ES gives attention to a solid-state storage system.
is is indicative of the fast pace of development in the car
battery area, whereas technical performance has a vital role
in economic development. A comparative study evaluates
the capital costs of different energy storage technologies [54].
e literature report shows that the energy storage capital
cost depends on several facts, such as cost per kilowatt, per
kilowatt-hour, and kilowatt-hour per cycle. For example, the
supercapacitors, li-ion, flywheels, and sodium sulfate storage
costs are calculated by kilowatt, kilowatt-hour, and fuel cell,
and flow batteries costs are measured by kilowatt-hour per
period.
4.2.1. Battery Charging Methods. Several structures can be
used to charge EVs. e power level (kW), the electricity
used, the accessories, and the battery types are factors that
determine the charging of EVs. e power for moderate
charging is approximately 3.3 kW and the power for fast DC
charging is approximately 50 kW [55].
At the simplest level, it is necessary to use chargers to
power the battery from a conventional single-phase power
source or a level two AC charging station or to connect a
plug-in hybrid electric vehicle that is an integral part of the
innovation of the complete vehicle. is innovation means
that, for example, in Europe, people can connect electricity
from a conventional single-phase 230 V AC socket via ex-
ternal vehicle accessories and then convert internal devices
to DC to charge the battery. Charging is usually possible at
these locations with low voltage frames. On the other hand,
more and more people were demanding that the power of
the DC station be quickly charged to 50 kW, while the power
organized for the Tesla compressor was 120 kW.
4.2.2. Charging Cage for Electric Cars. Another essential
aspect of EVs is the charging of batteries. e charging speed
of the battery depends on the type of charger used and the
main battery charge. In most cases, the charger is divided
into four levels, from level 1 to level 4. In many EVs that use
power supplies from home devices, level 1 chargers are EVSE
(Electric Vehicle Maintenance) devices compared to implicit
chargers that can be used in electric cars to charge fully for
Communication flow
Boiler
Energy Network
Electrolyzer
Power plants
Thermal Network
Information Network
Power Network
Transportation
Network
Power/
energy flow
Renewable
Eenergy
Swith, Router
Communication
Channel
Data processing
Optimal regulation
Data collection
Intelligent control
Utility control center
distribution control
center, transmission
control center
Fuel cell Vehicle
Thermoelectic
coupler
Electic
Veh icl e
Figure 9: Structure of energy internet. Redrawn and taken permission from Elsevier [51].
20% SOC
95% SOC
Battery Capacity
Reserve (Safety Margin)
80% not exceed
Over charge risk
+
–0%
100%
Operating range
Figure 10: EV battery capacity.
Complexity 9

Energy storage devices
A battery is the most widespread
energy storage device in power
system applications with the ability
to convert the stored chemical
energy into electrical energy.
Supercapacitors (CS), also named
ultra-capacitors, have a similar
structure as conventional capacitors
but store energy by means of an
electrolyte solution between two
solid conductors.
Hydraulic accumulators (HACCs) are
used to store and subsequently release
hydraulic energy through a variable
displacement high pressure
pump/motor (P/M).
Hydrogen energy is one of the most popular energies due to
its storable, transportable, and clean nature.
Flywheels store energy in the angular
momentum of a highspeed
rotating mass (rotor) in a high vaccum
environment which enables
them to minimize the windage losses
and protect the rotor assembly
from external disturbances.
Battery
Super-capacitor
Hydrogen storage
Fly-wheel
Hydraulic accumulator
H2
Outlet
Wei ght
Bearing
Bearing
Vacuum chamber
Motor/Generator
Flywheel
Pump
Hydrogen
storage
(a)
Energy generation systems
Fuel cell systems
Regenerative
braking systems
Photovoltaic cell systems
Photovoltaic (PV) cells (or called
solar cells) can convert sunlight
directly into electricity.
FC systems convert chemical
energy into electricity through
chemical reactions between
hydrogen (or hydrocarbon
such as methanol, natural
gas) and oxygen (from air)
with the help of catalysts.
Regenerative braking systems can
provide energy for vehicles
through recovering and storing
the kinetic energy of the
vehicle decelerating stage in the
energy storage devices.
Phovoltaic (PV) Cell
Sun
Heat
Oxygen in
Water out
Hydrogen in
-e-e
Heat
dc output
U (DC)
–
+
Regeneration Mode
Drive Mode
Battery
Transmission
Motor
Controller
Motor/
Generator
(b)
Figure 11: Continued.
10 Complexity

7–9 hours. Tier 3 and Tier 4 chargers are chargers that use
advanced DC charging methods to charge EV batteries le-
gitimately. is kind of configuration is mostly used in
Singapore [56].
4.2.3. Approximate Time to Charge the Battery. e Inde-
pendent State of Charging: In this state, 55% of the battery
charge is completed during a period of low use (from 10 : 00
p.m. to 7 : 00 a.m.), and additionally, 45% is supplied from 7 :
00 a.m. to 10 : 00 a.m. In the subsequent express delivery,
75% of the battery charge of the electric vehicle ends when
used less (from 10 : 00 p.m. to 7 : 00 a.m.), and the remaining
25% is made available between 7 : 00 a.m. and 10 : 00 p.m. In
this example, synchronous loading or first loading is con-
sidered one of the most effective strategies. e transaction
costs for energy, a measure of the energy consumption of a
battery in the state of charge (SOC), are regarded as the
parameters of this technology. In an uncontrolled state of
charge, 55% of the charging time of the battery is used
during periods of low usage (from 10 :00 p.m. to 7 : 00 a.m.)
and the remaining 45% at 7 : 00 a.m. (10 : 00 p.m.) provided
between them [12].
To complete the checkpoint, an accurate assessment of
the relevant conditions for the electric vehicle must be
characterized. e proposed charging time is shown in
Figure 12. It should be noted that one of the primary
problems with this strategy is that the charging of connected
EVs should be limited during periods of maximum energy
consumption. e following mode (controlled state of
charge) is considered as follows.
From the beginning, the battery pack and the bend of the
battery pack were chosen according to the type of day. If it is
possible to restore the possibility that the battery can hardly
be fully charged at night the next night, the total load at night
should be less than the estimated shutdown time, which
depends on the peak load the next day. e updated lithium
battery is suitable for charging EVs with a range of 170
kilometers. e maximum battery charge of EVs is around
20 to 30 kWh. EV FC batteries can charge 80% of EVs in less
than 30 minutes.
4.3. EVs Next-Generation
4.3.1. EV and HEV Unit Design and Advanced Unit De-
velopment Guide. erefore, the main models of EVs that
compete with vehicles with an internal combustion engine
(ICE) are battery EVs (BEV), hybrid EVs (HEV), fuel cell
vehicles (FC), fuel cell hybrid EVs (FCHEV), and hybrid
solar EVs (HSEV). Figure 13 shows the architectures, and
the related inspections of ICE vehicles and charging vehicles
are summarized. e development of environmentally
friendly advanced vehicles based on advanced electric
driving technologies should focus on the following aspects:
reduction of costs, an increase in productivity, and the
Pure Electric vehicles (PEVs)
energy source
The single-source PEVs only have a
single energy source to propel the
vehicles, such as BEVs and FCEVs.
The dual-source PEVs combine two
energy source in the vehicle
propulsion system, and can overcome
the shortcomings of utilizing a single
energy source, such as battery
and SC, flywheel, HACC, FC.
The multi-source PEVs consist of at
least three energy source in
the vehicle powertrain, such as
FC-battery-SC, FC-SC-PV cell,
battery-SC-PV cell and battery-FC-SC.
Single-source PEVs
Dual-source PEVs
Multi-source PEVs
96V
SC
VFD
HSP Energy Source
HSE Energy Source
Direction
Power Flow
Multiple Inputs Power Convert
with Power Flow Controller
(Variable Frequency Drive)
Mechanical Transmission
Chargers
Battery
Motor
Inverter
Engine
Generator
Power batt ery
Generator
Engine
Trac tio n
Motor
4
2
3
1
Power
compound
devise
Dual Power
Electronics Controller
Electrical connection
Mechanical connection
(c)
Figure 11: Classification of (a) energy storage devices, (b) energy generation systems, and (c) PEVs energy sources.
Complexity 11

implementation of high power density [57]. e progress of
the key authorizations that can improve the aforementioned
engine performance can be summarized as [58–60]:
It is impossible to determine the absolute superiority of
one technology over another, and a technological decision
must be made after analyzing a number of factors for a
particular application. In this context, after protecting the
essential requirements for a specific EV or HEV vehicle
(torque, power, speed, transmission specifications, etc.), the
key features that need to be compared to choose the right
technology can be summarized as follows [58, 61]:
(a) space required for installation and allowable weight
of the machine (or specific power);
(b) special reliability requirements;
(c) overall efficiency over the entire operating range;
(d) the normal speed of the torque;
(e) overload capacity of the unit; and
(f) the total cost includes material and production.
4.3.2. Technological Approach from WPT. e world has
started to discover the wireless power transfer (WPT) system
for various applications such as electric cars, home appliances,
mobile phones, laptops, home appliances, medical devices,
and electric vehicles. Figure 14 shows a classification scheme
for various wireless energy transmission technologies. WPT
technology can be divided into four main categories: far-field,
near-field transmission [51, 62], mechanical force like mag-
netic gear, and acoustic gear [63–65]. Magnetic transmission
technology uses mechanical forces to convert energy. It was
initially introduced to replace conventional connected devices
and has proven itself for various applications, e.g., for the
fixed charging of EVs, driving electric cars, wind energy, and
low-performance medical devices [66].
e inductive power transfer (IPT) and EV framework
are shown in Figure 15. e frame has two electrically
separated sides: ground (transmitter, grid, or basic) and
vehicle (beneficiary or optional). e transmitter side is
installed on the street to get low repetitive power from the
network, convert it to high frequency (HF), and control the
transmitter circuit. e EMF generated by the transmitter is
combined with the receiver’s fluctuations (in the vehicle) to
excite the HF voltage and flux in the auxiliary circuit. e
optional HF power supply has been recertified to charge the
vehicle’s energy storage structure (such as a battery). Fig-
ure 15 also shows the close relationship between various
innovations in terms of performance level, driving separa-
tion, and repetitive work [51].
4.4. EV Smart City Development. e idea of a smart city
dates back to 2009, proposed by IBM in the United States
[67]. e general definition emphasizes the use of infor-
mation and communication technology (ICT) in vehicles,
energy supply, and management personnel, open funds,
urban assets of management personnel, and administrative
departments in a new era to improve and change the eco-
logical productivity of cities [10]. Besides, this study also
plays a significant role, as the so-called “understanding” also
implies updating the management structure, in which the
monitoring, recovery, investment, and improvement mod-
ules are combined to provide a structured strategy [68, 69].
Smart cities are looking for new solutions to address
some of the urban dilemmas (environmental, social, and
financial) caused by the network, development, and the
operation of underlying conditions (such as vehicles, waste,
energy). However, this cooperation is not always recog-
nizable and should be tested for the most considerable
advantage [10, 11].
Due to the enormous demand for energy and the sig-
nificant impact on air pollution and other related external
influences (such as social security costs), fast, competent,
and clean energy and transport structures are one of the
main problems that community governments usually face
[70]. For example, with regard to a cleaner and more efficient
framework, transport policies have been adopted in many
15
EV Charging (%)
12
9
6
3
0
04812
Time (hr)
16 20 24
Controlled charging
UnControlled charging
(a)
0
20
40
60
80
EVs (%)
Total available EV (%)
0 1020304050
Type 1 (EV)
Type 2 (EV)
Type 3 (EV)
(b)
Figure 12: Charging schedule of EVs. Redrawn and taken permission from Elsevier [13]. (a) Charging is limited during peak times.
(b) Charging process is completed before 6 a.m.
12 Complexity

Feature
Mechanical
Transmission
ICE
Transmission
Power Electronic
converter
M/G
Propulsion System
Energy storage
Energy source
Energy source infrastructure
Well-to-tank
Tank-to-wheel
Well-to-wheel
Commercialized
Smooth operation
Emissions
System complexity
Bulky
Feature
Propulsion System
Energy storage
Energy source
Energy source infrastructure
Well-to-tank
Tank-to-wheel
Well-to-wheel
Commercialized
Smooth operation
Emissions
System complexity
Bulky
EV
ED based
Battery Ultra capacitor Flywheel
Electric
Charging station
37.0%
83%
31.3%
Ye s
Ye s
No
low
No
ICE vehicle
ICE based
Fuel tank
Petrol
Refueling station
88.0%
12.1%
10.6%
Ye s
No
Very high
Very low
Ye s
+–
(a)
Transmission Transmission Transmission
Transmission
Transmission
Power Electronic
converter
Power E lectron ic
converter Power El ectroni c
converter
Power E lectron ic
converter
Power Electronic
converter
M/G
ICE
M/G
M/G
M/G
M/G M/G
GENERATOR
GENERATOR
+–
ICE
+ –
Feature
Series HEV Series-Parallel HEV
Parallel HEV
Plug in HEV
Complex HEV
Propulsion System
Energy storage
Energy source
Energy source infrastructure
Well-to-tank
Tank-to-wheel
Well-to-wheel
Commercialized
Smooth operation
Emissions
System complexity
Bulky
Plug-in HEV
ICE & ED based
Fuel tank Battery Ultra capacitor Flywheel
Petrol & electric
Charging station & refueling station
Depend on the specifc vehicle
Depend on the specifc vehicle
Depend on the specifc vehicle
Partially
Ye s
Low
High
Ye s
ICE
ICE
ICE
+– +–
+–
(b)
Figure 13: Continued.
Complexity 13

urban areas to reduce pollution [71], and research and
development differ from the traditional structure. Among
these other options, electric cars are some of the most fa-
mous vehicles and deserve a lot of research. For example, the
link already includes a method of charging EVs. When
presenting an overview of the smart tariff system, reference
[50] discusses the use of EVs as a capacity. Fernandez et al.
[72] and Beer et al. [73] or its effect on the grid and its use as
a representative tool for maintaining sustainable energy in
references Baloglu and Demir [74] and Villar et al. [75].
4.4.1. General SEMS Management Scheme. Given these
points, Figure 16 shows the overall design of the proposed
sustainable energy management system (SEMS) control sys-
tem. To ensure reliable mobility, the level with the least control
level (excitation level) follows the usual method, which de-
pends on the PID (proportional integral derivative) and the
rule-based controller. On this floor, there are thermostatic
radiator valves (TRV) in each flat, siphons, and valves that feed
the thermosiphons, boilers, and storage, as well as switches
connected to all other electrical resources [76].
A technical basis of a smart city pilot project in China
shows in Figure 17. Government, business, and citizens are
the main actors. Based on the infrastructure of information
and communication technologies, intelligent management,
smart economy, smart citizens, and service are highlighted
in detail [69].
As smart cities, smart infrastructure, and ICT-based
management are also core components of smart industrial
parks. Figure 17 also shows the overall technical structure of
smart industrial parks, including smart infrastructure and
technologies that support efficient resource management in
industrial parks, smart decision support tools that support
the evaluation and optimization of smart industrial parks.
e stylish design of urban industrial symbols, supporting
resources, and the optimal use of energy parks, as well as
smooth business models and design software packages ION,
support the implementation of smart industrial parks [69].
4.4.2. Overview of V2G, S2V, and V2I Structure
(1) Vehicle to Grid. V2G provides intelligent network op-
erations through DR (Demand Response) services between
EVs and the electricity grid. V2G here refers to the trans-
mission of electricity and related data between transport and
network systems, which implements the synergy between the
two needed to achieve an intelligent city. Figure 18 shows a
possible block diagram of a V2G structure [77].
(2) Sun to Vehicle. EVs currently in use worldwide require
charging stations similar to those required for fuel-based
vehicles. e use of a charging station powered by photo-
voltaic cells to charge solar energy is called S2V or EV-PV
charging [78–80]. Figure 18 shows the smart grid concept
Power Electronic
converter
M/G M/G
M/G
ICE
+–
+–
B,UC
DC/DC
converter
Hydrogen cylinder Hydrogen cylinder Solar panel
Power Electronic
converter Power El ectroni c
converter
DC/DC
converter
Fuel cell HEV Fuel cell HEV Solar HEV
Feature
Propulsion System
Energy storage
Energy source
Energy source infrastructure
Well-to-tank
Tank-to-wheel
Well-to-wheel
Commercialized
Smooth operation
Emissions
System complexity
Bulky
FC
ED based
Fuel tank Battery Ultra capacitor Flywheel
Hydrogen
Hydrogen refner & refueling station
58.4%
46.6%
27.2%
No
Ye s
Ultra low
Very high
No
(c)
Figure 13: ICE, EV, EC, and HEV architecture and characteristics. Redrawn and taken permission from Elsevier [58]. (a) ICV vs. EV
architecture, (b) HEV architecture, (c) FC and HSVE architecture.
14 Complexity

Rotational
magnets
Electromagnetic
fields
Electromagnetic
Rariation
Sound waves
Acoustic
70–300 mm
0.5–3 MHz
Laser
Microwave
Radio-wave
Tens of meters up to several kilometers
300 MHz–300 GHz
Magnetic
field
Electric
field
Magnetic gear
Induction
Magnetic resonant
Capacitive
Up to 400 mm
3 kHz–1 MHz
Up to 400 mm
100 kHz–10 MHz
Few centimeters
Several MHz
Mechanical Near-field
Far-field
Acoustic
WPT
technologies
100–150 mm
150 Hz–300 Hz
Figure 14: Wireless power transfer (WPT) technology. Redrawn and taken permission from Elsevier [51].
Three-phase source
High F requenc y
Rectifier/Power
Regulator
AC / DC
conversion
+–
AC / DC
conversion
DC / AC
conversion
Compensation
Compensation
Battery
3Φ
Figure 15: Inductive power transfer (IPT) system for EV charging.
Thermal power plant
Smart transmission and distribution
Renewable energy resources
Hydro power plant
Nuclear power plant
Solar power plant
Renewable energy resources
Wind power plant
Smart house
Tra ns po rt ation
City & Buildings
Factories
Electric Vehicles
Figure 16: Overall energy management system.
Complexity 15

implemented by S2V. Although the concept and imple-
mentation of solar machines are quite old, Birnie mainly
uses the term S2V in his work [81]. He suggests that during
the day, passengers who use electric cars every day can be
charged by solar panels in the parking lot. ese solar
systems, used as charging stations for EVs, can help balance
the current and reduce dependence on fossil fuels, thereby
reducing carbon emissions.
(3) From Vehicles to Infrastructure. Communication V2I is
one of the latest technologies in the fields of communications
and automotive technology. In V2I, cars establish commu-
nication with the road unit for the exchange of information.
Because of the different vehicle speeds, this architecture tends
to create a dynamic performance. Some of the main problems
solved with V2I technology are the increase in workload and
road safety while reducing the environmental impact [77].
Promote low-
carbon life styles
Smart decision
support tool
Industrial claster
Smart Governance
and business model
Smart Resource and
energy management
Urban resource
management
Transform into
eco-city
Regional sustainable
development
Smart Infrastructures
Smart Cities
Energy monitoring and
management
Sensors
Cloud service and big
data
Data visualization and
management
Smart devices 0
0
1
2
3
4
5
10 20 30 40
No DSM
Demand
resource
With energy efficiency
Demand side
management (DSM)
Smart Infrastructures and technologies
Figure 17: Example of smart infrastructures and smart technologies.
V2G
Nucle ar
Solar
Wind
Power generation
Solar PV panel
Solar charger
controller
Controller
Station
DC/DC
converter
Solar
Inverter
Grid
Supply
Market
Operator
RSU-2RSU-1
OBU
V2I
Cellular comms
S2V
Electric Vehicles
Smart Grid Plug in EV
V2G
V2G charger
controller
V2G
S2VV21
Figure 18: Example of V2G, S2V, and V2I structure.
16 Complexity

Table 1: Leading countries’ national EV battery improvement technology and GHG emission.
Country Development
topic Main aspect (finding)
China
Operating
of EV
Economical Technological Social Environmental
Low price, improved
efficiency
Improve stability, acceleration sensor, fault
detection, wireless communication, wireless
transmission, intelligent control; older:
Forklift truck, electric scooter
Ensure safety, display panel, intelligent
electric vehicle, liquid crystal display,
stable operation, USB interface, alarm
module, easy use; older: Improve safety
China greenhouse gas emissions 10% by
transportation sector in 2019 [82]
Controlling of
EV
Braking energy
recovery, vehicle
weight
Charge and discharge control; older: Battery
service life, supercapacitor, electric braking,
remote monitoring
Cruise/drive control, acceleration
performance, driving safety, speed
control; older: Travel distance
e battery
module of the
EV
—
Stability of battery, anti-collision,
replacement battery, battery balancing,
battery protection; older: Anti-theft, anti-
explosion
—
Charging of EV —
Inductive charging, charging condition,
maximum load, charging efficiency, energy
transmission, charging pile, charged control;
older: Mobile charging, charging power,
noncontact
Touch screen, charging schedule,
parking lots/spaces
USA
Operating of EV Extend battery life,
data collection — Self-locking
Transportation sector accounted for 29% of
total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions in 2019
[83]. Contribution of GHG emission
reduction of approx. 0.15% from 2005 to
2019, respectively. [83]
Controlling of
EV — Smaller battery —
e battery
module of the
EV
— — —
Charging of EV — — Older departure time
Europe
Operating of EV — — Safety device, reliable operation; older:
easy maintenance
Transport accounted for 27% EU-28
greenhouse gas emissions in 2017 [84].
Contribution of GHG emission reduction of
approx. 0.035% from 2005 to 2017,
respectively [84]
Controlling of
EV Development cost Regenerative power generation, integrated
control; older: Battery power consumption Driving experience, user experience
e battery
module of the
EV
Older: Service
lifetime Battery balancing —
Charging of EV — Battery condition; older: RFID tag Vehicle network, mobile device; older:
Mobile communication
Japan
Operating of EV — — —
Japan’s transportation sector emitted 12.44%
of the country’s CO2 in FY2018 [85].
Transport sector: 4.5 million tons (2.1%)
decrease in FY2018 [86]
Controlling of
EV
Distance travel, cost
reduced battery life,
data collection
—
e battery
module of the
EV
— Housing battery Quick change
Charging of EV — — —
Complexity 17

Figure 18 shows the block diagram of the overall in-
stallation of V2I. In this structure, only servers around the
domain need the Internet, where information can be pre-
pared and distributed as required. A global server with an
Internet office can be used in conjunction with all competent
authorities and contains a database for storing all data
recorded by vehicles in motion. e car is suitable for
continuously separating data about environmental and ve-
hicle conditions, which must be systematically returned to
the domain server. ese can be completed through the
onboard unit (OBU), equipped with a camera, and installing
the sensor inside or inside the vehicle. e remote standard
IEEE 802.11p (orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
(OFDM)) is used to implement the physical V2I layer (PHY)
with multichannel ambiguity. OBU can display 2G, 3G, 4G,
or Wi-Fi to provide better usability in areas with little traffic.
5. Contribution of EV Technology Improvement
and GHG Emission Reduction
Table 1 shows the leading countries’ national EV battery
technology improvement systems and their contribution of
GHG emissions. China and the United States are the leading
countries in the area of improving control over EVs.
6. Conclusions, Current Research Trends, and
Future Recommendation
6.1. Conclusion. It is expected that progress in the devel-
opment of EVs and contributions to the overall resources
and facilities of renewable energy will improve the global
reputation of electric cars. In this sense, additional tech-
nology improvements such as appropriate and reasonable
charging rules, smart cities, robust adaptive frameworks, and
business structures, policy, CO
2
emission reduction, and
reduction to measure the impact on the environment,
health, and power grid are fundamental to ensuring the most
significant advantages from EVs with circulated benefit.
Besides, Energy Internet will become an innovative network
in the future and will use the latest energy frame panel to
compute the energy framework fully. is study introduces
all parts of the development structure of electric cars. After
incorporating the principles of EVs and their adoption
globally, electric vehicles must be widely known in the
market. We carefully analyze the known electric car ap-
proach guidelines and many components so that future
professionals can understand the solutions that will be
implemented. Also, the various parts of the current
framework used to load the communication and EV sharing
networks have been carefully examined and improved, for
example, strengths, consistency, control, and coordination
strength, including their benefits and drawbacks. is study
also suggests future research recommendations to overcome
the tide. A letter on the future possibilities for electric cars
shows that the exploration area needs to be reviewed.
6.2. Current Research Trends. Figure 19 shows the current
research article trends and the number of published papers
between 2010 and 2023 on EV-related topics. It can be
observed that the current research trends follow the study
topic, whereas EV technology is the top hot topic in these
research areas. ere are 47498 plus articles published in
2021, and the current year’s published amount is about
34737. e second position is the EV environmental impact
topic. ere are 4844 additional articles published between
0
10,000
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
Articles published (2010-2023)
Electric Vehicle (EV)
EV battery
EV adoption
EV environment impact
EV policy
EV advantage & disadvantage
EV technology
EV CO2 emission
EV sharing networks
EV health impact
EV safety
EV with smart city
Figure 19: Number of published articles in EV technology, battery, CO
2
emission, adoption, sharing network, environmental and health
impact, policy, safety, smart city development, advantage and disadvantage (the data source taken from ScienceDirect).
18 Complexity

2020 and 2021, and till this year, 2022, about 10973 materials
are already online. However, in the current year, publication
topics such as EV battery, EV safety, EV health impact, and
EV sharing networks are 8621, 7838, 5219, and 2251 higher
than EV policy, EV CO
2
emission, EV adoption, and EV
with smart city 1429, 1300, 1150, and 50, respectively. On the
other hand, the EV advantage and disadvantage number of
articles are significantly low. It is concluded that in the recent
years from 2010 ahead, there has been significant progress in
electric vehicle technology, which gives this subject the
conviction area of exploration.
6.3. Future Recommendation. After reviewing the current
research on electric vehicles (EVs) status, it is felt that the
novel approaches can be useful to overcome the obstacles to
EV development. Besides that, it is unbearable to discuss all
the importance in one study. For further improvement, the
research needs some future recommendations for enlight-
ening its value, as given below.
(i) e energy storage battery technology needs to be
improved for EV adoption, as well as the need to
enhance the standard charging ports to user
friendly.
(ii) e materials used in EV batteries are challenging
to recycle. So, there is a need to find a new energy
storage technology.
(iii) EV battery charging with grid connection still has
adverse effects. ese effects may need time to be
reduced, which will increase a great chance to in-
tegrate EVs with renewable energy sources.
(iv) Reduce the EV battery temperature; an air-cooled
medium technology can be applied, such as water
or PCM (Phase Change Material). For more details,
go to Akinlabi and Solyali [87].
(v) Develop new EV business and policy plans for
customer’s products and services about EVs.
(vi) Globally, EV acceptance still needs time. EV
implementation can be improved by following
some EV-accepted countries.
(vii) e information and communication should be
more advance in EV smart cities with renewable
energy development. To take the right plan, we need
to collect more literature or online survey data, and
the idea can generate from EV-developed countries.
Data Availability
All data used to support the findings of this study are in-
cluded in the article.
Conflicts of Interest
e authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of
this article.
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