No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
How do Different Organizational Influences Lead Street-Level Workers to Move towards Clients? A Comparison of Care Services for the Elderly in Germany and Israel
Abstract
This study on the long-term care sectors for the elderly in Germany and Israel shows that in both countries, street-level workers mostly use their discretionary space to move towards clients. Based on 52 semi-structured interviews, we found that this tendency is to a considerable extent a product of organizational influences and orientations. These are, in turn, shaped by different institutional settings, especially market characteristics. Street-level workers operating in social entrepreneurship contexts – predominantly found in Germany – move towards clients for different reasons than those working for organizations that function according to entrepreneurial logics – mainly identified in Israel.
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any citations for this publication.
Regulation of long-term care service provision is a case of hybrid accountabilities. How do inspectors who are responsible for the implementation of regulations handle the uncertainties arising from hybrid accountabilities? While the prevailing scholarly consensus is that hybridity creates tensions that have a negative impact on the quality of regulation, this article shows that different accountabilities can reinforce each other. However, situations in which inspectors can develop a positive stance toward hybridity and integrate competing logics are rare. Hybrid professionalism among inspectors requires training, education, and resources as well as a joint regulatory culture with inspectees—preconditions that are hardly present in recent institutional settings of long-term care regulation.
According to public management literature, trust has a positive influence on behavior. Why, then, do street-level bureaucrats (SLBs) appear to favor clients whom they do not trust, and give less attention to those they do trust? Do organizational conditions play a role in this dynamic? We investigate these issues as they affect Israeli social services providers. Our study improves our understanding of trust as a factor in public service delivery. When SLBs operate in an unsupportive environment, they prioritize clients whom they distrust, bending or breaking rules for them, yet ration services to clients whom they trust.
Street‐level bureaucrats play a key role in the delivery of public services to the citizens with whom they interact. Using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta‐Analyses approach, we rely on a street‐level perspective to report a systematic review of 46 studies about officer–offender interactions in prisons and probation services. In doing so, we examine how correctional officers articulate state‐agency – whereby they focus on the implementation of rules and policies – and citizen‐agency – whereby their decisions regarding offenders are based on judgements of offenders' worth. Our results provide evidence that frontline work in prisons and probation services stems from a mix of citizen‐ and state‐agencies in which the former is prioritized over the latter: when rule enforcement allows it, correctional officers often make discretionary decisions based on professional judgements rooted in professional norms. In this respect, the managerial and actuarial approach to risk management and public protection involved by contemporary correctional reforms comes with new role expectations that conflict with correctional officers' rehabilitative ideals. At the same time, the literature provides many instances of officers coping with workload in order to meet policy objectives and organizational demands while maintaining satisfactory working conditions. In other words, there is an increasingly elaborate and fragile articulation of state‐ and citizen‐agencies at the frontline, in prisons and probations services. We conclude with some implications and an agenda for future research.
Street-level bureaucrats (SLBs) nowadays provide services under conditions of increased demand for public services coupled with scarcer financial resources. The literature that focuses on how workers adapt to this situation mainly examines their provision of formal resources as part of their job. What researchers have not systematically examined is the delivery of informal personal resources (IFRs) by street-level workers to clients. Understanding the provision of IFRs is particularly important when “no one is fully in charge” of public services. Drawing on 214 in-depth qualitative interviews with SLBs who provide education, health and welfare services in the public sector in Israel, we found a remarkable range of IFRs they provided to clients. We also found four main factors influencing the provision of IFRs: lack of formal resources; professional commitment; managerial encouragement; and a work environment whose values combine old and new approaches to public service. The findings contribute to the public administration literature by exposing how public services function in a somewhat vague reality, and they contribute to the street-level bureaucracy literature by highlighting the unrecognized component of informal service provision.
Street-level bureaucrats have to cope with high workloads, role conflicts and limited resources. An important way in which they cope with this is by prioritizing some clients, while disregarding others. When deciding on whom to prioritize, street-level bureaucrats often assess whether a client is deserving of help. However, to date the notion of the deserving client is in a black box as it is largely unclear which client attributes activate the prevailing social/professional category of deservingness. This article therefore proposes a theoretical model of three deservingness cues that street-level bureaucrats employ to determine whom to help: earned deservingness (i.e., the client is deserving because (s)he earned it: "the hard-working client"), needed deservingness (i.e., the client is deserving because (s)he needs help: "the needy client"), and resource deservingness (i.e., the client is deserving as (s)he is probably successful according to bureaucratic success criteria: "the successful client"). We test the effectiveness of these deservingness cues via an experimental conjoint design among a nationwide sample of US teachers. Our results suggest that needed deservingness is the most effective cue in determining which students to help, as teachers especially intend to prioritize students with low academic performance and members of minority groups. Earned deservingness was also an effective cue, but to a lesser extent. Resource deservingness, in contrast, did not affect teachers' decisions whom to help. The theoretical and practical implications of our findings for discretionary biases in citizen-state interactions are discussed.
Workers on the frontline of public service, such as teachers and social workers, cannot provide unlimited support to all their clients, because of among else scarce time and money. To deal with this, they use various coping strategies. We analyze one important coping strategy such “street level bureaucrats” can use: prioritizing motivated clients over unmotivated clients. We study the effect of this coping strategy on job performance, as rated by their supervisors. In other words, do street-level bureaucrats who especially help motivated clients get lower or higher job performance ratings? By studying this relationship, we can test two narratives in frontline work: the state-agent narrative versus the citizen-agent narrative. If supervisors follow a state-agent narrative,
they would give street-level bureaucrats that prioritize motivated clients lower performance ratings. Supervisors could stress values like legality and equality: workers should follow governmental rules and should treat all clients equally. Contrary to this, if supervisors follow a citizen-agent narrative, they would give street-level bureaucrats who especially help motivated clients higher performance ratings. Motivated clients are the “deserving clients,” worthy of investment. “Pushing” unmotivated clients may also be a very inefficient use of scarce resources. Using a multisource study of social workers in one organization in the United States, we show that supervisors give higher job performance ratings to street-level bureaucrats who prioritize motivated clients. Implications of this finding and a future research agenda are shown.
Inconsistent regulatory objectives may cause persistent noncompliant behavior among regulated actors. Yet, little is publicly known about when, where, and how inconsistencies get solved by regulated actors. The authors tracked the norms and interventions of multiple regulatory oversight bodies trickling down the hierarchy of three utility companies. The authors interviewed and observed managers, planners, operators, and staff studying their responses to regulatory inconsistencies from the perspective of value conflict. Patterns of coping behavior have been identified across the three companies. In conclusion, the authors argue to account for coping behavior in the regulatory mind-set and they recast how coordination may further improve the effectiveness of fragmented regulatory regimes.
Frontline practitioners like teachers in public-sector education are not policy takers but policy makers, argues Michael Lipsky in Street-Level Bureaucracy (1980). They use their wide autonomy to adopt coping mechanisms like limiting client demand and creaming (cherry-picking, Sw gräddskumning). Winter and Nielsen have developed this into (1) reducing demand for output, (2) rationing output and (3) automating output. These distinctions are clarified in the article. Do they have relevance for Nordic school systems and other frontline activities? The question is raised but left to upcoming research to clarify.
Nordic Journal of Studies in Educational Policy.
See also Vedung 2016, Implementering i politik och förvaltning / Implementation in public policy and public administration, chap Frontbyråkrater / Frontline practitioners, pp 89-106.
Good governance involves managing conflicting values, leading to the main research question, which consists of three parts: Which public value profiles do public administrators have, which value conflicts do they experience, and which coping strategies are used? Here, previous literature on public value conflicts is discussed first and linked to the literature on street-level bureaucrats and on coping strategies. Then two case studies are presented: a municipality and a hospital. The findings show six different value clusters that administrators adhere to and clarify which value conflicts are typically experienced in various public sector organizations and which different coping mechanisms are used.
Often portrayed as policymakers rather than policytakers, street-level bureaucrats play a key role in policy implementation.
It is now well accepted that the implementation actions of street-level workers frequently result in outcomes that differ
from those expected from formal policy. Although the adaptation of rules among street-level bureaucrats is well documented,
its influence has been relatively understudied. Furthermore, the conceptualization of street-level divergence is relatively
ambiguous. To explore the conditions under which divergence may contribute to a policy change, this study suggests a more-nuanced
portrayal of street-level divergence, by referring to three analytical dimensions, namely, motivation, transparency, and collectivity.
Data draw on street-level actions that are considered inconsistent with formal policy both among policy principals and among
street-level workers, in three different policy sectors: education, health, and welfare. Findings suggest that transparent,
collective, and other-serving divergence tends to trigger a policy change. A better understanding of the reciprocal relationships
between street-level divergence and policy change may contribute to the coordination of the efforts of different governmental
tiers as regards policymaking and the design of policy implementation.
Frontline workers, such as teachers and social workers, often experience stress when delivering public services to clients, for instance because of high workloads. They adapt by coping, using such practices as breaking or bending rules for clients, or rationing services. Although coping is recognized as an important response to the problems of frontline work, the public administration field lacks a comprehensive view of coping. The first contribution of this article is therefore theoretical: conceptualizing coping during public service delivery and developing a coherent classification of coping. This is done via a systematic review of the literature from 1981 to 2014. The second contribution is empirical: via a systematic review of the literature from 1981–2014 this article provides a framework and analytical account of how coping during public service delivery has been studied since 1980. It highlights the importance of the type of profession (such as being a teacher or a police officer), the amount of workload, and the degree of discretion for understanding how frontline workers cope with stress. It also reveals that frontline workers often draw on the coping family “moving towards clients” revealing a strong tendency to provide meaningful public service to clients, even under stressful conditions. We conclude with an agenda for future studies, examining new theoretical, methodological and empirical opportunities to advance understanding of coping during public service delivery.
Lipsky’s seminal concept of street-level bureaucrats (SLBs) focuses on their role as public servants. However, in the course of new modes of governance, private actors have gained an additional role as implementation agents. We explore the logic of private SLBs during the implementation of the Swiss Ordinance on Veterinary Medicinal Products (OVMP) where veterinarians are simultaneously implementing agents, policy addressees, and professionals with economic interests. We argue that, because of contradictory reference systems, it is problematic for the output performance if an actor is simultaneously the target group of a policy and its implementing agent.
Street-level bureaucrats implementing public policies have a certain degree of autonomy – or discretion – in their work. Following Lipsky, discretion has received wide attention in the policy implementation literature. However, scholars have not developed theoretical frameworks regarding the effects of discretion, which were then tested these using large samples. This study therefore develops a theoretical framework regarding two main effects of discretion: client meaningfulness and willingness to implement. The relationships are tested using a survey among 1,300 healthcare professionals implementing a new policy. The results underscore the importance of discretion. Implications of the findings and a future research agenda is shown.
The Long-Term Care Insurance Program (LTCIP) in Israel is a social security program administered by the National Insurance Institute (NII) since 1988. LTCIP focuses on home-based personal care services. Differently from most other programs under the responsibility of the NII, LTCIP benefits are in-kind benefits and are delivered via multiple for-profit and not-for-profit organizations. In recent years LTCIP has been the target of various legal amendments and numerous administrative changes. While many of these changes may have had significant effects on individuals, they have not altered the fundamental principles of the program. Thus, many of the characteristics of beneficiaries have remained quite stable over the years; other characteristics of the population of beneficiaries have changed over the years reflecting the aging of Israeli society. As central issue related to LTCIP is whether benefits are adequate to meet the needs of the growing and older population of Israel. While the generosity of LTCIP benefits is questionable, economic and political struggles have limited the scope of changes introduced thus far.
This article analyses the formulation and implementation of a relatively
new statutory programme of care services for dependent elderly people in
Israel, which has as a basic characteristic the supply of services by non-state
agencies. The analysis serves as a basis for an exploration of the
effects of privatisation and the emergence of quasi-markets upon the
functioning of the welfare state both as a benefits provider and as a major
employer. In contrast to the perspectives that consider privatisation as
leading to the weakening of the state in the welfare domain, we argue
that through the transfer of services supplied by non-state agencies the
state protects itself from demands and pressures from clients, while
maintaining its control and regulation capabilities. This process
decreases the state's accountability towards its citizens, enhancing in
turn its autonomy. Privatisation policies do not imply, therefore, the dissolution
of the welfare state, but rather the emergence of a new mode of
state intervention.
This article addresses the influence of politicians, managers, and the dispositions of street-level bureaucrats in shaping actions at the frontlines of policy implementation. We investigate these for the implementation of employment policy reforms in Denmark. Our findings show a large percentage of caseworkers emphasizing actions that are consistent with the national employment reform goal of getting clients into jobs quickly. The influence of politicians and managers in bringing this about is relatively limited in comparison to the influences of caseworkers' understanding of policy goals, their professional knowledge, and their policy predispositions. Our main contribution is an unpacking of the political and managerial influences on caseworkers' policy emphases. We find direct effects and, more notably, indirect effects that operate on the influence of caseworkers' perceptions of policy goals and their knowledge. These findings provide a more nuanced and positive assessment than much of the implementation literature of the way that higher level policies are translated into actions at the frontlines.
Providing long-term care (LTC) to the elderly is a major challenge for the welfare state. LTC systems differ widely among countries. Due to recent maturation, economization, and marketization processes, earlier LTC comparisons and typologies are no longer suitable to give a comprehensive overview of LTC systems and their major characteristics. In this paper we introduce a new typology of LTC systems in the OECD world, based on most recent OECD data and a unique set of institutional indicators. This typology aims to make LTC systems more comparable to welfare state and healthcare system typologies and thereby improve our understanding of how long-term care is embedded in the wider welfare state and how it is related to other welfare state institutions. Based on 24 cluster analyses, we identify six (method-driven) and nine LTC types (content-driven), which can be adapted in future studies according to the needs. In the six-types solution, we suggest a public supply type (e.g., Sweden), a private supply type (e.g., Germany), a residual public type (e.g., Poland), an evolving public supply type (e.g., Korea), a need-based supply type (e.g., Switzerland), and an evolving need-based type (e.g., United States).
Despite laws of universalistic treatment, bureaucrats have been shown to discriminate against minorities. A crucial question for public administration is how bureaucracies can be organized in ways that minimize illegitimate discrimination. Especially, since theories suggest that prejudices happen unintentionally and particularly under high workload, bureaucrats’ working conditions may be important. Four randomized experiments support the notion that bureaucrats discriminate as a way of coping with high workload. Most notably, a field experiment randomly assigned teachers to reduced workloads by giving them resources to have more time with the same group of students. In a subsequent survey experiment—using a fictitious future scenario unrelated to the resources provided in the field experiment—discrimination was minimized in the field treatment group, but persisted in the control group. The results thereby support the notion that even though discrimination among bureaucrats does not (only) occur in a reflective manner it can be reduced by altering the way bureaucrats’ work is organized.
Following the publication of Lipsky’s classic study, a large body of literature has explored the determinants of street-level bureaucrats’ discretion. Among these determinants, clients’ help deservingness has been widely studied as a salient factor in service delivery contexts, which may differ from the contexts in which regulatory street-level bureaucrats operate. Another factor, situational stress, has not drawn much attention yet in experimental studies. This article examines the impact of clients’ help deservingness, situational stress, and their interaction effects on street-level bureaucrats’ discretion based on the results of an experimental study conducted in a regulatory context. The experimental subjects were Chengguan officers who are typical Chinese street-level bureaucrats responsible for urban affairs management. Our results suggest that clients’ help deservingness affects discretionary decision making, which is consistent with previous research. Countering conventional thinking, this study found that situational stress alone does not influence Chengguan officers’ discretionary decision making, but it weakens the effect of clients’ help deservingness.
Rules and rule behaviour are keys to understanding modern organizations. This study examines prosocial rule breaking (PSRB), a view of workplace rule violations that eschews assumptions of invariably self-interested, utility-maximizing workers. Using survey data of child welfare social workers, the study tests the influences of leaders, peers, and bureaucratic attributes on PSRB-related attitudes and behaviour. The results indicate formalization and threats of punishment diminish employees’ willingness to break rules for others while rule consistency and co-worker rule violations trigger PSRB. Findings suggest public managers must acknowledge both formal and informal organizational attributes to better understand PSRB among front line workers.
European countries are facing social changes that are challenging their long-term care (LTC) systems in different ways. The ageing population and the decrease of care potential in families have led to different paths of modification to traditional care regime organization. This article compares the LTC policies of Sweden, Germany and Italy, three countries that have traditionally been regarded as representatives of distinct regime types in care regime typologies. The interrelation between policy reforms, changing state support, patterns of care arrangements and the commodification of care work is compared between the three countries. The analysis aims to reveal the basic dimensions of (changing) LTC policies and their effects in these countries; trends of convergence and divergence between the three regimes; and the main characteristics of the changed care regimes. Despite a trend to convergence characterized by a redefined involvement of and a complex mixture of state, market and family resulting in an increased precarization of care labour, the countries analysed still represent different care models. In particular, the amount of state support, the emphasis on family care versus professional services, and the role of different state levels in the governing system and reform paths are the key elements that mark the organization of national LTC.
Market-oriented restructurings of long-term care policies contribute significantly to the aggravation of care workers’ situations. This article focuses on the effects of broader long-term care policy developments on market-oriented reforms. Germany, Japan and Sweden are three countries that have introduced market-oriented reforms into home-based care provision embedded in distinct long-term care policy developments. Conceptually, this article draws on comparative research on care to define the institutional dimensions of long-term care policies. Empirically, the research is based on policy analyses, as well as on national statistics and a comparative research project on home-care workers in the aforementioned countries. The findings reveal the mediating impact of the extension and decline of long-term public care support and the corresponding development of the care infrastructure on both the restructuring of care work and the assessments of the care workers themselves.
How does the increased use of choice-based management strategies in social services influence the behavior of street-level workers? In this article, we provide an analytical framework for understanding street-level logic in choice-based environments. We then turn to the case of home nursing care in Israel to examine how choice plays out in street-level workers’ day-to-day practices. By relying on 34 interviews with social workers working in home care agencies, we illustrate how street-level workers’ jobs have expanded beyond implementing public policy to include the “new job” of recruiting and retaining clients. The article shows how a choice-based environment gives higher priority to clients’ preferences, but at the same time these preferences are subordinated to the economic interest of the providers. It also demonstrates how market pressures may push street-level workers to develop new practices and coping strategies that go beyond but often also counter to formal policy.
Over the past three decades, market reforms have transformed public services such as education, health and care of the elderly. Whereas previous studies present markets as having similar and largely non-political effects, this book shows that political parties structure markets in diverse ways to achieve distinct political aims. Left-wing attempts to sustain the legitimacy of the welfare state are compared with right-wing wishes to limit the state and empower the private sector. Examining a broad range of countries, time periods and policy areas, Jane Gingrich helps readers make sense of the complexity of market reforms in the industrialized world. The use of innovative multi-case studies and in-depth interviews with senior European policymakers enriches the debate and brings clarity to this multifaceted topic. Scholars and students working on the policymaking process in this central area will be interested in this new conceptualization of market reform.
This paper advances the conception of social entrepreneurs as caring entrepreneurs. We argue that the care ethics of social entrepreneurs, implying the pursuit of caring goals through caring processes, can be challenged when they engage in the process of scaling up their ventures. We propose that social entrepreneurs can sustain their care ethics as the essential dimension of their venture only if they are able to build a caring enterprise. Organizational care designates the set of organizing principles that facilitate the embedding of care ethics at an organizational level, beyond the imprinting induced by social entrepreneurs’ personal ethics.
With the intensive use of information and communication technologies, governments are transforming into e-governments. While public management research has given increased attention to this subject lately, this article reviews the limited literature that deals with the impacts of e-government technologies on street-level bureaucracies. A twofold argument is being developed. First, what can be called the ‘curtailment thesis’, stressing the reduction or disappearance of frontline policy discretion, is addressed. Second, the ‘enablement thesis’ gets attention, highlighting how technologies provide frontline workers and citizens with additional action resources. The article concludes with propositions for a future research agenda on the topic.
The productivity of government at all levels can be increased by introducing some of the principles that have already proved effective in some parts of the country. The idea behind these principles is that governments should be entrepreneurial.
Privatization, as a concept and as a political movement, is profoundly altering the shape of the public sector in the United States. Distinctions between the public and private sectors are being blurred as the organizations for accomplishing public purposes are more and more frequently a deliberate blend of public and private characteristics. Throughout this transformation in the public sector, the discipline and profession most directly affected by privatization, public administration, has been remarkably passive, both unwilling and unable to raise critical questions respecting the limits, if any, to privatization. This essay suggests that the origins of this passivity lie in the reality that public administration has largely forsaken its intellectual roots-roots which are embedded in public law, not in economics or the social sciences. Only by returning to public law, which emphasizes the distinctive character of the public and private sectors, will public administrators become influential players in the continuing debate over the future of the public sector.
In this paper, we assert that an important element is largely missing in much of the current environmental policy literature regarding different management ideals: street-level bureaucrats (i.e., the practicing and, typically, anonymous civil servants at the very end of the environmental policy chain). Thus, we aim to enhance a deeper understanding of the role that street-level bureaucrats play within different management ideals, and through this discussion, we indicate how they affect the functionality of governing structures and processes. We do so by interviewing street-level bureaucrats carrying out their role in different management settings, enabling evaluations of the degree to which their practices correspond with the ideals expressed in the literature and in official directives. We find a rather poor match between these ideals on one hand and the way street-level bureaucrats actually perceive that they are internally steered and how they carry out their commissions on the other hand.
“To have mastered ‘theory’ and ‘method’ is to have become a conscious thinker , a man at work and aware of the assumptions and implications of whatever he is about. To be mastered by ‘method’ or ‘theory’ is simply to be kept from working.” The sentence applies nicely to the present plight of political science. The profession as a whole oscillates between two unsound extremes. At the one end a large majority of political scientists qualify as pure and simple unconscious thinkers. At the other end a sophisticated minority qualify as overconscious thinkers, in the sense that their standards of method and theory are drawn from the physical, “paradigmatic” sciences.
The wide gap between the unconscious and the overconscious thinker is concealed by the growing sophistication of statistical and research techniques. Most of the literature introduced by the title “Methods” (in the social, behavioral or political sciences) actually deals with survey techniques and social statistics, and has little if anything to share with the crucial concern of “methodology,” which is a concern with the logical structure and procedure of scientific enquiry. In a very crucial sense there is no methodology without logos , without thinking about thinking. And if a firm distinction is drawn—as it should be—between methodology and technique, the latter is no substitute for the former. One may be a wonderful researcher and manipulator of data, and yet remain an unconscious thinker.
The paper describes and analyses selected issues related to the provision of home care services to frail elderly people following the Israeli Long-Term Care Insurance Law (1988). The goals and principles of the Law, which mandates the provision of home care services to frail elderly people, are presented. The paper also evaluates its contribution toward enhancing the well-being of elderly clients. Several major dilemmas that arose following implementation of the Law are analysed and evaluated in comparison with other countries that have enacted and implemented similar laws. These dilemmas are community vs institutional care; services in kind vs monetary allowances; service provision through contracting out with nongovernmental agencies; unstable and unskilled labour force; and service quality. Finally, policy implications are discussed, mainly in the following areas: investment in human resources as a condition for achieving high service quality, and the need for coordination between the agencies that provide long-term care services to elderly people.
There has been a growing trend in the federal government toward reliance on organizations that commingle legal attributes of the government and private sectors. These hybrid organizations now constitute a quasi government that occasions both interest and concern by political leaders, practitioners, and scholars alike because these organizations touch the very heart of democratic governance: To whom are these hybrids accountable? How well is the public interest being protected against the interests of private parties?
In this article, the author seeks to define the quasi government and place these hybrid entities into manageable categories from which legal and behavioral generalizations may be drawn. Are hybrid organizations a problem or a solution? Looking critically at this question, the author suggests the answer may depend in large measure on which of two management paradigms the reader accepts: the constitutionalist management paradigm or the entrepreneurial management paradigm, both of which are defined and discussed. The author concludes that the increasin reliance on hybrid organizations constitutes a threat not only to accountable management within the government, but to the fundamental values of democratic governance as well.
This article discusses: the doctrinal content of the group of ideas known as ‘new public management’(NPM); the intellectual provenance of those ideas; explanations for their apparent persuasiveness in the 1980 s; and criticisms which have been made of the new doctrines. Particular attention is paid to the claim that NPM offers an all-purpose key to better provision of public services. This article argues that NFM has been most commonly criticized in terms of a claimed contradiction between ‘equity’ and ‘efficiency’ values, but that any critique which is to survive NPM's claim to ‘infinite reprogrammability’ must be couched in terms of possible conflicts between administrative values. The conclusion is that the ESRC'S Management in Government’ research initiative has been more valuable in helping to identify rather than to definitively answer, the key conceptual questions raised by NPM.
Whether on a patrol beat, in social service offices, or in public school classrooms, street-level workers continually confront rules in relation to their own beliefs about the people they encounter. Cops, Teachers, Counselors is the first major study of street-level bureaucracy to rely on storytelling. Steven Maynard-Moody and Michael Musheno collect the stories told by these workers in order to analyze the ways that they ascribe identities to the people they encounter and use these identities to account for their own decisions and actions. The authors show us how the world of street-level work is defined by the competing tensions of law abidance and cultural abidance in a unique study that finally allows cops, teachers, and counselors to voice their own views of their work. Steven Maynard-Moody is Director of the Policy Research Institute and Professor of Public Administration at the University of Kansas. Michael Musheno is Professor of Justice and Policy Studies at Lycoming College and Professor Emeritus of Justice Studies, Arizona State University.
psky’s classic study of ‘street-level bureaucracy’ (1980) provided a perceptive analysis of front line practice in public organizations that has continuing relevance to recent literature, which has debated whether discretion continues to operate in social work or whether it has been curtailed. Having considered contributions to the debate on the continuation and curtailment of professional discretion in social work, it becomes clear that there are significant differences between these two positions, differences which focus on beliefs about manager’ desire for, and ability to secure, control and workers’ ability to resist control and seek discretion. However, after examining these issues further, through an examination of key aspects of Lipsky’s work and Howe’s (1991) critique of that work, a unifying strand is identified in the curtailment and continuation perspectives. Both perspectives have a tendency to treat professional discretion as a phenomenon that is either present or absent and rest on a background assumption, particularly in the curtailment literature, that professional discretion is self-evidently a ‘good thing’. An alternative argument is advanced, based on two propositions: first, that the proliferation of rules and regulations should not automatically be equated with greater control over professional discretion; paradoxically, more rules may create more discretion. Second, discretion in itself is neither ‘good’ nor ‘bad’. In some circumstances it may be an important professional attribute, in others it may be a cloak for political decision-makers to hide behind or it may be an opportunity for professional abuse of power. If this alternative argument is soundly based, future analysis of and research into professional discretion rooted in ‘all-or-nothing’ formulations are unlikely to advance understanding much beyond the impasse in the existing literature. Rather, the alternative argument suggests that discretion should be regarded as a series of gradations of freedom to make decisions and, therefore, the degree of freedom professionals have at specific conjunctures should be evaluated on a situation-by-situation basis.