Content uploaded by Kieran Hennig
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Kieran Hennig on Jun 27, 2022
Content may be subject to copyright.
‘Life coaching: an unconventional perspective’
Kieran Hennig
NSW, Australia
hennigkieran@gmail.com
University of Wollongong – Bachelor of Pre-Medicine, Science and Health (2021-2023)
Life Coaching Institute of Australia – Cert IV in Life Coaching (2021-2022)
This is my first attempt at writing something of this nature. Feedback is gratefully
welcomed. There is no specific format that I have attempted to use.
Life coaching: an perspective
Life coaching is an interdisciplinary approach that draws upon several fields. Due to the unique nature of
coaching it can satisfy the needs of clients that other professions cannot. It allows individuals to achieve goals and
tasks set by other professionals including developing and maintaining exercise routines, attending appointments,
and making a change for the better i.e. reducing alcohol consumption. Life coaching was “born out of unmet need
for help effecting change, frustration with traditional models, the stigma attached to seeking care, and the online
“uberization” of many new services” [1]. Accordingly, life coaching increases the likelihood that individuals can fulfil
requests made by professionals through goal attainment, providing insight [2], and providing a human support that
facilitates client motivation and accountability [3].
An important distinguish between what coaching is and what coaching is not must be made, the following are
defined respectively, the International Coaching Federation (ICF) defines coaching as “partnering with clients in a
thought-provoking and creative process that inspires them to maximize their personal and professional potential.
Coaching is a client-driven process” [4]. Coaching does not include “a quick-fix, one size fits all approach, [...] therapy
or counselling, […] giving advice, […] financial advising or estate planning” [5].
There are a few regulatory bodies providing life coaches with the necessary credentials [6,7,8]. These credentials
provide a platform that allows clients to distinguish between coaches who have and those who do not have the
relevant coaching experience. There are differing levels of certifications based upon the number of hours of
education and work experience completed [9].
The term coaching and life coaching tend to be used interchangeably as is the case in this review. This one
example helps illuminate as to why definitions are not only necessary but vital for the industry to develop further
professionally.
Scepticism and cynicism regarding the life coaching industry is sound, well-grounded, and indicative of a
population of critical thinkers. However, this can be taken too far and as a result, important modalities and
treatments that have the potential to help individuals are often promptly and unfairly dismissed. If the coaching
industry is to win over the public, an ability to acknowledge the areas in which integrity and credibility is lacking is
paramount. Reasons as to why there are such high levels of scepticism towards the coaching industry are outlined
below:
First, there are numerous terms and concepts lacking a comprehensive definition.
There is no definitive and agreed upon definition of what a life coach is, however, most definitions encompass
the idea of a life coach being an individual who “helps people make decisions, set and reach goals, or deal with
problems” [10]. Although the most accepted definition of what life coaching is, is the definition given previously by
the International Coaching Federation (ICF).
Because there are multiple coaching approaches and a lack of coaching context and definitions in research, it
makes it immensely difficult to implement and translate such research to other populations and to different contexts
[11]. It also adds confusion to any already complex and complicated industry for people to interpret at their own
discretion. Therefore, it is imperative that a common understanding and definition of what life coaching is, is
developed. This would help promote comprehensive and thorough research, promoting a more credible industry.
Enabling the public to become more open-minded. However, the trouble with accurately and adequately defining
terms has been highlighted before. Explaining possible reasons as to why there has not yet emerged cohesive
definitions [12].
Defining terms appropriately will help the public to gain understand the industry better. For example, little is
known about the difference between life coaches and mentors*. Mentors provide advice and guidance for someone
less experienced than themselves (life experience being advantageous) [13], whereas life coaches provide guidance;
irrespective of one’s experience (life experience is obsolete). However, well-structured definitions would illuminate
many to this fact.
*Obtained through personal experience via asking people for their thoughts on coaching (this approach is extremely limited to my social
circle). Nonetheless, I believe this is a huge misconception; that life experience matters for a life coach to be effective.
Second, there is a lack of rigorous scientific research.
For years there has been an ongoing effort to develop more comprehensive and concise objectives and
directives within the life coaching industry [14]. This would allow for the manifestation of more thorough and
translatable research.
It is understood that the field of coaching lacks a solid foundation of research [15]. Irrespective of this, there are
peer-reviewed journals that focus on coaching theory, research, and practices. This provides a platform for coaches
to educate themselves on evidence-based practices [16].
More comprehensive research published in other journals would convince and allow people to understand the
benefits of coaching. Looking at scientific databases we can see the lack of life coaching research- of the techniques
involved and of the overall process; in both non-clinical (healthy) populations and in clinical (unhealthy) populations.
A lack of scientific research may be due to the public’s view on life coaching, the lack of a selected regulatory body
(not “a self-regulating group” like the ICF) or the lack of funding provided by sponsors.
Third, the lack of oversight of the current industry regulatory bodies.
The problem with the regulatory bodies in this industry is that there is no oversight, considering itself to be
“a self-regulatory group” [17]. A result of this, there is a superfluous number of niches. This further adds confusion
and a complexity that other industries do not experience. Due to not having regulatory standards, any type of niche
can be created, resulting in 100+ niches and the potential for hundreds more to be simply created out of thin air
[18,19].
Subsequently, a lack of credibility and transparency towards the industry can be seen and heard. It is well
known that the coaching field is yet to be sufficiently regulated [20,21,22].
Despite self-regulatory bodies and educational institutions providing individuals with verified credentials
and/or certifications, anyone can call themselves a life coach regardless of their training. Thus, a major threat to the
industry emerges, its own professionals. This insight is vital for current practicing coaches who wish to provide the
best service and act in a responsible and ethical manner; by obtaining and providing documentation or proof of their
education and credentials. However, it can be understood that these attainments do not matter when the coach can
deliver amazing results.
Due to the lack of a discrete and distinguished regulator, there is a concern among the public (and those
within the industry) that coaches are more interested in themselves than their clients, people who may be perceived
as charlatans or fake gurus [23,24]. There are little to no consequences for coaches who behave and act in an
unethical manner, there is no licence to be revoked to prevent an individual from practicing.
Fourth, the implementation of a discrete and distinct marketing and business strategy, one that differs to many
credible and trustworthy professions.
It would appear to some that the strategies used are rather manipulative, deceitful, and possibly unethical.
This lowers the professionalism and increases scepticism towards the industry.
One sales tactic used is the under promise and over deliver concept [25,26]. However, there is no need for this type
of sales tactic [27, 28, 29,30]. Nevertheless, the aforementioned should not tarnish the field of coaching; not
everyone uses such tactics, and it is used in other industries.
The following major business strategy used could be seen as manipulative marketing. Oftentimes clients
book multiple sessions rather than just one, booking prospective sessions all at once. This is known as a ‘packaging
deal’ [31]. This is not a widely used strategy in many industries, many preferring to book in single isolated sessions.
Possibly resulting in the field being pushed to the fringe. This also may persuade the client to stay and pay despite
not requiring the attendance of such sessions, hence the unethical nature of such a strategy could be debated. One
educational institution (this is not indicative of all coaching course providers), the Life Coaching Institute of Australia
(LCIA) [32] educates their students on how to interact with clients. They provide a template of a ‘coaching
agreement’ in which an agreement is made for how many sessions, at what price, as well as the duration and
frequency of the sessions. They educate prospective life coaches to arrange future sessions in bulk, possibly making
the client feel obliged to stay. Again, as previously mentioned, this is questionable.
Majority of coaches have an initial free coaching session, a ‘free coaching call’; this is a type of pull marketing
strategy. This is not a common approach for professional businesses. However, the reason many coaches may have
to resort to this common industry strategy, may be because of how society at large views the industry and is the only
reasonable business strategy available. However, this strategy may place the industry in an unfavourable light.
There is an overreliance of anecdotal evidence and testimonials. This is seen by almost all coaches, having
anecdotes and testimonials to attest for their services on their website or on other online platforms [33,34,35,36].
This begs the question, why does the coaching field rely so heavily on testimonials and anecdotal evidence? Is it due
to the lack of a scientific and evidence-based foundation? Is it due to the lack of trust and high level of scepticism
exercised by the public?
Fifth, the inclusion of questionable methods and strategies.
There is a potential for individuals to improperly implement evidence-based techniques due to not having an
adequate education or training. For example, Neurolinguistic Programming (NLP). The inclusion of scientifically
questionable techniques results in a reduction of industry credibility. One popular coaching technique is NLP [37],
this includes concepts such as anchoring. Despite this, there is currently insufficient evidence to support its clinical
application as the literature provides mixed results [38]. Although, the literature does show that NLP could be
beneficial for certain conditions [39,40]. In the face of the literature, NLP and other scientifically uncertain
techniques should be practiced with caution and clients should be told that there is no scientific consensus and that
there is a lack of overwhelming high-quality evidence on the benefits and impacts. This would allow consumers to
receive, if they wish to, particular coaching modalities, whilst being informed of the lack of high-quality research. If
coaches are to implement such techniques and strategies it is crucial that they have received an appropriate
education and training, ensuring that the technique is implemented properly and to a high standard.
Sixth, a plethora of mostly online educational institutions provide questionable courses and certificates
[41,42,43,44,45]. These institutions produce ‘life coaches’ despite the lack of an accredited course. Despite
the large amount of non-government recognised course providers there are a few that offer government accredited
courses under the National Vocational Education and Training Regulator Act 2011 [46,47]. These higher education
institutions reside in Australia [48,49]. This shows that some governments see a place for the coaching industry in
society.
The certificate IV in life coaching provided by the LCIA (at least) contains 2/9 units that focus on business-
based content rather than on life coaching theory. They also do not provide graduates with any real-life interactions
or work experience, just the option to attend a few workshops and submit some practical assessments. Due to the
online nature of the course, this does make it difficult for the educational institutions to ensure that students get
work experience and thus as a result, students are forced to be proactive and seek work experience that would allow
them to obtain credentials offered by the current regulators. This lack of focus on theory and in person experience
does not readily equip graduates with the utmost confidence in their trade or the necessary skills to successfully
undertake coaching sessions. Potentially this could result in consumers not having their needs met by the field as a
result of poorly trained coaches.
Seventh, an uninformed population leads to many false misconceptions.
Generally, people don’t think life coaching works, they believe that they can life coach themselves and they
do not completely trust life coaches [50]. This is the result of an ignorant population that is not aware of what life
coaching entails (or should at least).
A common misconception is that you need life experience to be a valuable life coach. However, life coaching
is not about giving advice (although depending on the niche, the coach may provide advice. Although, this muddies
the water with professions such as mentoring). Rarely, if any life coaching courses educate students on the benefits
of having life experience, this is due to the scope of practice and methodologies employed by a life coach. If one is to
be an effective life coach, having the ability to implement techniques and strategies as well as show results, age does
not matter, yet the public is unaware of this.
Awareness and education of what the coaching field involves is pivotal, especially if what a client expects is out of
the scope of practice.
Scientific literature:
It is cautioned that a review of all the possible niches and their benefits would not be possible due to the
large number of them, so only a fraction is included. Outlined below (Study title, year) is some of the research and
the identified benefits:
1. Living with cystic fibrosis – a qualitative study of a life coaching intervention, 2018 [51]
o Limitations include a small sample size, overrepresentation of females in the study, the study taking
place in Denmark, the data was obtained through interviews; the setting and length were not kept
consistent between subjects.
o “Life coaching was described as a positive and recommendable experience”.
o Some participants thought coaching was useful whereas others thought it was unnecessary.
o Life coaching was given a low priority when everything was going well, however, when life or cystic
fibrosis got difficult, life coaching interventions were preferred.
o “The respondents valued talking to the coach about their life”.
o “Close, trustful [and] supportive relationships were important for” participants. Coaching allowed
this.
o “The respondents found that there was a good match between the […] severity of their concerns,
and the support they received from life coaching. They expressed that their problems were not so
severe that they needed a psychologist, and they perceived the more action-oriented life coaching
as a relevant solution.”
o Coaching provided a safe environment.
o Identified future research: the need for screening parameters. Allowing for the identification of who
would most benefit from coaching. The results suggested those in times of high stress and not when
life was going well would benefit the most. These results suggest that life coaching should expand to
include clinical populations.
2. Professional and peer life coaching and the enhancement of goal striving and well-being: An exploratory
study, 2007 [52]
o Limitations include a small sample size, some of the data obtained was done though questionnaires,
opening for the possibility of bias due to demand characteristics; the expectation that the subject
was going to perform better.
o Coaching attendance was significantly higher than the control. However, the results indicated that
the mere act of engaging and attending the sessions was insufficient for successful goal striving.
o “Our data suggests the coaching process is greatly enhanced when it is directed by a professional
who is trained in the principles of behaviour change and possessing the skills required to build an
effective coaching relationship”.
o “Life coaching had a minimal impact on the wellbeing of participants”, however the coaches
employed were not health and wellness coaches, they were professional and peer coaches.
Highlighting the issue of having many niches.
o It concluded that coaching is a “useful thing to do”.
o “We propose that life coaching is indeed an appropriate area for scientific enquiry”.
3. The Impact of Life Coaching on Goal Attainment, Metacognition and Mental Health, 2007 [53]
o Limitations of this study include a small sample size, questionnaires, and self-reported data; opening
for the potential bias of expectation which could have obscured results, the absence of a control
group, the participants may not represent the general population as they were self-selected
university students.
o They used a Coach Yourself life coaching program.
o “Participation in the life coaching program was associated with increased goal attainment”.
o “Levels of depression, anxiety and stress were significantly reduced”.
o “Significantly enhanced quality of life”.
o “Levels of insight significantly increased”.
o There was an enhancement of general life satisfaction.
o “This finding serves to remind coaches that life coaching should be a results-orientated solution-
focused process, rather than an introspective, overly-philosophical endeavour.” This serves as a
reminder for coaches to keep within their scope of practice. An important factor in distinguishing
coaching from other fields such as therapy.
4. A Proposed Framework for Using the Life-Coaching Process to Enhance the Quality of Life of Individuals with
Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities: A Case Study, 2019 [54]
o The sample size was small, as it was a case study regarding 2 people with intellectual and
developmental disabilities, presenting with only mild cases. This research cannot be translated to
more severe cases.
o Helped them develop a positive self-image and accept their disability
o “Society at large stands to benefit from the effectiveness of life-coaching interventions.”
o Life coaching for those with intellectual and developmental disabilities merits further investigation
o This demonstrates the potential that coaching has. It would be a disservice to not do more research.
In particular, research including clinical populations. This contrasts with the common notion that the
field should be tailored toward non-clinical (healthy) populations.
5. Executive/life coaching for first year medical students: a prospective study, 2019 [55]
o Suboptimal measures, small sample size, self-selected subjects (not indicative of general population-
1st year med students), pilot study
o 95% adherence rate implies a high value was found in coaching. Subjects were willing to recommend
coaching to others
o Almost all measures either improved or were maintained- increase in stress management, increased
self-awareness, improvement in time management
o “Substantial ceiling effects were seen in study measures”. Meaning that the data measurements
were not substantial enough for the study. More substantial and reasonable measures would have
to be developed to cater for such results.
6. The effect of life coaching on psychological distress among dental students: interventional study, 2020 [56]
o Dental students (not representative of the general population)
o “Significant differences in depression, stress, self-acceptance and goal approach measurement”
7. Rebuilding self-confidence after cancer: a feasibility study of life-coaching, 2015 [57]
o Life coaching can aid individuals who are going through difficult transition periods, it enables people
to comfortably transition from one stage of life to the next
8. The Impact of Life Coaching on Undergraduate Students: A Multiyear Analysis of Coaching Outcomes, 2018
[58]
o “Important increases for students in the following areas: self-confidence, satisfaction with choice of
major, awareness of values and alignment with decision making, connection to life purpose, and
individual goal setting and attainment.”
9. Cognitive-behavioural, solution-focused life coaching: Enhancing goal striving, well-being, and hope, 2007
[59]
o “Provided evidence that a cognitive-behavioural, solution-focused life coaching group programme is
effective in increasing goal striving, well-being, and hope.”
10. Can life coaching improve health outcomes? – A systematic review of intervention studies, 2013 [60]
o Systematic review
o Implementation of life coaching as an adjunct treatment to the medical approach is limited.
o Varied quality of data from the studies
o Further research is needed, mixed but promising results were identified
11. Life coaching and the law, 2006 [61]
o “The benefits of life coaching to individuals is plain. It provides a practical vehicle to help people
achieve specific goals in both their personal and professional lives that will result in a happier more
fulfilled being. Ultimately, for employers the advantages of a motivated and satisfied individual
include increased effectiveness and productivity. So perhaps is it time to introduce strategic plans
for staff wellbeing to augment the departmental objectives that are already in place in the work
environment.”
12. Why coaching, 2002 [62]
o “The research concludes that coaching substantially increases the effectiveness of the links between
self-development, management development and organisational effectiveness.”
o The study concluded with the following: 1) coaching is invaluable for developing managers, 2)
“coaching provides a space for profound personal development”, 3) coaching can be used in a stand-
alone approach or used to support other initiatives, 4) it improves retention of managers and makes
them feel valued, 5) “quality of the relationship is crucial”
13. Health coaching as a lifestyle medicine process in primary care, 2019 [63]
o This is not a study, but an article aimed towards physicians explaining how life coaching can help
manage lifestyle (non-communicable) diseases.
o Noted in this article was that the traditional approach of healthcare was not fully effective in
supporting patients or preventing and treating some lifestyle related diseases. The emerging
practice of health coaching can help fill in this unmet need.
o The need for preventative practices such as health coaching are vital as half of Australians are
afflicted with a chronic disease, which can be prevented through lifestyle factors. [64]
o “Incorporation of a health coaching framework into primary care can improve patient outcomes”
14. Impact of Physician Referral to Health Coaching on Patient Engagement and Health Risks: An Observational
Study of UPMC's Prescription for Wellness, 2020 [65]
o “Patients are significantly more likely to engage in health coaching when a referral is made by a
physician; engagement in health coaching significantly improves health risk levels.”
o Physicians and health coaching must work together, they complement each other. Providing an
example of how life coaching can complement existing systems.
15. Physical Activity, Exercise, Whole Health, and Integrative Health Coaching, 2020 [66]
o “Integrative health coaching is an invaluable tool for clinicians seeking to achieve behaviour changes
for improved health, particularly in the areas of physical activity and exercise.”
16. A pilot study of health and wellness coaching for fibromyalgia, 2016 [67]
o Health and wellness coaching significantly improved measures of quality of life, pain and reduced
the need for health care.
17. The effects of wellness coaching on the wellness and health behaviours of early adolescents, 2019 [68]
o “This wellness coaching program significantly increased the wellness of adolescents and improved
their healthy lifestyle behaviours.”
The review of the literature does not include common coaching niches such as business, career, financial,
relationship and nutrition coaching to name a few. Not only was the representation of coaching niches limited but
also the scientific literature itself. An extremely small portion of the literature has been delved into in this review.
Of the studies that were reviewed, the sample sizes tended to be small and limited to specific demographics,
limiting the efficacy and translatability of the results presented. Skewing of conclusions of the studies may have
occurred due to the selection of few pieces of evidence, whilst omitting others.
Limitations:
A probable likelihood of bias is present due to a single individual reviewing and presenting a selected portion of
the literature. This review is not all encompassing and thus as a result either misses more comprehensive or
contradictory articles. The selection of articles may serve a particular point of view. The age of some of the articles
may prove to be too old and thus, outdated; with the possibility of missing newer research that either builds on or
debunks the findings.
This piece only serves as a perspective piece from one individual and is not a literature review, although an
attempt has been made to include an adequate amount of the scientific literature.
The author has had no current work experience in the field but is immersed in the industry through research and
education, this further limits the perspective of the review.
Future directions:
Despite government accredited courses being available, far more is needed to be done to optimise benefits
for all stakeholders.
Resulting from this review, the following considerations have been provided in a bid to improve the industry.
(1) Clear cut definitions, (2) regulation of the industry via the creation of a governmental regulatory body or
reconstructing current regulators ensuring they are not self-regulated, (3) more comprehensive scientific research,
accompanied with an (4) increase in funding and sponsors, (5) well defined and structured educational courses, (6)
inclusion of strictly evidence-based practices or promising practices however, it must be ensured that they are not
touted as evidence-based practices e.g. NLP, (7) having an open-minded community (public and academia) to
consider the benefits of life coaching, (8) educating the public to rectify and prevent industry misconceptions.
These points of consideration mean that not only would the industry and its stakeholder’s benefit, the broader
impact on a community, state and national level would be felt because of the flow on effects that coaching can
provide.
Conclusion:
Coaching has a place in society which is demonstrated by the increase in demand and desire for life coaches
[69], the government providing accreditation for some courses, the “global growth and widening spread of coaching”
[70], as well as its scientific and evidence-based worth as described in this review.
As most coaches practice on their own, building and practicing in their own business, it is difficult to
ascertain a general approach that many coaches take. Following on from this, coaching styles between practitioners
differ, there’s no regulatory body that is held accountable; allowing anyone to become a life coach. There is potential
for coaches to infuse their own life experience with their coaching services if they behave in an unethical and
irresponsible manner by providing advice.
If an individual is to seek out life coaching, to benefit from such an industry, one must understand what
coaching entails, what to expect and what they hope to get out of the relationship and the process. Without this,
both the individual and the coach will be left feeling unfulfilled and unsatisfied with the coaching process. One must
be informed of the nature of the coaching process.
There has been a desperate effort to add credibility to the coaching industry due to its potential but for
many reasons, speculated, known and unknown, there has been no overall public credibility achieved yet.
Life coaching has its place as a credible and reliable industry, however, it’s just a matter of definitively and
accurately constructing all involved industry components.
Further readings:
- https://www.paperdue.com/search?q=life-coach
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E56f4zR_XDg
- https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbescoachescouncil/2017/10/05/the-success-and-failure-of-the-coaching-
industry/?sh=1482bc006765
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EE4yF_VP1eA
- https://www.openaccessgovernment.org/the-growth-and-impact-of-the-coaching-industry/88852/
- https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9kE5f2B942I
- https://anzcal.org/
References:
[1] Aboujaoude, E., 2020. Where Life Coaching Ends and Therapy Begins: Toward a Less Confusing Treatment
Landscape. Perspect Psychol Sci 15, 973–977. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691620904962
[2] Grant, A.M., 2003. THE IMPACT OF LIFE COACHING ON GOAL ATTAINMENT, METACOGNITION AND MENTAL
HEALTH. Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal 31, 253–263.
https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2003.31.3.253
[3] Mohr, D., Cuijpers, P., Lehman, K., 2011. Supportive Accountability: A Model for Providing Human Support to
Enhance Adherence to eHealth Interventions. Journal of Medical Internet Research 13, e1602.
https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.1602
[4] ‘What is Coaching?’ (no date) ICF Australasia Charter Chapter. Available at:
https://www.icfaustralasia.com/resources/what-is-coaching/ (Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[5] What Coaching is Not! (2012) Jane Taylor | Mindfulness & Compassion Teacher | Wholistic Coach | Wellbeing
Coaching | Mindful Self-Compassion Coaching | Gold Coast | Mindfulness Teacher. Available at:
https://www.habitsforwellbeing.com/what-coaching-is-not/ (Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[6] EMCC Global [WWW Document], n.d. URL https://www.emccglobal.org/ (accessed 6.15.22).
[7] Home - International Coaching Federation (no date). Available at: https://coachingfederation.org/ (Accessed: 15
June 2022).
[8] Association for Coaching. (no date). Available at: https://www.associationforcoaching.com/ (Accessed: 15 June
2022).
[9] The Gold Standard in Coaching | ICF - ICF Credential (no date) International Coaching Federation. Available at:
https://coachingfederation.org/credentials-and-standards (Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[10] Definition of LIFE COACH (no date). Available at: https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/life+coach
(Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[11] Segers J, Vloebrghs D, Henderickx E, 2011. Structuring and Understanding the Coaching Industry: The Coaching
Cube. Academy of Management Learning & Education 10, 204-221 http://www.jstor.org/stable/41318046.
[12] Cox, E, Bachkirvoa T & Clutterbuck D, 2010, The Complete Handbook of Coaching, SAGE, London. p.3.
[13] What Is a Mentor? | Indeed.com (no date) Indeed Career Guide. Available at: https://www.indeed.com/career-
advice/career-development/what-is-a-mentor (Accessed: 18 June 2022).
[14] Jarosz, J., 2016. What is life coaching? An integrative review of the evidence-based literature. International
Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring 14, 34–56.
[15] First-class coaching (no date) American Psychological Association. Available at:
https://www.apa.org/monitor/2010/11/life-coaches (Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[16] Coaching: An International Journal of Theory, Research and Practice (no date) Taylor & Francis. Available at:
https://www.tandfonline.com/journals/rcoa20 (Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[17] ‘Credentialing’ (no date) ICF Australasia Charter Chapter. Available at:
https://www.icfaustralasia.com/resources/credentialing/ (Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[18] 100 High-Ticket Life Coaching Niches in 2022 (3 Steps) (no date). Available at:
https://www.luisazhou.com/blog/coaching-niche/ (Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[19] 150 Best Coaching Niches (no date). Available at: https://www.bloomchase.com/blog/150-best-coaching-niches-
93 (Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[20] I’m a life coach, you’re a life coach: the rise of an unregulated industry | Life and style | The Guardian (no date).
Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2021/oct/06/life-coaching-brooke-castillo-unregulated-
industry (Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[21] Life coaching is unregulated and growing rapidly. Should it be reined in? | Psyche Ideas (no date) Psyche.
Available at: https://psyche.co/ideas/life-coaching-is-unregulated-and-growing-rapidly-should-it-be-reined-in
(Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[22] THE FEED investigates the unregulated industry of Life Coaching - TV Blackbox (no date). Available at:
https://tvblackbox.com.au/page/2021/09/28/the-feed-investigates-the-unregulated-industry-of-life-coaching/
(Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[23] Ferebee, A. (2018) Is Life Coaching a Scam or Legit? Confessions of a Former Life Coach - Knowledge For Men.
Available at: https://www.knowledgeformen.com/is-life-coaching-a-scam/ (Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[24] Life Coaching - Beware of Spiritual Charlatans and False Gurus - Communal News (no date). Available at:
https://web.archive.org/web/20200809165227/https://communalnews.com/life-coaching-beware-of-spiritual-
charlatans-and-false-gurus/ (Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[25] Tip 63 Underpromise And Overdeliver - Coach Yourself to Success, Revised and Updated Edition, 2nd Edition
[Book] (no date). Available at: https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/coach-yourself-to/9780071837576/tip63.html
(Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[26] ‘Under Promise and Over Deliver | The Appraiser Coach’ (no date). Available at:
https://theappraisercoach.com/over-promise-and-under-deliver/ (Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[27] ‘Under promise and over deliver – ebusiness coaching’ (no date). Available at:
https://ebusinesscoaching.co.uk/under-promise-and-over-deliver/ (Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[28] The Dangers of the “Underpromise, Overdeliver” Mentality (no date). Available at:
https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/dangers-underpromise-overdeliver-mentality-brian-seipel (Accessed: 15 June
2022).
[29] Why ‘Underpromise and Overdeliver’ Is Bad Advice by Brief Tips from Success Coach Martin Brossman (no date)
Anchor. Available at: https://anchor.fm/martin-brossman/episodes/Why-Underpromise-and-Overdeliver-Is-Bad-
Advice-e1elqfb (Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[30] ‘The science of why “underpromise and overdeliver” doesn’t always work - CloudDevs - Blog’ (no date).
Available at: https://clouddevs.com/blog/the-science-of-why-underpromise-and-overdeliver-doesnt-always-work/
(Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[31] Start A Coaching Business [Guide For 2022] (no date). Available at: https://coachfoundation.com/blog/start-
coaching-business/#chapter2 (Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[32] Life Coaching Courses | Accredited Certificate & Diploma | LCIA (no date). Available at:
https://www.lcia.com.au/ (Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[33] Life Coaching Testimonials | Paul Hamad Life Coach (no date) PaulHamad Life Coach. Available at:
https://www.paulhamadlifecoach.com.au/testimonials-life-coach-parramatta (Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[34] Testimonials | Stephanie Chan Life Coaching (no date) Life Coach, Sydney. Available at:
https://www.stephaniechanlifecoaching.com.au/testimonials (Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[35] NLP Coach - Centre for Life Therapies (no date). Available at: https://centreforlifetherapies.com/success-stories/
(Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[36] ‘Testimonials’ (no date) Aladdin Life Coaching. Available at: https://aladdinlifecoaching.com/testimonials/
(Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[37] Doc Murdoch (2021) What is NLP?, The Life Coaching College. Available at:
https://thelifecoachingcollege.com.au/what-is-nlp/ (Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[38] Sturt, J., Ali, S., Robertson, W., Metcalfe, D., Grove, A., Bourne, C., Bridle, C., 2012. Neurolinguistic programming:
a systematic review of the effects on health outcomes. Br J Gen Pract 62, e757–e764.
https://doi.org/10.3399/bjgp12X658287
[39] Zaharia, C., Reiner, M., Peter, S., 2015. Evidence-based Neuro Linguistic Psychotherapy: a meta-analysis.
Psychiatria Danubina 27, 355–363. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26609647/
[40] Karunaratne, M., 2010. Neuro-linguistic programming and application in treatment of phobias. Complement
Ther Clin Pract 16, 203–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctcp.2010.02.003
[41] ‘Certificate in Life Coaching Health and Wellbeing’ (no date) Online Short Courses | Careerhouse. Available at:
https://www.careerhouse.com.au/courses/certificate-in-life-coaching-health-and-wellbeing/ (Accessed: 15 June
2022).
[42] Life Coaching Courses in Australia (no date) The Life Coaching College. Available at:
https://thelifecoachingcollege.com.au/life-coaching-courses/ (Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[43] ICF Accredited Online & 3-Day | Certified Life Coach Institute | United States (no date). Available at:
https://www.certifiedlifecoachinstitute.com/?utm_source=5070205&utm_medium=article&utm_campaign=article&
utm_term=v_w_m (Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[44] ‘Master Integrative Life Coaching (MILC) Online Course’ (no date) IWA Coaching. Available at:
https://iwacoaching.com/product/milc-online/ (Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[45] Phase 1: Core Essentials | Coach U | coachu.com (no date). Available at:
https://www.coachu.com/BecomeaCoach/ProfessionalCoachTrainingProgram/Phase1CoreEssentials/ (Accessed: 15
June 2022).
[46] training.gov.au – 10662NAT – Certificate IV in Life Coaching (no date). Available at:
https://training.gov.au/Training/Details/10662NAT (Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[47] training.gov.au - 10864NAT - Certificate IV in Life Coaching (no date). Available at:
https://training.gov.au/Training/Details/10864NAT (Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[48] Life Coaching Courses & Training Australia (no date) Life Coaching Academy. Available at:
https://www.lifecoachingacademy.edu.au/ (Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[49] Certificate IV in Life Coaching | Accredited Online Coaching Course | LCIA (no date). Available at:
https://www.lcia.com.au/courses/certificate-iv-in-life-coaching (Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[50] The 5 Reasons People Don’t Hire A Life Coach (and what to do about them) - Coach the Life Coach (no date).
Available at: https://coachthelifecoach.com/why-people-dont-hire-a-life-coach/ (Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[51] Knudsen, K.B., Boisen, K.A., Katzenstein, T.L., Mortensen, L.H., Pressler, T., Skov, M., Jarden, M., 2018. Living
with cystic fibrosis – a qualitative study of a life coaching intervention. PPA Volume 12, 585–594.
https://doi.org/10.2147/PPA.S159306
[52] Spence, G.B., Grant, A.M., 2007. Professional and peer life coaching and the enhancement of goal striving and
well-being: An exploratory study. The Journal of Positive Psychology 2, 185–194.
https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760701228896
[53] Grant, A.M., 2003. THE IMPACT OF LIFE COACHING ON GOAL ATTAINMENT, METACOGNITION AND MENTAL
HEALTH. Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal 31, 253–263.
https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2003.31.3.253
[54] Shpigelman, C.-N., 2019. A Proposed Framework for Using the Life-Coaching Process to Enhance the Quality of
Life of Individuals with Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities: A Case Study. Journal of Policy and Practice in
Intellectual Disabilities 16, 150–159. https://doi.org/10.1111/jppi.12276
[55] Cameron, D., Dromerick, L.J., Ahn, J., Dromerick, A.W., 2019. Executive/life coaching for first year medical
students: a prospective study. BMC Medical Education 19, 163. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-019-1564-4
[56] Aboalshamat, K., Al-Zaidi, D., Jawa, D., Al-Harbi, H., Alharbi, R., Al-Otaibi, S., 2020. The effect of life coaching on
psychological distress among dental students: interventional study. BMC Psychol 8, 106.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-020-00475-5
[57] Wagland, R., Fenlon, D., Tarrant, R., Howard-Jones, G., Richardson, A., 2015. Rebuilding self-confidence after
cancer: a feasibility study of life-coaching. Support Care Cancer 23, 651–659. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00520-014-
2399-5
[58] Lefdahl-Davis, E.M., Huffman, L., Stancil, J., Alayan, A.J., 2018. The Impact of Life Coaching on Undergraduate
Students: A Multiyear Analysis of Coaching Outcomes. International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and
Mentoring 16, 69–83. https://doi.org/10.24384/000560
[59] Green, L.S., Oades, L.G., Grant, A.M., 2006. Cognitive-behavioral, solution-focused life coaching: Enhancing goal
striving, well-being, and hope. The Journal of Positive Psychology 1, 142–149.
https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760600619849
[60] Ammentorp, J., Uhrenfeldt, L., Angel, F., Ehrensvärd, M., Carlsen, E.B., Kofoed, P.-E., 2013. Can life coaching
improve health outcomes? – A systematic review of intervention studies. BMC Health Serv Res 13, 428.
https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6963-13-428
[61] Perry, M.J., 2006. Life coaching and the law. Industrial and Commercial Training 38, 98–101.
https://doi.org/10.1108/00197850610653388
[62] Wales, S., 2002. Why coaching? Journal of Change Management 3, 275–282.
https://doi.org/10.1080/714042542
[63] Health coaching as a lifestyle medicine (no date) Australian Journal of General Practice. Available at:
https://www1.racgp.org.au/ajgp/2019/october/health-coaching-as-a-lifestyle-medicine (Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[64] Australia’s health 2018, Chapter highlights - Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (no date). Available at:
https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/australias-health/australias-health-2018/contents/chapter-highlights (Accessed:
15 June 2022).
[65] Michael D. Parkinson, Tracy Hammonds, Donna J. Keyser, Jennie R. Wheeler, Pamela B. Peele, 2020, Impact of
Physician Referral to Health Coaching on Patient Engagement and Health Risks: An Observational Study of UPMC’s
Prescription for Wellness, American Journal of Health Promotion https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0890117119900588
[66] Malecki, H.L., Gollie, J.M., Scholten, J., 2020. Physical Activity, Exercise, Whole Health, and Integrative Health
Coaching. Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Clinics of North America 31, 649–663.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmr.2020.06.001
[67] Hackshaw, K.V., Plans-Pujolras, M., Rodriguez-Saona, L.E., Moore, M.A., Jackson, E.K., Sforzo, G.A., Buffington,
C.A.T., 2016. A pilot study of health and wellness coaching for fibromyalgia. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders 17, 457.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12891-016-1316-0
[68] Altunkurek, S.Z., Bebis, H., 2019. The effects of wellness coaching on the wellness and health behaviors of early
adolescents. Public Health Nursing 36, 488–497. https://doi.org/10.1111/phn.12608
[69] The growth of the life-coaching industry (no date). Available at: https://www.smh.com.au/lifestyle/health-and-
wellness/you-re-awesome-and-you-re-doing-great-why-life-coaches-are-in-demand-20211122-p59auu.html
(Accessed: 15 June 2022).
[70] 2020 ICF Global Coaching Study, Executive Summary, ICF. Available at:
https://coachingfederation.org/app/uploads/2020/09/FINAL_ICF_GCS2020_ExecutiveSummary.pdf
