Cycling through the COVID-19 Pandemic to a More Sustainable Transport Future: Evidence from Case Studies of 14 Large Bicycle-Friendly Cities in Europe and North America

Abstract

This article examines the impact of COVID-19 on cycling levels and government policies toward cycling over the period 2019 to 2021. We analyze national aggregate data from automatic bicycle counters for 13 countries in Europe and North America to determine month-by-month and year-to-year changes in cycling levels in 2020 and 2021 compared to 2019. That aggregate analysis is complemented by case studies of 14 cities in the USA, Canada, the UK, Belgium, France, Spain, and Germany. Although there was much variation over time, among countries, and among cities, cycling levels generally increased from 2019 to 2021, mainly due to growth in cycling for recreation and exercise. In contrast, daily trips to work and education declined. All 14 of the cities we examined in the case studies reported large increases in government support of cycling, both in funding as well as in infrastructure. Bikeway networks were expanded and improved, usually with protected cycling facilities that separate cyclists from motorized traffic. Other pro-cycling measures included restrictions on motor vehicles, such as reducing speed limits, excluding through traffic from residential neighborhoods, banning car access to some streets, and re-allocating roadway space to bicycles. Car-restrictive measures became politically possible due to the COVID-19 crisis.

Full text

Citation: Buehler, R.; Pucher, J.
Cycling through the COVID-19
Pandemic to a More Sustainable
Transport Future: Evidence from
Case Studies of 14 Large
Bicycle-Friendly Cities in Europe and
North America. Sustainability 2022,
14, 7293. https://doi.org/10.3390/
su14127293
Academic Editor: Michele
Ottomanelli
Received: 27 April 2022
Accepted: 10 June 2022
Published: 14 June 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
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Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
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4.0/).
sustainability
Article
Cycling through the COVID-19 Pandemic to a More Sustainable
Transport Future: Evidence from Case Studies of 14 Large
Bicycle-Friendly Cities in Europe and North America
Ralph Buehler 1, * and John Pucher 2
1Urban Affairs and Planning, Virginia Tech Research Center, Arlington, VA 22203, USA
2Bloustein School of Planning and Public Policy, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA;
JohnPucher@gmail.com
*Correspondence: ralphbu@vt.edu
Abstract:
This article examines the impact of COVID-19 on cycling levels and government policies
toward cycling over the period 2019 to 2021. We analyze national aggregate data from automatic
bicycle counters for 13 countries in Europe and North America to determine month-by-month
and year-to-year changes in cycling levels in 2020 and 2021 compared to 2019. That aggregate
analysis is complemented by case studies of 14 cities in the USA, Canada, the UK, Belgium, France,
Spain, and Germany. Although there was much variation over time, among countries, and among
cities, cycling levels generally increased from 2019 to 2021, mainly due to growth in cycling for
recreation and exercise. In contrast, daily trips to work and education declined. All 14 of the cities
we examined in the case studies reported large increases in government support of cycling, both in
funding as well as in infrastructure. Bikeway networks were expanded and improved, usually with
protected cycling facilities that separate cyclists from motorized traffic. Other pro-cycling measures
included restrictions on motor vehicles, such as reducing speed limits, excluding through traffic from
residential neighborhoods, banning car access to some streets, and re-allocating roadway space to
bicycles. Car-restrictive measures became politically possible due to the COVID-19 crisis.
Keywords:
COVID-19; cycling; Europe; North America; policies; infrastructure; pop-up bike lanes;
protected bicycle lanes; slow streets; traffic calming
1. Introduction
The COVID-19 pandemic has changed daily travel in countries and cities around the
world. During the first year of the pandemic, many countries and cities reported large
increases in cycling. Many cities responded to the COVID-19 pandemic by providing
additional space for cyclists through pop-up bicycle lanes and residential streets closed to
motor vehicle traffic. However, some cities reported declines in cycling—mainly in places
that traditionally had a high share of cycling commuters among their cyclists. Stay-at-
home orders and remote working and learning reduced all forms of commuting, including
bicycle commuting.
In this paper, we focus on cycling trends in Western Europe and North America. We
ask two questions: First, what were the national changes in cycling levels in 13 countries
during 2021, the second year of the pandemic, and how do they compare to cycling levels
in the same countries in 2020 and 2019? Second, how did the COVID-19 pandemic affect
cycling levels and bicycle planning in cities in Europe, the USA, and Canada? Local
responses have determined the supply of cycling infrastructure during the pandemic and
will determine the prospects of cycling in the future.
To answer the first question, we reviewed the emerging literature and analyzed
available data from bicycle counters aggregated to the national level for the USA, Canada,
Sustainability 2022,14, 7293. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14127293 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2022,14, 7293 2 of 32
and eleven countries in Western Europe. We update by a full year our previous research on
the impact of COVID-19 on cycling [1].
To answer the second question, we conducted case studies of 14 large cities in Canada,
the USA, the United Kingdom, Germany, Belgium, France, and Spain. For each city, we
analyzed trends in cycling levels and bicycle planning before and during the COVID-19
pandemic. Finally, we note each city’s plans for future cycling policies, which have been
affected by experiences during COVID-19 in most of the case study cities. The article
concludes by drawing key lessons from the experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic.
2. Previous Findings
The existing literature examining COVID-19 impacts on cycling was published from
late 2020 to early 2022 but only includes data to the end of 2020 [
1
–
8
]. The studies we
reviewed reported a wide range of percentage changes in cycling levels from 2019 and 2020,
but, overall, net increases. In all countries, cycling levels were subject to large fluctuations
across different months of the year corresponding to the different timing of COVID-19
outbreaks and the resulting lockdowns, closures, and reduced travel overall. Almost
all studies reported large increases in recreational cycling, especially on off-road paths
and greenways, but decreases in bicycle trips to work, school, university, and shopping.
Corresponding to variation by trip purpose, there were large increases in weekend cycling
and large decreases in weekday morning cycling.
Some cities that had high levels of work, school, and university bicycle commutation
in 2019 reported decreases in 2020 due to lockdowns, closures, and remote working and
learning. However, because most cities and countries reported a reduction in overall travel,
the bicycle share of trips usually increased even when absolute cycling levels fell. That was
especially the case in cities with high levels of public transport use, with some passengers
switching to cycling to avoid the risk of contracting COVID-19 in the confined, shared
spaces in buses and trains [
1
,
9
,
10
]. Indeed, the natural social distancing cycling allows
was one important reason for increased cycling during COVID-19. Except in extremely
strict lockdowns (such as requirements to stay at home), cycling provided an ideal form of
outdoor physical activity substituting for gyms, swimming pools, and organized sports
activities suspended for long periods during COVID-19. Cycling also facilitated stress
relief, getting outdoors, and socializing (at a distance)—important reasons for cycling
found in one survey [
11
]. While cycling, overall, increased, bikesharing decreased in
many cities around the world, at least in the earlier phases of COVID-19, when a primary
cause of transmission was widely considered to be touching surfaces contaminated by the
COVID-19
virus. Thus, using the same bicycle just used by another person was considered
unsafe by some former riders. In addition, many bikesharing trips are for commutation or
short trips around town, trips purposes that were less frequent in 2020.
COVID-19 also had an important impact on government cycling policies, mostly at the
local level, but sometimes triggering additional state/provincial or national funding. Some
policies were introduced specifically as a response to COVID-19, often as temporary or trial
measures [
3
,
5
–
8
,
12
–
14
]. Some measures were continued implementation of existing plans,
but sometimes at an accelerated rate. Examples of measures taken during COVID-19 include:
pop-up bicycle lanes (usually protected from motor vehicle traffic); reductions in speed
limits, usually in residential neighborhoods but sometimes citywide; closures of streets to
non-local traffic; banning motor vehicles from some streets (usually on certain days or times
of day); widening of existing lanes and paths to accommodate increased cycling volumes;
installation of more permanent bicycle paths and lanes; and discounts on bikesharing charges.
Several studies have examined the impacts of such measures [
3
,
5
,
6
,
12
–
14
]. In most cases, the
measures increased cycling safety, reduced cycling stress, and increased cycling levels, but
there was variation from case to case, even within the same city.

Sustainability 2022,14, 7293 3 of 32
3. Data and Methods
The first part of our analysis examines national aggregate data for 13 countries in
Europe and North America. For that analysis, we relied on data provided by Eco-counter,
an international company that operates automatic bicycle trip counters at key locations in
European and North American cities. The Eco-counter data come from 310 sites in Europe
and 125 sites in North America. The data from each counter is validated for accuracy by Eco-
counter. We used their database both for our earlier analysis of trends from 2019 to 2020 [
1
]
as well as for the extension of our national-level comparison to 2021 in this new article.
Eco-counter reported weekly percentage changes in cycling levels in each of 13 European
and North American countries in 2020 and 2021 relative to the same weeks in 2019. The
13 countries included the USA, Canada, Belgium, France, Germany, Austria, Sweden, UK,
Ireland, Italy, Spain, and Portugal. We converted the week-by-week Eco-counter data to
month-by-month averages in order to increase the accuracy of the estimates. In order to
facilitate overall comparisons among the 13 countries, we also present Eco-counter’s annual
national percentage changes in cycling levels between 2019 and 2021, for entire weeks,
weekends, and weekdays only. The annual percentage changes are based on differences
between the sums of weekly counts for all 52 weeks of each year.
The second part of our analysis comprises case studies of COVID-19 impacts on cy-
cling levels and government policies in 14 cities. We selected large cities that had strongly
promoted cycling even prior to COVID-19. From among those cities, we focused on choos-
ing cities that had implemented especially innovative and successful pro-cycling responses
to the COVID-19 pandemic, as identified by the European Cyclists’ Federation (ECF), the
League of American Bicyclists (LAB), and professional colleagues we consulted. However,
we also included some traditionally pro-cycling cities that continued implementing more
of the same measures as before, and also intend to continue them after COVID-19. The
14 cities chosen are located in various parts of the USA (Portland, Austin, Washington),
Canada (Vancouver, Montréal), and Europe (London, Brussels, Berlin, Munich, Freiburg,
Strasbourg, Paris, Barcelona, and Sevilla). The cities had a wide range of cycling levels prior
to COVID-19, from a low of 2% in Austin, Texas to a high of 34% in Freiburg, Germany.
The cities also varied in how long they have vigorously promoted cycling, ranging from
roughly one to six decades.
Information for the case studies came primarily from remote video conversations and
extensive email exchanges over the period January to April 2022 with bicycle planners,
academics, and cycling advocates from each city. In addition, the cycling experts in
each city read over successive drafts of the case studies to ensure their accuracy and
completeness. Most of the information provided by these experts is unpublished, relying
on internal government data and planning documents. That information was supplemented
by published information available for a few cities, mostly related to past cycling levels
and policies—including media reports, websites, presentations, government documents,
and journal articles.
4. Results
4.1. Results of Aggregate, National Analysis, 2019–2021
As shown in Figure 1, there was great variability among countries and over time in
month-by-month changes in cycling levels in the 13 countries included in the Eco-counter
dataset from January 2019 to December 2021. Increases are indicated by lines above the 0%
horizontal axis (positive), while declines are shown by lines below the 0% axis (negative).
The largest percentage declines (relative to 2019) were in periods of full lockdowns with
stay-at-home orders, but even less severe restrictions—closed offices, shops, restaurants,
schools, and universities—greatly reduced travel overall, including cycling. There were
often large increases in cycling after lockdowns, usually exceeding levels in the same
months of 2019 prior to COVID-19. As reflected in Figure 1, some countries were affected
by COVID-19 more than others or at different times. In general, the extent of fluctuations
in 2021 were considerably less than in 2020, perhaps because COVID-19 outbreaks were

Sustainability 2022,14, 7293 4 of 32
less fatal than in 2020—due to the widespread availability of COVID-19 vaccines—and
required less severe restrictions. Overall, monthly cycling levels in both 2020 and 2021
were higher than in 2019, as indicated by most of the country trend lines lying above the
0% horizontal axis for most months. Cycling levels in 2021, however, were not as high as in
2020, indicating a slight decline from 2020 to 2021.
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 36
Figure 1. Fluctuation in percentage change in 2020 and 2021 cycling levels relative to 2019 in 11 European countries, the USA, and Canada (four-week averages
compared to the same period in 2019). Source: authors’ own calculation based on unpublished data Eco-Counter provided directly to the authors.
Figure 1.
Fluctuation in percentage change in 2020 and 2021 cycling levels relative to 2019 in
11 European countries, the USA, and Canada (four-week averages compared to the same period in
2019). Source: authors’ own calculation based on unpublished data Eco-Counter provided directly to
the authors.
By aggregating the monthly data of Figure 1into annual totals, Figure 2shows more
clearly the average annual changes in cycling levels for each of the 13 countries. Total
cycling increased between 2019 and 2021 in 11 of the 13 countries, but with considerable
variation in the percentage changes. The largest percentage increases in cycling were in
Italy (+27%), the UK (+23%), Portugal (+19%), Spain (+16%), and France (+15%). The
two countries with decreases were Finland (−7%) and Germany (−3%).
Figure 2also shows that growth in cycling was concentrated on weekends, with all
13 countries reporting increases between 2019 and 2021. Weekend-cycling growth ranged
from 55% in the UK and 49% in Ireland to only 4% in Finland and Germany. By comparison,
4 of the 13 countries saw declines in cycling on weekdays between 2019 and 2021. Weekday
cycling decreases ranged from 4% in Canada to 15% in Ireland. Decreases in cycling on
weekdays in those countries were probably due to remote working and learning in addition
to periodic travel restrictions during full or partial lockdowns. Weekday cycling increases
ranged from 1% in the USA and Sweden to 24% in Italy. In these 11 countries, reduced
cycling to work, school, and universities was evidently more than offset by increases in
cycling for other trip purposes. Moreover, in some countries, workplaces, stores, schools,
and universities were gradually re-opened in 2021.
4.2. Case Studies
The aggregate, country-level data just examined provide an overall picture of the
situation of cycling during the COVID-19 pandemic, but they do not reflect the situation
in specific cities, which can vary greatly even within the same country. Moreover, they
provide no information at all about local government policies to encourage cycling during

Sustainability 2022,14, 7293 5 of 32
COVID-19. Thus, we supplement the aggregate analysis with case studies of 14 large cities.
The case-study approach enables a detailed examination of the situation in each city, with
specific examples that are inevitably missing in an aggregate analysis.
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 36
Figure 2. Percentage changes in cycling levels between 2019 and 2021 in 11 European Countries, Canada, and the USA (for entire weeks, weekends, and weekdays).
Source: authors’ own calculation based on unpublished data Eco-Counter provided directly to the authors.
Figure 2.
Percentage changes in cycling levels between 2019 and 2021 in 11 European Countries,
Canada, and the USA (for entire weeks, weekends, and weekdays). Source: authors’ own calculation
based on unpublished data Eco-Counter provided directly to the authors.
For each case study, we first provide contextual information about trends in the city’s
cycling levels and policies in the decades prior to COVID-19. That provides an essential
basis from which to examine the city’s cycling trends and policies during the COVID-19
pandemic, which is at the center of each case study. Finally, we examine each city’s plans
for future investment in cycling infrastructure and programs. In many cities, those plans
have been modified as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, sometimes involving new
policies that had been tried out during COVID-19, and sometimes involving the expanded
or accelerated implementation of plans that had been made before COVID-19. The case
studies all have that basic three-part structure, but they vary considerably from each other
in length and content according to the amount and kind of information that was available
for each city.
Table 1provides an overview of our case-study cities, listing their population size,
cycling share of daily trips prior to COVID-19, changes in cycling levels between 2019
and 2021, as well as key policies implemented in 2020 and 2021. We first examine three
cities in the USA: Portland, Oregon on the West Coast; Austin, Texas in the South; and
Washington, DC on the East Coast. Then, two cities in Canada: Vancouver on the West
Coast and Montréal in eastern Canada. Our European cities are in five countries: the UK
(London); Belgium (Brussels); France (Paris and Strasbourg); Spain (Sevilla and Barcelona);
and Germany (Berlin, Munich, and Freiburg).

Sustainability 2022,14, 7293 6 of 32
Table 1.
Overview of case-study cities, bicycle share of trips, and cycling trends and cycling measures
implemented in 2020/2021.
City Name,
Country
(Population)
Bicycle Modal
Share before
COVID-19 a
Cycling
Trends
2019–2021 b
Cycling Measures Implemented in 2020 and 2021 c
Portland,
USA
(650)
5% large
decrease
- Added 20 km to the bikeway network
- Focused on intersection safety treatments to better protect cyclists when
crossing
-
Reduced speed limits throughout the city, including the implementation of
slow streets with speed limits varying from 25 km/h to 30 km/h
- Reduced many five-lane arterials to three lanes for cars
-
Converted Biketown’s bikesharing fleet to e-bikes and expanded operating
area by 25%
- Opened two new pedestrian–cyclist bridges over two inner-city freeways
- Expanded and improved bicycle parking
Austin, USA
(950) 2% mixed
- Built 13 fully protected intersections (all four sides) and nine partially
protected intersections
- Implemented 30 km of slow and shared streets
- Constructed 47 km of protected on-street lanes and 5 km of conventional
bicycle lanes
-
Enlarged the all-ages-and-abilities bicycle network from 265 km to 358 km
Washington,
DC
USA (690)
5% mixed
- Reduced speed limits on 42 km of neighborhood streets to 24 km/h
(15 mph)
- Closed neighborhood streets to through traffic
- Reduced the city-wide speed limit 32 km/h (20 mph)
- Made qualitative improvements to the bikeway network
- Built 19 km of protected bicycle lanes and 6 km of regular bicycle lanes
-
Added 23 more docking stations and 600 e-bikes to its bikesharing system
Vancouver,
Canada
(680)
6% mixed
- Added 5 km of local street bikeways
-
Designated over 40 km of local streets as slow streets, with speed limits of
30 km/h
-
Implemented car-free streets adjacent to three schools during school hours
- Built 2 km pop-up bicycle lane on Beach Avenue attracting 10,000 cyclists
on weekends
Montréal,
Canada
(1800)
4% mixed
- Installed 29 km of bidirectional protected pop-up bicycle lanes in
summer 2020
- Built 45 km of protected bicycle lanes (PBLs), including 26 km of
extra-wide PBLs that are part of the new express bikeway network REV
(Réseau Express Vélo)
-
Expanded bicycle lane network by 15 km and shared bicycle–bus lanes by
4 km
-
More than doubled the length of bicycle streets where cyclists have priority
(3 to 8 km)
London, UK
(9000) 2% large
increase
- More than tripled the length of protected on-street bicycle lanes from
50 km to 162 km
-
Increased share of population living within 400 m of the high-quality cycle
network from 12% in 2019 to 19% in 2021
- Rapid implementation of 85 low-traffic neighborhoods (LTNs)
-
Expanded School Streets program, which excludes all but residential traffic
Brussels,
Belgium
(2100)
4% large
increase
-
Built 50 km of pop-up bicycle lanes that closed gaps in the cycling network
- Banned car traffic from a large park that had served as a car commuter
thoroughfare
- Established a maximum speed limit of 30 km/h on most streets

Sustainability 2022,14, 7293 7 of 32
Table 1. Cont.
City Name,
Country
(Population)
Bicycle Modal
Share before
COVID-19 a
Cycling
Trends
2019–2021 b
Cycling Measures Implemented in 2020 and 2021 c
Paris, France
(2200) 5% large
increase
- Installed 52 km of pop-up bicycle lanes separated from motorized traffic
- Transformed Rue de Rivoli into a bicycle-friendly street with only one car
travel lane
- Reduced the speed limit to 30 km/h on most city streets
- Passed a new bicycle plan for the next five years, called “Paris 100%
Cyclable”
Strasbourg,
France
(280)
16% increase
- Built six pop-up bicycle lanes
- Public-relations campaign promoting cycling as ideal mode of transport
for social distancing
- Made qualitative improvements to the bikeway network
-
Established an accelerated cycling program (Plan Vélo) for the next 5 years
with EUR 100 m funding
Sevilla,
Spain
(690)
4% decrease
- Implemented extensive design improvements to existing bikeways
- Expanded the bikeway network slightly
- Built 4.4 km of new protected bikeways
Barcelona,
Spain
(1700)
3% mixed
- Installed 21 km of pop-up bicycle lanes by removing car travel lanes
- Closed 12 km of roadways to motorized traffic
- Added 2000 electric bicycles to the Bicing bikesharing program
- Expanded a popular bicycle to school program
- Improved the design and engineering of cycling facilities
-
2020 Urban Mobility Plan calls for doubling the number of trips by bicycle
Berlin,
Germany
(3600)
18% increase
- Built 26 km of pop-up bicycle lanes along key arterial roads
-
Banned motor vehicles from Friedrichstrasse and installed bicycle lanes in
the center
- Built 6500 bicycle parking spaces
- Installed 8 km of new bicycle priority streets
- Hired seven additional city-cycling staff members
- Made qualitative improvements to the bikeway network
- Increased funding for cycling by 74% compared to 2019 funding
- Adopted new cycling master plan
Munich,
Germany
(1500)
18% large
increase
- Built 5 km of pop-up bicycle lanes
- Hired 30 additional city cycling staff
- Opened a new 240 m long cyclist bridge
- Improved design of cycling facilities
- Built 3600 new bicycle parking spaces in 2020
- Increased funding for walking and cycling by an additional EUR 25
million per year
Freiburg,
Germany
(230)
34% decrease
- Increased 2021 and 2022 budget for cycling seven-fold relative to
2015–2020 levels
- Built 700 new bicycle parking spots
- First full year of operation of bikesharing system
- Improved the design and engineering of cycling facilities
-
Increased the cost of residential car parking permits from EUR 30 per year
to EUR 240–480
a
For Canadian and US cities the bicycle mode shares are derived from the Census and represent the percentage
of work commuters who regularly cycle to work. In contrast, the modal share for the European cities are from city
travel surveys that report the percentage of trips made by bicycle for all trip purposes. Thus, the North American
and European mode shares are not directly comparable. Moreover, the city travel surveys in Europe employed
different methodologies and are also of limited comparability.
b
See text for specific numbers.
c
Although
implemented during 2020 and 2021, many of these measures cannot be specifically attributed to COVID-19. See
text for details.

Sustainability 2022,14, 7293 8 of 32
As noted in our methods section, the information from these case studies comes
primarily from cycling planners, engineers, and organizations in each of the cities. That is
especially true for the most recent information and future plans. The same cycling experts
also provided the photographs included as illustrations in this article. At the beginning of
each case study, we have inserted an endnote to list the professional contacts who provided
information for that city. We insert endnotes within each case study with references to
specific documents, websites, and presentations used for supplemental information.
4.2.1. Portland, Oregon
With about 650,000 residents (2.5 million metro), Portland has been at the vanguard
of cycling among large American cities. From 2000 to 2019, Portland quadrupled its daily
number of bicycle commuters (from 4775 to 19,052) and increased the bicycle-mode share
of work commuters from 1.8% to 5.2% [
15
–
17
]. The transformation of Portland into one of
America’s top cycling cities was the result of several coordinated long-term pro-cycling
policies. From 2000 to 2019, for example, the network of cycling facilities increased from
363 km to 633 km [
18
]. The network included low-stress facilities for all ages and abilities:
56 km of buffered bicycle lanes, 25 km of physically separated, protected bicycle lanes,
162 km of neighborhood greenways (bicycle boulevards), and 138 km of off-road multi-use
paths [
18
]. The expanded neighborhood greenways were accompanied by slower speed
limits for cars (30 km/h) and indirect routing for cars to discourage through car traffic
in residential neighborhoods. In addition, the supply of on-street bicycle parking was
expanded, often through so-called bicycle corrals, which converted car parking spaces into
bicycle parking spaces. The expanded and improved cycling infrastructure, combined with
reduced speed limits in residential neighborhoods, greatly enhanced cycling safety. The
2019 cyclist injury rate—total injuries relative to total bicycle trips—was less than half the
rate in 2000. Finally, the city launched Biketown in 2016, a Nike-sponsored bikesharing
system with 1000 bicycles [18].
Cycling appears to have declined sharply during the COVID-19 pandemic, although it
is difficult to obtain representative numbers. The only available data come from Ecocounters
installed at the two busiest crossings for cyclists on bridges of the Willamette River. They
report a 49% decline in bicycle trips from 2019 and 2021 [
15
]. The extensive closings of
universities, schools, and businesses at various times, as well as shifts to remote working
and learning, may help explain the especially sharp decline in bicycle crossings at those
two bridges, as they are mainly used by daily bicycle commuters to work and university.
Portland did not undertake any special COVID-19-related pro-cycling measures but
continued to pursue its ongoing efforts to expand and improve the bikeway network [15].
From 2019 to early 2022, the city added another 20 km to its bikeway network and plans
to add another 125 km in the coming 3–4 years [
15
]. Those numbers, however, do not
reflect the continuing qualitative improvement throughout the bikeway network, with
many unprotected bicycle lanes being converted into either protected or buffered bicycle
lanes, and with buffered bicycle lanes converted into protected bicycle lanes. Portland
also continues its focus on intersection safety treatments to better protect cyclists when
crossing. In addition, two new pedestrian–cyclist bridges facilitate crossings over two inner-
city freeways. Complementing those infrastructure improvements, Portland has been
comprehensively reducing speed limits throughout the city, including the implementation
of slow streets with speed limits varying from 25 km/h to 30 km/h. Not only have cars
been slowed down, but their space on roadways has been reduced, with many five-lane
arterials reduced to three lanes for cars, providing space for protected bicycle lanes on both
sides of the streets [15].
The area served by the 1000-bicycle Biketown bikesharing system was increased by
25% in early 2022, and all of the bicycles are now electric bicycles. Bicycle parking has been
expanded and improved, reaching a total of 7444 city-managed bicycle racks (14,888 spaces)
in early 2022 [
15
]. The city adds about 150–200 additional bicycle racks every year. The city

Sustainability 2022,14, 7293 9 of 32
also requires commercial and multi-unit residential buildings to provide minimum levels
of bicycle parking.
In short, Portland has done virtually all the right things to make cycling safer, lower-
stress, more convenient, and more feasible for all ages and abilities, including risk-averse
and vulnerable persons. The city’s pro-cycling plans for the coming years would be even
more effective if they were complemented by more car-restrictive measures such as reduced
supply, increased price, and shortened duration of on-street parking—both in the city
center and in outlying commercial areas. The city might also consider establishing car-free
zones in parts of the city center.
4.2.2. Austin, Texas
With about a million residents (2.2 million metro), Austin, Texas is the most pro-cycling
large city in the American South. From 2010 to 2019, the city expanded its network of
conventional on-street bicycle lanes from 134 km to 473 km [
19
]. In 2012, Austin installed
its first protected bicycle lanes, following Dutch design guidelines [
19
,
20
]. By 2019, there
were 265 km of protected on-road lanes, neighborhood bikeways (bicycle boulevards), and
off-road urban trails, which the city considers its network of especially safe and low-stress
cycling facilities for all ages and abilities [
19
]. One focus of that network is serving short
trips (up to 5 km), which are largely found in the city center, where the bicycle mode share
of trips is almost 6% [19].
In 2020 and 2021, during COVID-19, Austin built 13 fully protected intersections (all
four sides) and nine partially protected intersections (at least one side), increasing to 33 the
number of such protected intersections in Austin [
19
]. Such protected intersections force
motor vehicles to make turns at lower speeds, increase the visibility of cyclists, provide
shorter crossing distances for cyclists, and offer space for cyclists to wait for the green
traffic signal to cross the intersection. From 2019 to the end of 2021, protected on-street
lanes grew from 43 km to 90 km and the all-ages-and-abilities bicycle network grew from
265 km to 358 km, almost 100 additional km in just two years. Conventional on-street
bicycle lanes grew to 480 km by the end of 2021, an increase of only 5 km [
19
]. As part of
its package of COVID-19 measures, Austin also implemented 30 km of slow and shared
streets in 2020 [20].
The large increase in protected cycling facilities is indicative of Austin’s planned future
focus on expanding its low-stress, protected facilities for all, with only minimal growth
planned for unprotected on-street lanes. As of March 2022, 260 km of additional all-ages-
and-abilities bicycle-network projects are planned through 2026, with a total network of
more than 620 km of such cycling facilities. At least 21 additional protected intersections
are planned in the coming years, as the city engineers consider them an integral part of
the expansion and improvement in protected bicycle lanes. Annual funding to expand
protected facilities will roughly triple between 2020 and 2025, from USD 3 million to
USD 9 million [19,20].
The results of Austin’s large investment in improved bicycle infrastructure have been
impressive. The American Community Survey (ACS) of the US Census reports a 49%
increase in daily bicycle commutes to work between the 5-year average for 2006–2010 and
the 5-year average for 2016–2020, thus over a 10-year period [
17
]. ACS uses 5-year averages
for its estimates to increase their accuracy. Eco-counter data from several locations in Austin
show a 150% increase in bicycle trips (all trip purposes) between 2015 and 2019, and 18%
further growth from 2019 to 2021 (during COVID-19) [
19
]. In short, both Census ACS data
and Eco-counter data confirm that Austin’s investment in expanded and improved cycling
infrastructure has been very successful. That accomplishment is all the more impressive
because Austin had been a typically low-density, car-oriented Texas city when the city’s
cycling program began.

Sustainability 2022,14, 7293 10 of 32
4.2.3. Washington, DC
Cycling has increased in Washington, DC (690,000 population) over the last two decades.
The share of all trips made by bicycle increased five fold, from about 1% in the late 1990s
to 5% in 2018 [
21
]. Counts of bicyclists crossing bridges across the Potomac and Anacostia
Rivers detected a 320% increase in cyclists between 2000 and 2018. Data from the American
Community Survey (5-year averages) of the US Census show that the number of daily bicycle
commuters more than doubled between 2010 and 2020 and that the bicycle share of work
commuters increased correspondingly, from 2.3 to 4.8% [
22
]. Facilitating that growth in
cycling, Washington greatly expanded its bikeway network from only 5.1 km of unprotected
bicycle lanes in 2001 to 120.7 km of regular, unprotected bicycle lanes, 19.3 km of protected
bicycle lanes, and 33.8 km of shared bus-bicycle lanes in 2019 [21,22].
During the COVID-19 pandemic, Washington reduced speed limits on 41.8 km of
neighborhood streets to 24 km/h (15 mph) and closed the streets to through traffic in a
slow-streets program [
21
]. Slower car travel speeds and lower volumes of car traffic made
those streets more attractive and safer for cyclists. In addition, Washington reduced the
general speed limit in the city to 32 km/h (20 mph)—unless otherwise posted. In contrast
to other cities, Washington did not implement any pop-up bicycle lanes during COVID-
19. However, the city continued to expand its network of bikeways, building 19.3 km of
protected bicycle lanes and 6.4 km of regular bicycle lanes in 2020 and 2021 combined. The
rate of construction of new bikeways was much higher in 2020 and 2021 compared to the
years 2017 and 2019, when 4.8 km were built each year [21].
Use of Washington’s bikesharing program, Capital Bikeshare (CaBi), declined sharply
during the pandemic, with 38% fewer riders in 2020 compared to 2019. CaBi ridership was
slightly higher in 2021 than in 2020, but still 25% lower than in 2019 [
23
]. Despite lower
ridership, CaBi continued its physical expansion in Washington, adding 23 more docking
stations and 600 e-bikes to its bicycle fleet [
21
]. Counts of cyclists for 2020 and 2021 are only
available for a trail along the Anacostia River in the eastern part of the city. The counts
detect declines in cycling in 2020 compared to 2019 (
−
32%), but significant increases in
2021 compared to 2019 levels (+113%) [24].
In the coming six years, Washington plans to spend USD 36 million to build 96.6 km
of protected bicycle lanes to make crucial connections to close gaps in the city’s bikeway
network. The city also plans improvements and upgrades for 33.8 km of off-road trails in
the city. Washington will expand CaBi over the next six years by investing
USD 19 million
to add 80 stations and 3500 electric bicycles, which would more than double the number
of bicycles in its bikesharing fleet [
21
]. A recent regional survey indicated that 26% of
respondents planned to cycle more after the pandemic than they did before 2020, suggesting
a revival of the strong growth in cycling in Washington during the two decades prior
to COVID-19.
4.2.4. Vancouver, Canada
With 660,000 residents (2.6 million metro), Vancouver is one of Canada’s leading
cycling cities. City travel surveys report a doubling in the cycling share of trips (all trip
purposes) from 4.4% in 2013 to 8.8% in 2019, the year just before COVID-19 [
25
–
27
]. The
Canadian Census also reports a large increase in cycling in Vancouver, with total daily
bicycle commuters increasing from 3.7% in 2006 to 6.1% in 2016, the latest Census data
available [28].
Since 2000, Vancouver has greatly increased the extent and quality of its bikeway
network. Especially since 2010, the city has focused on expanding and improving cycling
facilities “for all ages and abilities,” corresponding to the stated goal of the city’s latest
bicycle plan [
26
]. From 2010 to 2019, off-street bicycle paths grew from 59 km to 73 km;
physically separated, protected on-street bicycle lanes grew from 16 km to 24 km; and local
street bikeways grew from 125 km to 172 km. In 2019, these three kinds of facilities together
provided a network of 269 km of safe, convenient, and low-stress cycling facilities intended
to attract a broad spectrum of Vancouverites to ride a bicycle [25].

Sustainability 2022,14, 7293 11 of 32
Vancouver and Portland have been the two North American cities renowned for
pioneering the establishment of networks of local street bikeways, also designated as bicycle
boulevards, neighborhood greenways, and urban greenways in other cities [
27
]. Local-
street bikeways always feature reduced speed limits (usually 30 km/h or less) combined
with traffic-calming infrastructure modifications that force motor vehicles to slow down
and often divert through motor-vehicle traffic away from local residential streets. Local
street bikeways are usually on residential streets with low traffic volumes. On busy arterial
streets, Vancouver has focused on installing protected on-street bicycle lanes, combined
with protected, specially signalized and marked intersection crossings for cyclists (see
Figures 3and 4) [
25
]. Paved off-street multi-use trails and paths provide especially pleasant,
low-stress, and safe cycling conditions because they are often in parks or along bays, lakes,
and rivers, and thus even further removed from motor vehicle traffic. They are usually
shared with pedestrians and other non-motorized users, but often with physical separation
of cyclists from pedestrians. Vancouver also has regular, unprotected bicycle lanes, which
increased from 51 km in 2010 to 57 km in 2019. Shared traffic lanes (with motor vehicles)
indicated by chevrons or “sharrows” grew from 37 km to 41 km [27].
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 36
Figure 3. In Vancouver, planter boxes often separate protected bicycle lanes from motorized traffic.
Photos: Paul Krueger.
Figure 4. In Vancouver, protected bicycle lanes are clearly marked with green paint at intersections.
Photos: Paul Krueger.
The COVID-19 pandemic provided further impetus for expansion and improvement
to the bikeway network. For example, 5 km of local-street bikeways were added to the
city’s bikeway network in 2020 and 2021 (reaching a total of 176 km), and 2 km were added
to the city’s system of protected on-street bicycle lanes (reaching a total of 26 km) [29].
Several innovative measures were introduced during COVID-19, some of which are being
made permanent. For example, the city installed many pop-up bicycle lanes, such as a 2
km stretch of Beach Avenue that has since been converted into a permanent protected
bicycle lane, separated from motor vehicle traffic with concrete barriers (see Figures 5 and
6) [30]. That upgrade has attracted the most bicycle traffic of any city facility, with almost
14,000 cyclists on some days [25]. In addition, over 40 km of local streets were officially
Figure 3.
In Vancouver, planter boxes often separate protected bicycle lanes from motorized traffic.
Photos: Paul Krueger.
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 36
Figure 3. In Vancouver, planter boxes often separate protected bicycle lanes from motorized traffic.
Photos: Paul Krueger.
Figure 4. In Vancouver, protected bicycle lanes are clearly marked with green paint at intersections.
Photos: Paul Krueger.
The COVID-19 pandemic provided further impetus for expansion and improvement
to the bikeway network. For example, 5 km of local-street bikeways were added to the
city’s bikeway network in 2020 and 2021 (reaching a total of 176 km), and 2 km were added
to the city’s system of protected on-street bicycle lanes (reaching a total of 26 km) [29].
Several innovative measures were introduced during COVID-19, some of which are being
made permanent. For example, the city installed many pop-up bicycle lanes, such as a 2
km stretch of Beach Avenue that has since been converted into a permanent protected
bicycle lane, separated from motor vehicle traffic with concrete barriers (see Figures 5 and
6) [30]. That upgrade has attracted the most bicycle traffic of any city facility, with almost
14,000 cyclists on some days [25]. In addition, over 40 km of local streets were officially
Figure 4.
In Vancouver, protected bicycle lanes are clearly marked with green paint at intersections.
Photos: Paul Krueger.

Sustainability 2022,14, 7293 12 of 32
The COVID-19 pandemic provided further impetus for expansion and improvement
to the bikeway network. For example, 5 km of local-street bikeways were added to the city’s
bikeway network in 2020 and 2021 (reaching a total of 176 km), and 2 km were added to
the city’s system of protected on-street bicycle lanes (reaching a total of 26 km) [
29
]. Several
innovative measures were introduced during COVID-19, some of which are being made
permanent. For example, the city installed many pop-up bicycle lanes, such as a 2 km stretch
of Beach Avenue that has since been converted into a permanent protected bicycle lane,
separated from motor vehicle traffic with concrete barriers (see
Figures 5and 6) [30]
. That
upgrade has attracted the most bicycle traffic of any city facility, with almost 14,000 cyclists
on some days [
25
]. In addition, over 40 km of local streets were officially designated as slow
streets, with speed limits of 30 km/hr. Streets near schools and parks also have 30 km/h
speed limits [31].
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 36
designated as slow streets, with speed limits of 30 km/hr. Streets near schools and parks
also have 30 km/h speed limits [31].
Figure 5. Temporary pop-up bicycle lane on Beach Avenue in Vancouver with up to 10,000 cyclists
on weekend days in 2020. Photos: Paul Krueger.
Figure 6. Permanent protected bicycle lane on Beach Avenue in Vancouver, used by up to 14,000
cyclists on weekend days in 2021. Photos: Paul Krueger.
Another COVID-19 experiment was the implementation of car-free streets adjacent
to three schools during school hours, a program that will be expanded to more schools in
Figure 5.
Temporary pop-up bicycle lane on Beach Avenue in Vancouver with up to 10,000 cyclists
on weekend days in 2020. Photos: Paul Krueger.
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 36
designated as slow streets, with speed limits of 30 km/hr. Streets near schools and parks
also have 30 km/h speed limits [31].
Figure 5. Temporary pop-up bicycle lane on Beach Avenue in Vancouver with up to 10,000 cyclists
on weekend days in 2020. Photos: Paul Krueger.
Figure 6. Permanent protected bicycle lane on Beach Avenue in Vancouver, used by up to 14,000
cyclists on weekend days in 2021. Photos: Paul Krueger.
Another COVID-19 experiment was the implementation of car-free streets adjacent
to three schools during school hours, a program that will be expanded to more schools in
Figure 6. Permanent protected bicycle lane on Beach Avenue in Vancouver, used by up to 14,000 cy-
clists on weekend days in 2021. Photos: Paul Krueger.

Sustainability 2022,14, 7293 13 of 32
Another COVID-19 experiment was the implementation of car-free streets adjacent
to three schools during school hours, a program that will be expanded to more schools
in the coming years [
31
]. The City of Vancouver greatly expanded its cycling education
program, which is delivered in partnership with the local school board and HUB Cycling, a
local advocacy organization. Free cycling courses are now available to all 6th and 7th grade
students in public schools. City-supported cycling promotion and events also increased.
The Bike-to-Shop program, for example, provided discounts and free gifts for customers
arriving by bicycle.
Eco-counter data indicate almost no change in total bicycle trips in Vancouver between
2019 and 2020 (1.37 m vs. 1.34 m trips) [
27
]. The City of Vancouver reports increases on
recreational routes, especially on weekends, and decreases in cycling on commutation
routes during weekday rush hours, but those two opposing trends appear to have canceled
each other out.
More improvements are scheduled in the coming years. The city’s already extensive
networks of local-street bikeways and protected bicycle paths will be further expanded, in-
cluding the conversion of some of the pop-up lanes into permanent protected lanes [
26
]. The
slow-streets program will be expanded into a slow-neighborhood-zone program (mostly
30 km/h) covering entire neighborhoods instead of individual streets, similar to the low
traffic neighborhoods in Greater London. Some key cycling connections will be improved.
For example, the eight-lane Granville Connector Bridge will be reduced to six lanes for
cars, with the freed-up roadway space used for wide protected bicycle lanes and sidewalks
on both sides of the bridge [
25
]. This ‘connector’ will address a major gap in the city’s
active transport infrastructure, linking with greenways and protected facilities on either
side of False Creek. Finally, the region’s transport agency, Translink, will be working
with Vancouver and other local governments in the Metro Vancouver region to deliver
an 850 km major bikeway network to better connect communities across the region and
implement complete, connected bikeway networks for each of the region’s 26 designated
urban centers [25].
4.2.5. Montréal, Canada
Montréal has long been one of the top three cycling cities in Canada, together with
Ottawa and Vancouver [
32
,
33
]. The Canadian Census reports an increase in the bicycle
share of daily work commuters from 1.8% in 2001 to 3.9% in 2016 (the latest Census year
available) [
28
,
34
]. The bicycle-mode share is much higher, however, in some central areas
of the city: 14.5% in Le Plateau-Mont Royal, 8.8% in Rosemont-La Petite Patrie, and 7.8% in
Outremont [
28
]. For the period 2015 to 2019, automated counter data indicate a 10% increase
in total bicycle trips in the warmer months of May to October and an 83% increase in total
bicycle trips from 2015–2019 in the coldest months of January and February, revealing
almost a doubling in mid-winter cycling. Confirming the spatial pattern of the Census
bicycle mode shares, a 2018 travel survey by the City of Montréal found that 5% of all trips
in the city center were made by bicycle, compared to only 1% in the eastern and western
parts of the city [32].
Montréal’s cycling successes are attributable to its many innovative pro-bicycle poli-
cies, some of which have been pathbreaking in North America. For example, Montréal was
the first large city to develop an extensive network of physically separated on-street bicycle
lanes (PBLs), most of which are bi-directional [
35
]. The city started building PBLs in 1988
and gradually expanded them, with 82 km by 2015 and 111 km by 2019 (see Figure 7) [
32
].
Other types of cycling infrastructure in Montréal also grew from 2015 to 2019: conventional,
unprotected on-street bicycle lanes (from 214 km to 334 km), lanes shared with motor
vehicles on lightly traveled streets and 30 km/h speed limits (from 181 km to 276 km) (see
Figure 8), and off-street bicycle paths and multi-use paths shared with pedestrians (from
271 km to 287 km). The total cycling network grew by 34%, from 748 km to 1001 km [32].

Sustainability 2022,14, 7293 14 of 32
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 36
Figure 7. Protected one-directional bicycle paths on both sides of Rue St. Denis, a major connector
between two areas of Montréal, and part of the REV express bikeway network with a length of 26
km in 2021, scheduled to expand to 184 km by 2027. Photo: Ville de Montréal.
Figure 8. Contraflow bicycle lanes enable bi-directional bicycle traffic on many of Montréal’s 280
km of traffic-calmed roads with 30 km/h speed limits. Photo: Bartek Komorowski.
In addition to being North America’s leader in PBLs, Montréal also introduced the
first large-scale bikesharing system in 2009. Called BIXI, the system started off with 3000
Figure 7.
Protected one-directional bicycle paths on both sides of Rue St. Denis, a major connector
between two areas of Montréal, and part of the REV express bikeway network with a length of 26 km
in 2021, scheduled to expand to 184 km by 2027. Photo: Ville de Montréal.
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 36
Figure 7. Protected one-directional bicycle paths on both sides of Rue St. Denis, a major connector
between two areas of Montréal, and part of the REV express bikeway network with a length of 26
km in 2021, scheduled to expand to 184 km by 2027. Photo: Ville de Montréal.
Figure 8. Contraflow bicycle lanes enable bi-directional bicycle traffic on many of Montréal’s 280
km of traffic-calmed roads with 30 km/h speed limits. Photo: Bartek Komorowski.
In addition to being North America’s leader in PBLs, Montréal also introduced the
first large-scale bikesharing system in 2009. Called BIXI, the system started off with 3000
Figure 8.
Contraflow bicycle lanes enable bi-directional bicycle traffic on many of Montréal’s 280 km
of traffic-calmed roads with 30 km/h speed limits. Photo: Bartek Komorowski.
In addition to being North America’s leader in PBLs, Montréal also introduced the first
large-scale bikesharing system in 2009. Called BIXI, the system started off with 3000 bicycles
and 300 stations and has since expanded to 7270 regular bicycles and 2395 e-bicycles
(pedelecs) at 794 stations [32].

Sustainability 2022,14, 7293 15 of 32
Automated bicycle counters in Montréal report a 2% increase in cycling volumes
between 2019 and 2020 (the first year of COVID-19) but a decline of 8% from 2020 to 2021.
A special Quebec Ministry of Transport (QMOT) survey found that Montréal residents rode
their bicycles as often in 2020 as in 2019, similar to the trends detected by bicycle counter
data [
36
,
37
]. The survey also found large differences in cycling impacts from 2019 to 2020
among different locations in the city, with increases averaging 12% at four locations but
decreases averaging 38% at three locations. The increases were on recreational routes and in
residential neighborhoods, while the decreases were on work and university commutation
routes [
36
,
37
]. The increases were on weekends, and the decreases mainly on weekdays.
COVID-19 also had an important impact on BIXI bikesharing ridership. After having risen
from 3.5 million trips in 2015 to 5.7 million trips in 2019, ridership plummeted to only
3.3 million in 2020, but then rebounded to 5.8 million in 2021 [32].
Montréal implemented many pro-cycling measures in 2020 and 2021. Some of them
were temporary, such as the 29 km of bidirectional protected pop-up bicycle lanes installed
for summer 2020 at the peak of the COVID-19 crisis in Montréal, the hardest hit of all
Canadian cities [
33
]. Those pop-up lanes were removed in the winter of 2020–2021, but
some were re-installed as permanent protected bicycle lanes in summer 2021, sometimes
converted from bi-directional pop-up lanes to one-directional PBLs—in opposite directions
on both sides of the same streets. PBLs expanded from 111 km at the end of 2019 to 156 km
at the end of 2021, including 26 km of extra-wide PBLs that are part of the new express
bikeway network REV (Réseau Express Vélo) [
32
]. By comparison, there was almost no
growth in off-street bicycle paths, multi-use paths, and shared lanes on lightly traveled
streets barely increased. Painted bicycle lanes expanded slightly from 286 km to 301 km,
and some existing lanes were widened. Shared bus–bicycle lanes increased from 7 km
to 11 km. The city also expanded its network of vélorues (bicycle streets) from 3 km to
8 km. Vélorues are comparable to Fahrradstrassen in Germany or Fietsstraaten in the
Netherlands, where bicyclists have priority over motor vehicles for the entire width of the
streets, which have speed limits of no more than 30 km/h [32,33].
The pro-cycling mayor Valerie Plante was re-elected in November 2021 in a landslide
based on her commitment to further expanding and improving the cycling network in
Montréal, especially protected bicycle lanes [
32
,
33
]. The new REV expressway network,
for example, is scheduled to expand to 17 express bicycle routes and 184 km of wide PBLs
by 2027. The latest plans also call for a doubling in the overall bikeway network by 2027
(1815 km). The City of Montréal has set a goal of increasing the bicycle mode share of
trips to 15% in central boroughs. Given that commitment to massive investment in cycling
infrastructure, it seems certain that cycling will grow significantly in the coming years,
reinforcing Montréal’s decades-long reputation as a leading cycling city in North America.
4.2.6. London, UK
The COVID-19 pandemic brought about the most rapid transformation of the streetscape
in Greater London in recent decades, resulting in a sharp rise in both walking and cycling [
38
].
The UK Department of Transport estimates that total cycling distance traveled increased
by 46% in Greater London in 2020 (compared to 2019) [
39
–
41
]. Transport for London (TfL)
reported a 22% increase in bicycle trips in Outer London and a 7% increase in Inner London.
On some weekends in 2021, cycling levels rose by more than 200% [40].
In the decade prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, Greater London more than tripled
the length of protected on-street bicycle lanes from 50 km to 162 km (see Figure 9) [
39
].
In the twelve months after the outbreak of COVID-19 in London, the city built 100 km of
additional protected bicycle lanes, yielding 260 km of protected bicycle lanes by March
2021 [
40
]. Most new bicycle lanes installed during COVID-19 were created rapidly using
plastic wands (flexposts) to separate cyclists from motor traffic. It is expected that more
permanent barriers will be installed on most of the new bicycle lanes in the coming years,
along with further expansion of the protected bikeway network.

Sustainability 2022,14, 7293 16 of 32
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 36
permanent barriers will be installed on most of the new bicycle lanes in the coming years,
along with further expansion of the protected bikeway network.
TfL data show that where new protected bicycle lanes were installed, cycling levels
increased by up to 70% [40]. The percentage of the Greater-London population living
within 400 m of the high-quality cycle network increased from 12% in 2019 (prior to
COVID-19) to 19% in December 2021 [40,42]. The accessibility to protected bicycle lanes is
projected to rise to 35% by 2025, requiring an increase in the network of protected cycling
facilities to more than 400 km [42]. In short, the extent of the protected bikeway network
in Greater London is planned to expand dramatically by 2025, partly stimulated by the
special incentives during the COVID-19 pandemic. Over the longer term, Greater Lon-
don’s Strategic Cycling Plan aims for 70% of the population to live within 400 km of a
high-quality bikeway by 2041 [38,41].
Figure 9. Morning rush-hour traffic on the North–South Cycleway on the Blackfriars Bridge in Lon-
don, part of the city’s 260 km of protected bicycle lanes. Photo: Tom Bogdanowicz.
A second and equally important development has been the rapid implementation of
almost a hundred so-called low-traffic neighborhoods, or LTNs, across many London bor-
oughs (see Figure 10) [39,43]. Most LTNs are located in Inner London, where the default
speed limit is 20 mph in residential areas. LTNs use a combination of bollards, large
wooden planters, and enforcement cameras to reduce speeds and to prevent motor traffic
cutting through entire residential areas. Data collected for academic surveys and local
government agencies show significant increases in walking and cycling, decreases in car
use, and reductions in injury rates for pedestrians and cyclists, especially among children
[43]. The program has helped address the rapid rise in through traffic on narrow residen-
tial streets, which almost doubled over the past decade, facilitated by navigation apps
such as Waze and Google [43].
Figure 9.
Morning rush-hour traffic on the North–South Cycleway on the Blackfriars Bridge in
London, part of the city’s 260 km of protected bicycle lanes. Photo: Tom Bogdanowicz.
TfL data show that where new protected bicycle lanes were installed, cycling levels
increased by up to 70% [
40
]. The percentage of the Greater-London population living within
400 m of the high-quality cycle network increased from 12% in 2019 (prior to COVID-19) to
19% in December 2021 [
40
,
42
]. The accessibility to protected bicycle lanes is projected to rise
to 35% by 2025, requiring an increase in the network of protected cycling facilities to more
than 400 km [
42
]. In short, the extent of the protected bikeway network in Greater London
is planned to expand dramatically by 2025, partly stimulated by the special incentives
during the COVID-19 pandemic. Over the longer term, Greater London’s Strategic Cycling
Plan aims for 70% of the population to live within 400 km of a high-quality bikeway by
2041 [38,41].
A second and equally important development has been the rapid implementation
of almost a hundred so-called low-traffic neighborhoods, or LTNs, across many London
boroughs (see Figure 10) [
39
,
43
]. Most LTNs are located in Inner London, where the
default speed limit is 20 mph in residential areas. LTNs use a combination of bollards,
large wooden planters, and enforcement cameras to reduce speeds and to prevent motor
traffic cutting through entire residential areas. Data collected for academic surveys and
local government agencies show significant increases in walking and cycling, decreases
in car use, and reductions in injury rates for pedestrians and cyclists, especially among
children [
43
]. The program has helped address the rapid rise in through traffic on narrow
residential streets, which almost doubled over the past decade, facilitated by navigation
apps such as Waze and Google [43].
A third element of London’s transformation has been the School Streets program,
which excludes all but residential traffic from streets surrounding schools at drop-off and
pick up times [
38
,
39
]. More than 500 School Streets are already in place and many more are
in the process of being installed. School cycle- and scooter-parking zones have frequently
been filled up following the establishment of School Streets.
As in most of the case-study cities we examine in this article, Greater London’s
expansion of its protected bikeway network, implementation of LTNs, and the School
Streets program had already been begun prior to COVID-19, including plans for future

Sustainability 2022,14, 7293 17 of 32
expansion. Yet COVID-19 provided an important stimulus to speed things up due to
increased public and political support.
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 36
Figure 10. London has 85 low-traffic neighborhoods (LTN) that prioritize cycling and walking over
driving. As shown in this photo, LTNs often feature narrowed roadways for motor vehicles, wid-
ened sidewalks for pedestrians and outdoor eating, prohibitions on through motor-vehicle traffic,
reduced speed limits, and traffic-calming devices such as speed humps and raised crosswalks.
Photo: Transport for London.
A third element of London’s transformation has been the School Streets program,
which excludes all but residential traffic from streets surrounding schools at drop-off and
pick up times [38,39]. More than 500 School Streets are already in place and many more
are in the process of being installed. School cycle- and scooter-parking zones have fre-
quently been filled up following the establishment of School Streets.
As in most of the case-study cities we examine in this article, Greater London’s ex-
pansion of its protected bikeway network, implementation of LTNs, and the School Streets
program had already been begun prior to COVID-19, including plans for future expan-
sion. Yet COVID-19 provided an important stimulus to speed things up due to increased
public and political support.
4.2.7. Brussels, Belgium
Brussels, Belgium’s largest city and the seat of the European Union, does not have a
history of cycling [44,45]. In 2010, only 3.5% of all trips in the city were made by bicycle.
Since 2010, however, the city has vigorously promoted cycling [46]. Based on bicycle
counts from 2010 to 2019 and the recent increases in cycling during the COVID-19 pan-
demic, local planners estimate that the share of trips by bicycle had reached about 10% in
early 2022 [47].
During the COVID-19 pandemic, cycling rates increased rapidly. Overall, the city’s
bicycle counters detected an increase in the number of bicycle trips by 64% between 2019
and 2020 and an additional 20% increase between 2020 and 2021 [44,47]. As in many other
cities, trends in cycling varied by location and time of day. Indeed, counters registered
declines in commuter bicycle trips from 2019 to 2020, especially during rush hour and in
locations close to schools, universities, or office centers. Even many of those locations,
however, reported large increases in cycling from 2020 to 2021, with 10% more bicycle
trips during commute hours in 2021 than in 2019, thus more than rebounding from the
decline in 2020 [44,47].
Figure 10.
London has 85 low-traffic neighborhoods (LTN) that prioritize cycling and walking
over driving. As shown in this photo, LTNs often feature narrowed roadways for motor vehicles,
widened sidewalks for pedestrians and outdoor eating, prohibitions on through motor-vehicle traffic,
reduced speed limits, and traffic-calming devices such as speed humps and raised crosswalks. Photo:
Transport for London.
4.2.7. Brussels, Belgium
Brussels, Belgium’s largest city and the seat of the European Union, does not have a
history of cycling [
44
,
45
]. In 2010, only 3.5% of all trips in the city were made by bicycle.
Since 2010, however, the city has vigorously promoted cycling [
46
]. Based on bicycle counts
from 2010 to 2019 and the recent increases in cycling during the COVID-19 pandemic, local
planners estimate that the share of trips by bicycle had reached about 10% in early 2022 [
47
].
During the COVID-19 pandemic, cycling rates increased rapidly. Overall, the city’s
bicycle counters detected an increase in the number of bicycle trips by 64% between 2019
and 2020 and an additional 20% increase between 2020 and 2021 [
44
,
47
]. As in many other
cities, trends in cycling varied by location and time of day. Indeed, counters registered
declines in commuter bicycle trips from 2019 to 2020, especially during rush hour and in
locations close to schools, universities, or office centers. Even many of those locations,
however, reported large increases in cycling from 2020 to 2021, with 10% more bicycle trips
during commute hours in 2021 than in 2019, thus more than rebounding from the decline
in 2020 [44,47].
The city implemented several pro-bicycle measures in response to the COVID-19
pandemic. The city built 50 km of pop-up bicycle lanes that closed gaps in the cycling
network to better connect the city center to the rest of the city (see Figure 11) [
47
]. The
pop-up bicycle lanes were built in locations identified for future bicycle lanes in Brussels’
regional transport plan that had been passed in March 2020, just as the pandemic hit.
Pop-up bicycle lanes were clearly marked and, wherever possible, separated from traffic
with concrete barriers or planter boxes. Pop-up-lanes typically take up one car travel lane
(3 m) and are marked at a safe distance from parked cars (80 cm) [
44
]. The bicycle lanes are
about 1.3 m wide. The city’s goal is to make pop-up bicycle lanes permanent in the future
because they account for 33% of the current bikeway network. The pop-up bicycle lanes

Sustainability 2022,14, 7293 18 of 32
also constitute 17% of the planned cycling network for Brussels in 2030, which will have
roughly 250 km of bikeways in total [
47
]. According to local laws, pop-up bicycle lanes can
remain in effect for 2 years and then need to obtain an official building permit in order to
be made permanent.
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 36
The city implemented several pro-bicycle measures in response to the COVID-19
pandemic. The city built 50 km of pop-up bicycle lanes that closed gaps in the cycling
network to better connect the city center to the rest of the city (see Figure 11) [47]. The
pop-up bicycle lanes were built in locations identified for future bicycle lanes in Brussels’
regional transport plan that had been passed in March 2020, just as the pandemic hit. Pop-
up bicycle lanes were clearly marked and, wherever possible, separated from traffic with
concrete barriers or planter boxes. Pop-up-lanes typically take up one car travel lane (3 m)
and are marked at a safe distance from parked cars (80 cm) [44]. The bicycle lanes are
about 1.3 m wide. The city’s goal is to make pop-up bicycle lanes permanent in the future
because they account for 33% of the current bikeway network. The pop-up bicycle lanes
also constitute 17% of the planned cycling network for Brussels in 2030, which will have
roughly 250 km of bikeways in total [47]. According to local laws, pop-up bicycle lanes
can remain in effect for 2 years and then need to obtain an official building permit in order
to be made permanent.
In response to a national lockdown in Belgium in March 2020, the city banned car
traffic from a large park (Bois de la Cambre) that had served as a car commuter thorough-
fare [47]. A large part of the park still remains car free, and thus especially convenient and
safe for cyclists. In addition, on January 1 2021, the city established a maximum speed
limit of 30 km/h on most streets in Brussels. Compared to 2020, roadway fatalities dropped
by 50% and severe injuries declined by 20% [44].
Figure 11. Protected pop-up bicycle lane on Rue de La Loi in Brussels, Belgium. Photo: Aleksander
Buczyński.
The city plans to remove 65,000 street parking spaces for cars by 2030 [46]. In addi-
tion, the city plans to establish low-car traffic areas throughout the city. In August 2022,
roads in the city center will be reconfigured so that traversing the center by car will be
difficult, while routes for cyclists and public transport will be improved and made more
direct. Motorists will still be able to enter many roadways at a low speed, but they will
not be able to traverse the city center easily or quickly. This sort of car-restrictive measure
is also being implemented by 60 other jurisdictions in Belgium, with motor-vehicle traffic
slowed down or kept out of their city centers to prioritize walking, cycling and public
transport. The Brussels 2030 transport plan calls for further expansions in cycleway infra-
structure, a significant increase in bike parking, and expanded traffic calming over the
coming 8 years with the goal of having 15% of local trips (<5 km) made by bicycle in 2030
[46].
Figure 11.
Protected pop-up bicycle lane on Rue de La Loi in Brussels, Belgium. Photo: Alek-
sander Buczy´nski.
In response to a national lockdown in Belgium in March 2020, the city banned car traffic
from a large park (Bois de la Cambre) that had served as a car commuter thoroughfare [
47
].
A large part of the park still remains car free, and thus especially convenient and safe for
cyclists. In addition, on January 1 2021, the city established a maximum speed limit of
30 km/h on most streets in Brussels. Compared to 2020, roadway fatalities dropped by 50%
and severe injuries declined by 20% [44].
The city plans to remove 65,000 street parking spaces for cars by 2030 [
46
]. In addition,
the city plans to establish low-car traffic areas throughout the city. In August 2022, roads
in the city center will be reconfigured so that traversing the center by car will be difficult,
while routes for cyclists and public transport will be improved and made more direct.
Motorists will still be able to enter many roadways at a low speed, but they will not be
able to traverse the city center easily or quickly. This sort of car-restrictive measure is also
being implemented by 60 other jurisdictions in Belgium, with motor-vehicle traffic slowed
down or kept out of their city centers to prioritize walking, cycling and public transport.
The Brussels 2030 transport plan calls for further expansions in cycleway infrastructure, a
significant increase in bike parking, and expanded traffic calming over the coming 8 years
with the goal of having 15% of local trips (<5 km) made by bicycle in 2030 [46].
In Brussels, the COVID-19 pandemic allowed a jump start on expanding the bikeway
network through pop-up bicycle lanes. Other measures that restrict car use, planned prior
to COVID-19, further increase cycling’s attractiveness.
4.2.8. Paris, France
Paris is France’s capital and largest city, with 2.2 million inhabitants. It has not
traditionally been a cycling-friendly city [
48
–
50
]. However, during the last 25 years, the
city has promoted cycling with measures such as Vélib’, its innovative and trend-setting
bikesharing program, which for many years was the largest bikesharing system in the
world, with a total of 20,000 bicycles [
39
]. Paris also greatly expanded its bikeway network
from only 5 km in 1995 to 293 km in 2004, and then to 1038 km in 2019 [
39
]. The network
comprises mainly on-street bicycle lanes, but also more than 115 km of protected bicycle
lanes and over 80 km of off-street paths (see Figures 12–14).

Sustainability 2022,14, 7293 19 of 32
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 36
In Brussels, the COVID-19 pandemic allowed a jump start on expanding the bikeway
network through pop-up bicycle lanes. Other measures that restrict car use, planned prior
to COVID-19, further increase cycling’s attractiveness.
4.2.8. Paris, France
Paris is France’s capital and largest city, with 2.2 million inhabitants. It has not tradi-
tionally been a cycling-friendly city [48–50]. However, during the last 25 years, the city
has promoted cycling with measures such as Vélib’, its innovative and trend-setting
bikesharing program, which for many years was the largest bikesharing system in the
world, with a total of 20,000 bicycles [39]. Paris also greatly expanded its bikeway network
from only 5 km in 1995 to 293 km in 2004, and then to 1038 km in 2019 [39]. The network
comprises mainly on-street bicycle lanes, but also more than 115 km of protected bicycle
lanes and over 80 km of off-street paths (see Figures 12–14).
Figure 12. Bi-directional protected bicycle lane on Boulevard de Sébastopol, a one-way street in
Paris. In 2022, Paris had 170 km of protected bicycle lanes with another 130 km planned to be built
by 2026. Photo: Emmanuel de Lanversin.
Figure 13. One of many protected intersections in Paris that increased cyclist safety through infra-
structure modifications that conveniently connect protected bicycle lanes from multiple directions.
Shown here is the intersection of Boulevard de Sébastopol and Rue de Turbigo. Photo: Emmanuel
de Lanversin.
Figure 12.
Bi-directional protected bicycle lane on Boulevard de Sébastopol, a one-way street in Paris.
In 2022, Paris had 170 km of protected bicycle lanes with another 130 km planned to be built by 2026.
Photo: Emmanuel de Lanversin.
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 36
In Brussels, the COVID-19 pandemic allowed a jump start on expanding the bikeway
network through pop-up bicycle lanes. Other measures that restrict car use, planned prior
to COVID-19, further increase cycling’s attractiveness.
4.2.8. Paris, France
Paris is France’s capital and largest city, with 2.2 million inhabitants. It has not tradi-
tionally been a cycling-friendly city [48–50]. However, during the last 25 years, the city
has promoted cycling with measures such as Vélib’, its innovative and trend-setting
bikesharing program, which for many years was the largest bikesharing system in the
world, with a total of 20,000 bicycles [39]. Paris also greatly expanded its bikeway network
from only 5 km in 1995 to 293 km in 2004, and then to 1038 km in 2019 [39]. The network
comprises mainly on-street bicycle lanes, but also more than 115 km of protected bicycle
lanes and over 80 km of off-street paths (see Figures 12–14).
Figure 12. Bi-directional protected bicycle lane on Boulevard de Sébastopol, a one-way street in
Paris. In 2022, Paris had 170 km of protected bicycle lanes with another 130 km planned to be built
by 2026. Photo: Emmanuel de Lanversin.
Figure 13. One of many protected intersections in Paris that increased cyclist safety through infra-
structure modifications that conveniently connect protected bicycle lanes from multiple directions.
Shown here is the intersection of Boulevard de Sébastopol and Rue de Turbigo. Photo: Emmanuel
de Lanversin.
Figure 13.
One of many protected intersections in Paris that increased cyclist safety through infras-
tructure modifications that conveniently connect protected bicycle lanes from multiple directions.
Shown here is the intersection of Boulevard de Sébastopol and Rue de Turbigo. Photo: Emmanuel
de Lanversin.
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 36
Figure 14. In 2020, Paris converted a former tunnel for motorized vehicles under the Place de l’Étoile
(Arc de Triomphe) to a bicycle tunnel, providing cyclists with a safer and more direct connection
from the Champs Élysées to Neuilly-Porte Maillot and further to La Defense—a major business dis-
trict immediately to the west of Paris. Photo: Emmanuel de Lanversin.
As the bikeway network expanded, cycling levels increased by 60% from 1997 to
2004, and then by 250% from 2004 to 2019 [39]. That is a six-fold increase over the entire
24-year period. The percentage of trips made by bicycle in Paris rose from 0.4% in 1991 to
1.4% in 2001 and 5.0% in 2019 [39]. The city has also provided financial incentives for
purchasing e-bikes and e-cargo bikes—paying one third of the purchase price for 85,000
bicycles between 2009 and 2022 (up to EUR 400 for e-bikes and EUR 600 for e-cargo bikes)
[48]. In addition, the city has made efforts to reduce car travel in the city by increasing the
cost of car parking and removing car-parking spaces, converting car travel lanes into bus-
priority lanes, and banning motor vehicles from roadways along the embankments of the
Seine River, which flows through the center of Paris [39,50].
Cycling levels in Paris increased sharply during the pandemic, with cycling levels
about 60% greater in 2020 and 2021 than in 2019 [51]. Vélib’ also saw strong increases in
ridership, with 56% more trips in 2020 than in 2019. The number of trips made by electric-
powered Vélib’ bicycles more than quadrupled between 2020 and 2019. Compared to cy-
clists in 2019, cyclists during the COVID-19 pandemic were more likely to be former pub-
lic transport passengers, women, from Paris suburbs, commuters, and from lower income
groups [51]. In response to the pandemic, the City of Paris installed 52 km of pop-up bi-
cycle lanes that were separated from motorized traffic by concrete barriers (see Figure 15)
[50,51]. A recent analysis showed that the pop-up lanes connected crucial gaps in the city’s
growing bicycle network—in particular linking the inner city to the periphery. Moreover,
compared to the bikeway network in 2019, pop-up bicycle lanes were more likely to be bi-
directional and physically separated from motor-vehicle traffic [52].
Figure 14.
In 2020, Paris converted a former tunnel for motorized vehicles under the Place de l’Étoile
(Arc de Triomphe) to a bicycle tunnel, providing cyclists with a safer and more direct connection from
the Champs Élysées to Neuilly-Porte Maillot and further to La Defense—a major business district
immediately to the west of Paris. Photo: Emmanuel de Lanversin.

Sustainability 2022,14, 7293 20 of 32
As the bikeway network expanded, cycling levels increased by 60% from 1997 to 2004,
and then by 250% from 2004 to 2019 [
39
]. That is a six-fold increase over the entire 24-year
period. The percentage of trips made by bicycle in Paris rose from 0.4% in 1991 to 1.4% in
2001 and 5.0% in 2019 [
39
]. The city has also provided financial incentives for purchasing e-
bikes and e-cargo bikes—paying one third of the purchase price for 85,000 bicycles between
2009 and 2022 (up to EUR 400 for e-bikes and EUR 600 for e-cargo bikes) [
48
]. In addition,
the city has made efforts to reduce car travel in the city by increasing the cost of car parking
and removing car-parking spaces, converting car travel lanes into bus-priority lanes, and
banning motor vehicles from roadways along the embankments of the Seine River, which
flows through the center of Paris [39,50].
Cycling levels in Paris increased sharply during the pandemic, with cycling levels
about 60% greater in 2020 and 2021 than in 2019 [
51
]. Vélib’ also saw strong increases
in ridership, with 56% more trips in 2020 than in 2019. The number of trips made by
electric-powered Vélib’ bicycles more than quadrupled between 2020 and 2019. Compared
to cyclists in 2019, cyclists during the COVID-19 pandemic were more likely to be former
public transport passengers, women, from Paris suburbs, commuters, and from lower
income groups [
51
]. In response to the pandemic, the City of Paris installed 52 km of
pop-up bicycle lanes that were separated from motorized traffic by concrete barriers (see
Figure 15) [
50
,
51
]. A recent analysis showed that the pop-up lanes connected crucial gaps
in the city’s growing bicycle network—in particular linking the inner city to the periphery.
Moreover, compared to the bikeway network in 2019, pop-up bicycle lanes were more
likely to be bi-directional and physically separated from motor-vehicle traffic [52].
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 23 of 36
Figure 15. This bi-directional protected pop-up bicycle lane on the Pont Neuilly bridge was installed
in 2020 as a response to COVID-19. It provides a crucial connection over the Seine River from the
City of Paris to the La Défense business district, used by about 6000 cyclists per day. Photo: Emman-
uel de Lanversin.
In addition, Paris implemented many measures that had been planned prior to the
pandemic. In May 2020, for example, the city transformed Rue de Rivoli from a road that
prioritized car travel to a street for bicycles that restricts automobile access to one lane
only (see Figure 16) [1,50,52]. In August 2021, the city reduced the speed limit to 30 km/h
on most city streets, which made then safer, lower-stress, and more comfortable for cy-
cling [49].
Figure 16. In 2020, Paris converted the Rue de Rivoli in the center of Paris from a street primarily
for motor vehicles into a street primarily for bicycles, resulting in very high cycling volumes, espe-
cially during morning and afternoon peak hours. Photo: Emmanuel de Lanversin.
In 2021, the City of Paris passed a new bicycle plan for the next five years, called
“Paris 100% Cyclable” [53]. As part of the plan, the City of Paris will make all pop-up
bicycle lanes permanent. By 2026, the city plans to build over 130 km of additional pro-
tected bicycle lanes, open over 390 km of one-way streets for motor vehicles to two-way
Figure 15.
This bi-directional protected pop-up bicycle lane on the Pont Neuilly bridge was installed
in 2020 as a response to COVID-19. It provides a crucial connection over the Seine River from the City
of Paris to the La Défense business district, used by about 6000 cyclists per day. Photo: Emmanuel
de Lanversin.
In addition, Paris implemented many measures that had been planned prior to the
pandemic. In May 2020, for example, the city transformed Rue de Rivoli from a road
that prioritized car travel to a street for bicycles that restricts automobile access to one
lane only (see Figure 16) [
1
,
50
,
52
]. In August 2021, the city reduced the speed limit to
30 km/h on most city streets, which made then safer, lower-stress, and more comfortable
for cycling [49].

Sustainability 2022,14, 7293 21 of