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Muay Thai, Psychological Well-Being, and Cultivation of Combat-Relevant Affordances

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Some philosophers argue that martial arts training is maladaptive, contributes to psychological illness, and provides a social harm, whereas others argue that martial arts training is adaptive, contributes to psychological wellness, and provides a social benefit. This debate is important to scholars and the general public since beliefs about martial arts training can have a real impact on how we evaluate martial artists for job opportunities and career advancement, and in general, how we treat martial artists from different cultures in our communities. This debate is also important for children and adults that have considered enrolling in martial arts training programs but remain uncertain about potential outcomes of training due to the lack of research in this area. This article therefore contributes to the literature on martial arts by (1) outlining a framework that characterizes psychological well-being in terms of five elements, (2) discussing how results from empirical research support the hypothesis that Muay Thai training can contribute to psychological well-being by contributing to all five component elements, (3) discussing the psychological benefits of martial arts training from the perspective of an Everlast Master Instructor, and (4) discussing how martial arts training involves the cultivation of combat-relevant affordances.
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Citation: Croom, A.M. Muay Thai,
Psychological Well-Being, and
Cultivation of Combat-Relevant
Affordances. Philosophies 2022,7, 65.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
philosophies7030065
Academic Editors: Marcin
J. Schroeder and Lorenzo Magnani
Received: 26 April 2022
Accepted: 8 June 2022
Published: 9 June 2022
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philosophies
Article
Muay Thai, Psychological Well-Being, and Cultivation of
Combat-Relevant Affordances
Adam M. Croom
Cognitive Science Program, University of California Berkeley; Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; croom@berkeley.edu
Abstract:
Some philosophers argue that martial arts training is maladaptive, contributes to psycho-
logical illness, and provides a social harm, whereas others argue that martial arts training is adaptive,
contributes to psychological wellness, and provides a social benefit. This debate is important to
scholars and the general public since beliefs about martial arts training can have a real impact on
how we evaluate martial artists for job opportunities and career advancement, and in general, how
we treat martial artists from different cultures in our communities. This debate is also important
for children and adults that have considered enrolling in martial arts training programs but remain
uncertain about potential outcomes of training due to the lack of research in this area. This article
therefore contributes to the literature on martial arts by (1) outlining a framework that character-
izes psychological well-being in terms of five elements, (2) discussing how results from empirical
research support the hypothesis that Muay Thai training can contribute to psychological well-being
by contributing to all five component elements, (3) discussing the psychological benefits of martial
arts training from the perspective of an Everlast Master Instructor, and (4) discussing how martial
arts training involves the cultivation of combat-relevant affordances.
Keywords:
Muay Thai; martial arts; psychological well-being; philosophy of mind; affordances; flow
experience; social activities; sportsmanship; health and fitness; self-cultivation
1. Introduction
Philosophers have recently developed a strong interest in the martial arts, as evidenced
by the growing body of published monographs and edited volumes on martial arts over
the last 15 years [
1
8
]. One area of lively debate in the literature is whether martial arts
practice is adaptive, contributes to psychological wellness, and provides a social benefit,
or whether it is maladaptive, contributes to psychological illness, and provides a social
harm. Consider for example the work of Gillian Russell [
9
,
10
] and Nicholas Dixon [
11
].
In Practicing Evil: Training and Psychological Barriers in the Martial Arts, Gillian Russell [
9
]
claims that the aim of martial arts training is “dehumanization of the target—training
provides a social environment where targets are spoken of with contempt and as deserving
of harm [
. . .
] some martial arts groups have a social environment in which certain groups
deemed likely to be attackers, such as the mentally ill or poor, are spoken of with contempt”
(p. 40). In Epistemic Viciousness in the Martial Arts, Russell [
10
] further claims that “The
culture of training in many martial arts actually promotes epistemic vice, including both
closed-mindedness and gullibility, but also unwarranted epistemic deference to seniors
and historical sources, lack of curiosity about important related disciplines, and lack of
intellectual independence. This makes them unreliable when it comes to forming beliefs”
(p. 130). Finally, in A Moral Critique of Mixed Martial Arts, Nicholas Dixon [
11
] writes that
“The critique of MMA [Mixed Martial Arts] presented here is that fighters treat each other
as violable and that, as is also the case with a wide range of other inherently demeaning
actions, their consent is insufficient to reconcile this attitude with respecting each other”
(p. 373)
. Because of extremely negative views of this kind about the martial arts, some have
called for a complete ban on these sports [
12
]. For example, one critic of martial arts from
Philosophies 2022,7, 65. https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies7030065 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/philosophies
Philosophies 2022,7, 65 2 of 25
the British Medical Association stated that “There is no place in contemporary society for
a youth sport which has, as its primary goal, the infliction of acute brain damage on an
opponent” (quoted in [12]).
However, several important questions remain here. Is it really the case, as critics of
martial arts have argued, that causing others brain damage is the “primary goal” of martial
arts practice? Is practicing martial arts “inherently demeaning”, as Dixon [
11
] has argued?
And does practicing martial arts promote “epistemic vice” and “dehumanization” of others,
as Russell [
9
,
10
] suggests? If Dixon [
11
] and Russell [
9
,
10
] are right about the martial arts,
then it appears that Olympic sports such as boxing, kickboxing, Karate, Taekwondo, Judo,
wrestling, Sambo, and Muay Thai are all highly immoral activities, and further, that the
individuals that participate in these activities are also highly immoral. If Dixon [
11
] and
Russell [
9
,
10
] are right about the martial arts, then it appears that there may be good reason
to ban martial arts events, prevent our children from participating in martial arts programs,
and even exclude martial artists from prestigious job opportunities and career advancement.
The consequences of society accepting such an extremely negative view about the martial
arts and martial artists are serious, so what kind of evidence have Russell [
9
,
10
] and
Dixon [11] actually presented in support of their claims?
The purpose of this article is to argue that the critical views of Russell [
9
,
10
] and
Dixon [
11
] remain unsupported and are based on a flawed understanding of martial arts
practice and practitioners. Other scholars such as Weimer [
13
], Channon [
14
], and Veit
and Browning [
15
] have also recently challenged the work of Russell [
9
,
10
] and Dixon [
11
],
but whereas their work focused primarily on the ethics of martial arts (whether martial
arts is moral or immoral), the primary focus of this work is on the psychology of martial
arts (whether martial arts contributes to psychological wellness or psychological illness).
The purpose of this article, therefore, is to join Weimer [
13
], Channon [
14
], and Veit and
Browning [
15
] in challenging the work of Dixon [
11
] and Russell [
9
,
10
] but with a unique
emphasis on the psychology of martial arts rather than the ethics of martial arts. Clarifying
this point at the outset will help make clear how this article offers a unique contribution
to the philosophical literature on marital arts. My approach in this article is as follows.
First, I outline a theoretical framework that characterizes psychological well-being in terms
of five elements, including positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and
accomplishment [
16
]. This is important since philosophical work on martial arts and
psychological well-being currently lacks a rigorous and empirically adequate model of
psychological well-being to ground the discussion. Next, I argue that the results from
empirical research support the hypothesis that martial arts training can contribute to
psychological well-being by contributing to the five elements of psychological well-being,
including positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment. I
focus especially on Muay Thai or “The Art of Eight Limbs” in this article since I want to
demonstrate that practicing a particular martial art can contribute to all five components
of psychological well-being. Without focusing the article on a specific martial art in this
way, it remains an open possibility that some martial arts contribute to some components
of psychological well-being (such as components P, E, and R) whereas other martial arts
contribute to other components of psychological well-being (such as
components M and A
)
but that no single martial art contributes to all five components of psychological well-
being. Since I am interested in exploring the possibility of whether a single martial art can
contribute to all five elements of psychological well-being in this article, I focus on Muay
Thai here. My larger view is that many martial arts can contribute to psychological well-
being, so my larger approach across distinct articles is to focus on each martial art in turn,
and then after this, provide a more general assessment of martial arts and psychological
well-being that is grounded upon these more specific contributions. Methodologically,
I believe that this is a more rigorous approach than simply beginning with generalities
about the martial arts at the outset. After discussing how the results from empirical
research support the hypothesis that Muay Thai training can contribute to psychological
well-being, I further substantiate this point by discussing the psychological benefits of
Philosophies 2022,7, 65 3 of 25
Muay Thai training from the perspective of an Everlast Master Instructor. In addition to
connecting research on martial arts to research on psychological well-being, this article
further contributes to the literature by connecting research on martial arts to research in
ecological psychology by discussing how Muay Thai training involves the cultivation of
combat-relevant affordances. Finally, this article draws the conclusion that criticisms of martial
arts in the philosophical literature are based on a poor understanding of the actual rules of
martial arts and the practices of real martial artists, that the argument for banning martial
arts and viewing martial artists negatively remains unsupported, and that a growing body
of empirical evidence supports the case that practicing a martial art can in fact be adaptive,
contribute to psychological wellness, and provide a social benefit.
2. Muay Thai and Psychological Well-Being
In order to understand if martial arts can contribute to psychological well-being,
we must first have a clear idea of what psychological well-being consists of. So, what
is psychological well-being? Martin Seligman, the Director of the Positive Psychology
Center at the University of Pennsylvania and the former President of the American Psy-
chological Association, proposed a theoretical framework for psychological well-being
that has been incredibly influential in the field and that has been empirically validated in
numerous studies [
16
]. As Seligman [
16
] explains in Flourishing: Positive Psychology and
Positive Interventions, “What I have done so far is define the field of positive psychology.
Positive psychology is about the concept of well-being. The elements of well-being are
PERMA: positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment”
(p. 236)
. Although possession of any single individual element may not be fully sufficient
for psychological well-being (e.g., hedonia or positive affect alone may be insufficient for
complete psychological well-being or human flourishing), possession of the combination
of all five elements is typically considered highly characteristic of psychological well-
being [
17
]. Psychological research has also demonstrated that conceptions of “happiness”
and “psychological well-being” differ across cultures and change over time [
18
], making
it useful for the purposes of scientific investigation to identify more specific elements of
“happiness” or “psychological well-being” rather than treating “happiness” or “psycholog-
ical well-being” as a singular, invariant, and holistic property [
16
]. The PERMA framework
that Seligman [
16
] proposed has been incredibly influential in contemporary research on
psychological well-being and has been validated and applied in psychological studies of
well-being in participants across cultures and in different countries including Australia [
19
],
Brunei [
20
], Canada [
21
], China [
22
], Germany [
23
], Greece [
24
], Hong Kong [
25
], India [
26
],
Italy [
27
], Japan [
28
], Qatar [
29
], Romania [
20
], South Korea [
30
], Turkey [
31
], and the
United Arab Emirates [32].
The first element to consider from the PERMA framework for psychological well-being
is P for positive emotions. Previous research in the psychological literature suggests that
positive affect or pleasure (hedonia) is an important component of overall psychological
well-being [
33
] (p. 57). For example, Busseri, Choma, and Sadava [
34
] investigated the
relationship between (positive and negative) affect and life satisfaction in undergraduate
students (n = 438) and found that higher levels of positive affect were associated with
higher ratings of life satisfaction. Cohn et al. [
35
] also investigated the relationship between
positive emotions and life satisfaction in college students (n = 86) and found that positive
emotions were associated with increased resilience and life satisfaction. Peterson, Park, and
Seligman [
36
] looked into the relationship between positive emotion and life satisfaction
in adults (n = 845) and found that positive emotion was positively associated with life
satisfaction. In other research by Schmiedeberg et al. [
37
] that examined the relationship
between sexual satisfaction and frequency with overall life satisfaction in adults
(n = 5582)
,
it was found that naturally occurring increases in sexual satisfaction and frequency were
associated with corresponding increases in life satisfaction. In a literature review on
subjective well-being and health outcomes conducted by Diener and Chan [
38
], it was
reported that the absence of negative emotions and the presence of positive emotions
Philosophies 2022,7, 65 4 of 25
were associated with improved health and increased longevity. Finally, in a literature
review on positive affect and health outcomes, Steptoe, Dockray, and Wardle [
39
] reported
that positive affect was found to benefit health by reducing cortisol, heart rate, blood
pressure, and inflammatory markers such as interleukin-6, so that “Positive affect may be
part of a broader profile of psychosocial resilience that reduces risk of adverse physical
health outcomes” (p. 1747). Empirical results of this kind from the psychological literature
therefore suggest that positive emotions (P) are indeed an important element of overall
psychological well-being.
Positive emotions are an important element of overall psychological well-being, so my
suggestion is that Muay Thai training can contribute to overall psychological well-being by
contributing to positive emotions. Muay Thai or “The Art of Eight Limbs” is the national
sport of Thailand and is a martial art that utilizes punches, kicks, elbow strikes, and knee
strikes, as well as clinch work (a form of standup wrestling). Whereas boxing focuses on
punches (striking with two limbs) and kickboxing focuses punches and kicks (striking with
four limbs), Muay Thai makes use of a comparatively wider repertoire of strikes by utilizing
punches, kicks, elbow strikes, and knee strikes (striking with eight limbs). Interestingly
enough, recent research from scholarly dissertations and professional publications in
education and sociology suggest that Muay Thai training can in fact contribute to positive
emotions. For example, Dimson et al. [
40
] studied young Muay Thai athletes (n = 10, age
range 16–23) and found that Muay Thai training helped to improve their self-esteem and
emotional regulation. In another empirical study, Phipps [
41
] conducted interviews with
female Muay Thai athletes (n = 14) and found that most of them experienced pleasurable
excitement while training and competing. One Nak Muay (a term used to identify a Muay
Thai practitioner) in the study named Holly explained that:
It [Muay Thai] really does help and recently I split up with my boyfriend, and
everyone was just like go out and drink and party but I don’t think that helps, all
I want to do is go to the gym and hit things, because you get it out and you’re not
carrying around all that anger and upset, you can train it out and you feel a lot
better for it, and it’s a positive way of doing things rather than just drinking and
making yourself feel even more worse about it [
. . .
] I feel better after leaving
and it’s different ‘cause it’s contact, like kicking things, and it’s just like everyone
thinks automatically that Thai boxing is going to be violent, it’s not always, like
obviously the fights are but training is just like a really good vent and I think
that’s why people get hooked to it. (pp. 52–53)
In another study adopting a semi-structured interview approach, Davies and
Deckert [42]
interviewed female Muay Thai athletes based in Thailand (n = 17). One Nak Muay in the
study named Leila explained that “It’s [Muay Thai] taught me that I can endure, persevere,
[and] feel confident. You can be tough, you can take it, earn their [the coach’s] respect. In
that fight, I realised how tough I can be” (p. 338). Finally, empirical research by Ustun
and Tasgin [
43
] that investigated the relationship between Muay Thai experience and
anger in university students in Turkey (n = 125) found that individuals with 9 or more
years of Muay Thai experience showed significantly lower scores for introverted and
suppressed anger than those with only 1–2 years, 3–4 years, and 5–6 years of Muay Thai
experience. Ustun and Tasgin [
43
] also found that individuals with 9 or more years of
Muay Thai experience showed significantly higher scores for anger control than those
with only 1–2 years, 3–4 years, and 7–8 years of Muay Thai experience. Contrary to
unsupported speculation in the philosophical literature that martial arts training leads to
mental instability and the promotion of violence in individuals [
9
11
], results of several
empirical studies suggest that Muay Thai training may actually help to reduce anger and
improve anger control. Given the fact that existing research on Muay Thai training has shown
that it can produce pleasurable excitement and remove negative emotions [
41
], reduce anger
and improve anger control [
43
], improve self-esteem and emotional regulation [
40
], and
improve confidence and self-knowledge [
42
], there is some empirical evidence suggesting
Philosophies 2022,7, 65 5 of 25
that Muay Thai training can contribute to positive emotions, which is an important element
of overall psychological well-being.
The second element to consider from the PERMA framework for psychological well-
being is E for engagement or flow experience. Grant Rich [
44
] writes in “Finding Flow”
that “a good life is one characterized by complete absorption in what one does [
. . .
] A
life worth living then, seems to involve flow” (p. 43). In “Play and Intrinsic Rewards,” the
leading scholar on flow research Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi [
45
] explains that “Flow denotes
the wholistic sensation present when we act with total involvement [ . .. ] It is the state in
which action follows upon action according to an internal logic which seems to need no
conscious intervention on our part. We experience it as a unified flowing from one moment
to the next, in which we feel in control of our actions, and in which there is little distinction
between self and environment; between stimulus and response; or between past, present,
and future” (p. 43). Csikszentmihalyi [
45
] proposed that the elements of flow experience
consist of (1) the experience of merging action and awareness (e.g., “A tennis player pays
undivided attention to the ball and the opponent,” p. 45), (2) the centering of attention (e.g.,
“there are play activities that rely on physical danger to produce centering of attention,
and hence flow,” p. 48), (3) the loss of ego (e.g., “When an activity involves the person
completely with its demands for action, “self-ish” considerations become irrelevant [
. . .
]
What is usually lost in flow is not the awareness of one’s body or of one’s functions, but
only the self-construct, the intermediary which one learns to interpose between stimulus
and response,” p. 49), (4) control of action and environment (e.g., “Flow experiences occur
in activities where one can cope, at least theoretically, with all the demands for action
[ . . . ]
The feeling of control and the resulting absence of worry are present even in flow situations
where “objectively” the dangers to the actor seem very real,” p. 52), (5) clear demands for
action and clear feedback (e.g., “Another quality of the experience [of flow] is that it usually
contains coherent, noncontradictory demands for action, and provides clear unambiguous
feedback to a person’s actions,” p. 52), and (6) autotelicity (e.g., “it appears to need no goals
or rewards external to itself,” p. 53).
In “Neurocognitive Mechanisms Underlying the Experience of Flow,” Arne Diet-
rich [
46
] distinguished between (a) information processing involving implicit cognitive
systems, and (b) information processing involving explicit cognitive systems, and writes
that information processing involving “the implicit system is associated with the skill-based
knowledge supported primarily by the basal ganglia and has the advantage of being more
efficient” whereas “the explicit system is associated with the higher cognitive functions
of the frontal lobe and medial temporal lobe structures and has evolved to increase cog-
nitive flexibility” (p. 746). Dietrich [
46
] proposed that flow experiences involve “a state
of transient hypofrontality that enables the temporary suppression of the analytical and
meta-conscious capacities of the explicit system” (p. 746). Dietrich [
46
] therefore outlines
the neural and cognitive mechanisms that underlie flow experience and the correspond-
ing loss of ego and metaconscious analysis that this typically involves [
45
]. In empirical
research by Peterson, Park, and Seligman [
36
] that investigated the relationship between
flow experience and life satisfaction in adults (n = 845), it was found that flow experience
was positively associated with life satisfaction. In other empirical work conducted by
Asakawa [
47
] that investigated the relationship between flow experience and measures of
well-being in Japanese college students (n = 315), it was found that students who experi-
enced flow more frequently were more likely to show higher self-esteem and lower anxiety
than students who experienced flow less frequently. Finally, Olˇcar, Rijavec, and Ljubin
Golub [
48
] examined the relationship between flow experience at work and life satisfaction
in primary school teachers (n = 480) and reported that “the results confirmed the positive
effect of flow at work on life satisfaction” (p. 326). Empirical results of this kind from the
psychological literature therefore suggest that engagement (E) or flow experience is indeed
an important element of overall psychological well-being.
Engagement or flow experience is an important element of overall psychological well-
being, so my suggestion is that Muay Thai training can contribute to overall psychological
Philosophies 2022,7, 65 6 of 25
well-being by contributing to engagement or flow experience. Research from several schol-
arly dissertations in fact suggests that Muay Thai training can contribute to engagement or
flow experience. For example, Holthuysen [
49
] interviewed mixed martial artists (n = 55)
that practice Muay Thai and other martial arts at Desert Combat Gym in Phoenix, Arizona,
and found that many of these martial artists reported being in flow states while training
and competing (p. 80). In response to the interview question “How do you feel when you
train? What’s your mindset like?”, one martial artist named Carlos responded, “It’s almost
like my mind goes blank and I’m just flowing with everything. I’m very focused on what’s
happening here when I’m not stressed out at all [
. . .
] I think that relaxing and focusing
and being there—nothing else matters. No matter what else is going on in your life, when
you’re there, you’re just there” [
49
] (p. 66). In an empirical study on boxers and Muay
Thai athletes in Italy (n = 20), Bortolotti [
50
] reported that one of the main reasons that the
participants engaged in martial arts training was to experience “the particular psycholog-
ical condition of the flow state” (p. 1, translated from Italian). A 34-year-old Muay Thai
athlete and instructor interviewed by Bortolotti [
50
] explained that “When you fight it is
as if you have a heightened sense of things: you feel everything, you see everything, the
senses are much more developed” [
50
] (p. 109, translated from Italian). Summarizing the
interviews on flow experience provided by the boxers and Muay Thai athletes (n = 20),
Bortolotti [
50
] writes that “The moment of the actual fight is dominated by adrenaline and
deep concentration: the state of flow is at its peak and is not expressed in a leap into a void
but in a forced experience of living-in-the-moment and in-the-body where space and time
compress into a single moment of emotional intensity and of deep awareness of oneself and
one’s body” (p. 112, translated from Italian). Given the fact that existing empirical research
on Muay Thai training has suggested that it can produce engagement or flow experience in
participants [
49
,
50
], there is some empirical evidence suggesting that Muay Thai training
can contribute to engagement or flow experience, which is an important element of overall
psychological well-being.
The third element to consider from the PERMA framework for psychological well-
being is R for (positive) social relationships. As Aristotle [
51
] writes in Nicomachean Ethics,
“For without friends no one would choose to live, though he had all other goods [
. . .
] it
is not only necessary but also noble; for we praise those who love their friends, and it is
thought to be a fine thing to have many friends; and again we think it is the same people
that are good men and are friends” (VIII.1–30). In empirical research by Young [
52
] that
investigated the relationship between social relationships and life satisfaction in adults with
mental illness living in Hong Kong (n = 146), it was found that social support from friends
and rehabilitation staff contributed to life satisfaction. Barger, Donoho, and Wayment [
53
]
looked into the relationship between social relationships, socioeconomic status, and health
outcomes with life satisfaction in adults living in the United States (n = 33,326) and found
that social relationships were the strongest contributor (over socioeconomic status and
health outcomes) to life satisfaction. In other work, Powdthavee [
54
] examined the rela-
tionship between social relationships and life satisfaction in adults living in the United
Kingdom (n = 5007) and found that social relationships contributed to life satisfaction, and
interestingly enough, that “an increase in the level of social interaction with friends and
relatives is estimated to be worth up to an extra £85,000 a year” (p. 1474). In research by
Trepte, Dienlin, and Reinecke [
55
] investigating the relationship between social support
in online and offline contexts and satisfaction with life in participants (n = 327), it was
found that offline (rather than online) social support contributed to overall life satisfaction.
Finally, Lau and Bradshaw [
56
] examined the relationship between social relationships and
life satisfaction in children living in Hong Kong (n = 793) and found that the absence of
bullying at school and the presence of positive relationships with family members and
teachers positively contributed to their life satisfaction. Empirical results of this kind from
the psychological literature therefore suggest that social relationships (R) are indeed an
important element of overall psychological well-being.
Philosophies 2022,7, 65 7 of 25
Relationships are an important element of overall psychological well-being, so my
suggestion is that Muay Thai training can contribute to overall psychological well-being
by contributing to relationships. Research from scholarly dissertations and professional
publications in health and exercise science in fact suggests that Muay Thai training can
contribute to positive social relationships. Although Muay Thai is often considered a
violent sport and so not the most intuitive way of forming friendships, Muay Thai training
is actually an excellent way to connect with others and build a community of friends
with common goals. As the Muay Thai instructor in the study by Green [
57
] pointed out,
“when you train hard you build friendships that are different than any others”
(p. 391)
.
In empirical research by Bortolotti [
50
] on boxers and Muay Thai athletes in Italy
(n = 20)
,
a 23-year-old Nak Muay explained that “This sport unleashes you both mentally and
physically. And then it also builds a community: you find new friends and it’s fun” (
p. 132
,
translated from Italian). In other empirical research by Phipps [
41
] that included interviews
of female Muay Thai athletes (n = 14), one of the Nak Muays named Emily explained that
“I’ve always thought about it [Muay Thai] more technically, so more like jab, cross, hook,
kick kind of thing. I’ve always kind of planned what my technique is going to be rather
than thinking about my opponent. I’m not sure I’d be comfortable with thinking about
trying to hurt somebody” (p. 50). Here we see that martial artists like Emily consider
Muay Thai as a technical sport rather than a mode of brute violence, and further, they have
internalized the rules of the sport so that their aim is to win according to those rules rather
than through brute violence. A person of brute violence is not regulated by a respect
for rules, regulations, and fair play among participants, whereas a true sportsman and
martial artist is appropriately regulated in these ways. In other empirical research, Ong and
Ruzmin [
58
] investigated the reasons people had for participating in Muay Thai training
in Thailand (n = 120) and found that “relatedness” (a kind of social relationship) was the
second most important reason females gave for Muay Thai training (“existence” was the
first-ranked, “growth” was the third-ranked, and “sports characteristics” was the fourth-
ranked reason females gave for Muay Thai training in Thailand) (p. 128). Finally, research
by dos Santos and Canzonieri [
59
] examined a patient diagnosed with multiple sclerosis
(n = 1) that engaged in Muay Thai training for six months and found that the Muay Thai
training resulted in improved social skills, nonverbal intelligence, visual memory, and
selective attention. Given the fact that existing empirical research on Muay Thai training
has shown that it can help improve social skills [
59
] and promote positive relationships
with others [
41
,
57
,
58
], there is some empirical evidence suggesting that Muay Thai training
can contribute to relationships, which is an important element of overall psychological
well-being.
The fourth element to consider from the PERMA framework for psychological well-
being is M for meaning or purpose in life. De Muijnck [
60
] writes that “experiencing life
as meaningful seems to be a major component of human well-being, and a major source
of motivation for human action” (p. 1291). In research by Chamberlain and Zika [
61
]
that looked into the relationship between religiosity and life satisfaction in female adults
(n = 188)
it was found that “the relationship between life satisfaction and religiosity may
well be mediated by meaningfulness” (p. 415). Byron and Miller-Perrin [
62
] further investi-
gated the relationship between religious faith, purpose in life, and perceived wellness in
college students (n = 103) and found that “life purpose completely mediated the relation-
ship between faith and well-being [
. . .
] the impact of faith on well-being can be explained
by life purpose” (p. 68). Research from Chamberlain and Zika [
61
] and Byron and Miller-
Perrin [
62
] therefore suggests that religious involvement may contribute to psychological
well-being because religious involvement contributes to meaning or purpose in life, and
meaning or purpose in life contributes to psychological well-being. Peterson, Park, and
Seligman [
36
] examined the relationship between meaning in life and life satisfaction in
adults (n = 845) and found that meaning in life predicted life satisfaction, and more recent
research by Steger, Oishi, and Kashdan [
63
] that investigated the relationship between
meaning in life and life satisfaction in a sample of participants from the internet (n = 8756)
Philosophies 2022,7, 65 8 of 25
further found that “the more meaning in life people reported, the greater well-being they
experienced, at all life stages” (p. 48). In other research by Wang et al. [
64
] that investigated
the relationship between reasons for living and purpose in life with suicidal behaviors
in college students (n = 416) it was reported that “purpose in life and reasons for living
were found to be important predictors of suicide and may reduce the likelihood of suicidal
thoughts and behaviors” (p. 202). Finally, research by Bronk et al. [
65
] that investigated
the relationship between purpose in life and life satisfaction in participants of different
ages (n = 806; adolescents = 153, emerging adults = 237, and adults = 416) found that
“having identified a purpose in life is associated with greater life satisfaction in adolescence,
emerging adulthood, and adulthood” (p. 506). Empirical results of this kind from the
psychological literature therefore suggest that meaning (M) or purpose in life is indeed an
important element of overall psychological well-being.
Meaning or purpose in life is an important element of overall psychological well-being,
so my suggestion is that Muay Thai training can contribute to overall psychological well-
being by contributing to meaning or purpose in life. Research from scholarly dissertations
and professional publications in sociology in fact suggests that Muay Thai training can
contribute to meaning or purpose in life. For example, Ramoutar [
66
] focused on interview-
ing female Muay Thai athletes (n = 10) and found that Muay Thai training had a positive
impact on their sense of meaning or purpose in life. Ramoutar [
66
] reported from this
study that “Some specific examples of purpose for these participants included enjoyment
of playing the game, comparable to chess; the idea of constant growth; attraction to the
culture and artistry; pride; recognition among peers and self-satisfaction; and the ability
to live intensely, using Muay Thai as a form of self-expression” (pp. 53). In other research
by Davies and Deckert [
42
] that also focused on interviewing female Muay Thai athletes
(n = 17)
, one of the Nak Muays named Stacey explained that “We don’t do this because we
want to look traditional, feminine, beautiful. We do this because we want to, and then we
go for the body that’s functional for this sport. That’s beautiful to us and I don’t care if
someone else who doesn’t do Muay Thai thinks that I don’t look like a girl, I just don’t care”
(p. 335). Notice that a positive aspect of Muay Thai training is that it provides individuals
like Stacey with opportunities and social support to exercise their agency by creating an
identity and lifestyle that is most meaningful to them. In other empirical work that focused
on interviewing mixed martial artists (n = 55) that practice Muay Thai and other martial arts
at Desert Combat Gym in Phoenix, Arizona, Holthuysen [
49
] reported that “Participants
spent enormous amounts of time here, and this site proved crucial to developing notions
of their self-identity” (p. 80). Since there are a rich variety of movement patterns and
techniques to practice in Muay Thai and MMA, and since many martial artists thoroughly
enjoy training, many of the participants in the study by Holthuysen [
49
] reported training
multiple times per day for 5 to 7 days per week (pp. 62–63). Spending several hours per
day, 5 to 7 days per week, wearing martial arts equipment and engaging in martial arts
training in a martial arts facility with other martial artists clearly contributes to the sense
of self-identity (e.g., “I am a martial artist”) and meaning or purpose in life (e.g., “I am
a part of a larger martial arts community and can make contributions to this community
as a training partner, instructor, or champion”). Given the fact that existing empirical
research on Muay Thai training has shown that it can contribute to meaning or purpose
in life [
42
,
49
,
66
], there is some empirical evidence suggesting that Muay Thai training can
contribute to this important element of overall psychological well-being.
The final element to consider from the PERMA framework for psychological well-
being is A for accomplishment. Seligman [
16
] considers accomplishment an important
element of psychological well-being since “many people are motivated to achieve, to have
mastery, to have competence, even if it brings no positive emotion, no engagement, no
relationships, and no meaning” (p. 234). In research by Yang et al. [
67
] that investigated the
relationship between academic achievement and ratings of subjective well-being in Chinese
elementary school students (n = 807) it was found that academic achievement positively
predicted ratings of subjective well-being. Another empirical study by Messersmith and
Philosophies 2022,7, 65 9 of 25
Schulenberg [
68
] that investigated the relationship between goal achievement and overall
life satisfaction in adolescents in the United States (n = 5693) found that accomplishing
an important life goal (including education and marital goals) corresponded with greater
overall life satisfaction during emerging adulthood. Firdous et al. [
69
] further examined
the relationship between academic achievement and overall life satisfaction among med-
ical students in Pakistan (n = 200) and found a significant positive relationship between
academic achievement and overall life satisfaction. In another empirical study investing
life satisfaction in African American adults (n = 1081), Armstrong et al. [
70
] found that
those who reported having achieved “The American Dream” reported having higher life
satisfaction than those who reported not having achieved “The American Dream”. In
other words, achieving their vision of “The American Dream” was strongly associated with
their overall satisfaction with life. In another study by Stevanovic and Rupert [
71
] that
investigated predictors of overall life satisfaction in professional psychologists (n = 485) it
was found that personal accomplishment was associated with increased family enhancers,
greater family support, and more satisfaction with life. Finally, Shim et al. [
72
] examined
the relationship between (objective and subjective measures of) financial well-being (in-
cluding low debt and high satisfaction with financial status, respectively) with overall life
satisfaction in adults living in the United States (n = 781) and found that achieving financial
well-being was significantly associated with overall life satisfaction. Empirical results of
this kind from the psychological literature therefore suggest that accomplishment (A) is
indeed an important element of overall psychological well-being.
Accomplishment is an important element of overall psychological well-being, so my
suggestion is that Muay Thai training can contribute to overall psychological well-being by
contributing to accomplishment. Research from scholarly dissertations and professional
publications in health and exercise science in fact suggests that Muay Thai training can
contribute to accomplishment. For example, physiological research by Rapkiewicz et al. [
73
]
that examined Muay Thai training among women (n = 20) found that 13 weeks of Muay
Thai training resulted in increased cardiorespiratory fitness, and further, physiological
research by Saraiva et al. [
74
] that examined Muay Thai training among overweight ado-
lescents
(n = 40)
found that 16 weeks of Muay Thai training resulted in decreased total
body fat mass and increased total muscle mass. In other words, results from the studies
by
Rapkiewicz et al. [73]
and Saraiva et al. [
74
] demonstrate that Muay Thai training pro-
vides individuals with an opportunity to accomplish generally recommended health and
physical fitness goals, such as decreasing body fat mass, increasing total muscle mass, and
increasing cardiorespiratory fitness [
75
]. In other empirical research by Bortolotti [
50
] on
boxers and Muay Thai athletes in Italy (n = 20), a 29-year-old Nak Muay explained that “It
[Muay Thai] is a complete sport, in which you can measure yourself individually with an
opponent. Yes, it can be hard. But you can overcome your limits [
. . .
] I like the fact that
the ring allows you to confront your limits. For example, I have some experience in the
ring: being in a closed space where you can’t escape, you just have to perform your sport
well” (p. 117, translated from Italian). A 19-year-old Muay Thai athlete from this study
also reported that “It makes you physically complete (muscle and all) and then gives you
that mentality of never going back, never giving up” [
50
] (p. 126, translated from Italian).
Another 34-year-old Nak Muay and instructor expanded on this by explaining that:
There’s just a kind of inner work in combat sports [
. . .
] It is beautiful, it is
handsome. There is really an inner growth: you learn to know your fears. One
approaches [the sport] out of curiosity, then tries and experiences these sensations
which are very strong, and then continues. It becomes [addictive] like a drug. You
have these particular feelings of self-consciousness [
. . .
] Each time one always
learns something more about himself: his own fears, limits, and how to control
yourself [
. . .
] Getting in the ring for me is the best experience there is! Because, I
repeat, it makes you face your fears, every time you step into the ring it makes
you more capable of controlling yourself, of dominating your fears. [
50
] (pp. 121,
128, translated from Italian)
Philosophies 2022,7, 65 10 of 25
Finally, a 23-year-old Nak Muay from this study explained that “It [Muay Thai] also
makes you overcome the fears you may have during the challenges of life. By managing to
overcome such violent obstacles [in the ring], you may even be able to better overcome other
difficulties in life [
. . .
] It [Muay Thai] can give you the spirit to overcome the difficulties
of life” [
50
] (p. 126, translated from Italian). In other relevant work by Phipps [
41
] that
focused on interviewing female Muay Thai athletes (n = 14), one Nak Muay named Eva
recommended that “I would encourage people just to come along and have some fun and
stay fit and take up a new skill that can help them if ever they needed to get away from a
bad situation because this is a martial art that you can actually use in the street” (p. 63).
Eva added, “it’s a really good feeling to know your ability” [
41
] (p. 64). Another study
conducted by Ong and Ruzmin [
58
] that investigated the motivations that people had
for Muay Thai training in Thailand (n = 120) found that accomplishment or growth was
the second most important reason males gave for Muay Thai training (“existence” was
the first-ranked, “relatedness” was the third-ranked, and “sports characteristics” was the
fourth-ranked reason males gave for Muay Thai training in Thailand) (p. 128). Similarly,
work by Sudas [
76
] that investigated the motivations that people had for Muay Thai training
(n = 14) found that achievement was the most important reason provided, followed by (in
descending order) skill mastery, competition, social facilitation, self-esteem, affiliation, self-
actualization and stress release (tie), fun and value development (tie), risk taking, physical
fitness, and lastly, aggression (p. 24). Given that existing empirical research on Muay
Thai training has shown that it can contribute to decreased body fat mass and increased
total muscle mass [
74
], increased cardiorespiratory fitness [
73
], improved self-defense
skills [41], and a greater sense of accomplishment [50,58,73,74,76], there is some empirical
evidence suggesting that Muay Thai training can contribute to accomplishment, which is
an important element of overall psychological well-being.
Finally, in the first empirical study in psychology that focused on investigating how
Muay Thai training influences the five elements of psychological well-being in professional
Muay Thai fighters, Croom [
77
] had professional Muay Thai fighters (n = 14, males = 10,
females = 4; mean age = 30.86
±
7.34; pro fights = 27.29
±
28.23, CI 10.99–43.58) complete
a psychological well-being questionnaire and found that shadowboxing—one of the es-
sential components of Muay Thai training—significantly contributed to all five elements
of their psychological well-being (Figure 1). A comparison of composite scores further
revealed that shadowboxing contributed to the elements of psychological well-being in
the following rank-order in professional Muay Thai fighters: (1) engagement (
13.36 ±1.65
,
CI 12.41–14.31
), (2) positive emotions (13.18
±
1.20, CI 12.48–13.87), (3) accomplishment
(13.00
±
2.00, CI 11.85–14.15), (4) meaning (11.86
±
2.03, CI 10.68–13.03), and (5) rela-
tionships (11.54
±
2.36, CI 10.17–12.90). In other words, the results of empirical research
by Croom [
77
] demonstrated that Muay Thai shadowboxing significantly contributes to
all elements of psychological well-being in professional Muay Thai fighters, and further,
that Muay Thai shadowboxing contributes most strongly to their engagement or flow
experience (1st), followed by positive emotions (2nd), accomplishment (3rd), meaning or
purpose in life (4th), and finally, social relationships (5th) (the questionnaire developed
by Croom [
77
] was based on standard questionnaires and scoring methods in the field of
psychological well-being, specifically, the Oxford Happiness Inventory and the Oxford
Happiness Questionnaire [
78
85
], but was modified to specifically focus on martial arts
training; see Croom [
77
] for further details and additional results). The results reported
in Croom [
77
] are for professional Muay Thai fighters, so future research should investi-
gate the influence of shadowboxing on beginner and intermediate Nak Muays as well as
practitioners of other martial art disciplines.
Philosophies 2022,7, 65 11 of 25
Philosophies 2022, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 25
Figure 1. This figure provides a bar plot with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for overall PERMA
scores for professional Muay Thai fighters (n = 14). For each element of psychological well-being,
the lowest possible composite score is 2 representing that professional Muay Thai fighters strongly
agree that shadowboxing negatively impacts that element of psychological well-being, whereas the
highest possible composite score is 14 representing that professional Muay Thai fighters strongly
agree that shadowboxing positively impacts that element of psychological well-being. A composite
score of 8 (dotted line) reflects a neutral position on whether shadowboxing contributes positively
or negatively to that element. Results of this study by Croom [77] show that professional Muay Thai
fighters strongly agree that shadowboxing positively contributes to all five component elements of
psychological well-being. Statistics were calculated using IBM SPSS Statistics software.
3. Perspectives from an Everlast Master Instructor
We have now reviewed the literature on psychological well-being and found ample
empirical evidence confirming that positive emotions [33–39], engagement [36,44–48], re-
lationships [51–56], meaning [36,60–65], and accomplishment [67–72] are important ele-
ments that contribute to overall psychological well-being [16]. We have also reviewed re-
cent research on Muay Thai training and found a growing body of empirical work sug-
gesting that Muay Thai training can contribute to positive emotions [40–43], engagement
[49,50], relationships [41,50,57–59], meaning [42,49,66], and accomplishment
[41,50,58,73,74,76]. Our review of the literature on psychological well-being and Muay
Thai training therefore supports the main hypothesis in this article that Muay Thai train-
ing can contribute to overall psychological well-being by contributing to the individual
elements that constitute overall psychological well-being [16]. This is an important contri-
bution to the literature on martial arts since existing research has not yet positioned the
potential psychological benefits of martial arts training within the context of an empiri-
cally adequate theoretical model of psychological well-being. Since previous work has
also not demonstrated that Muay Thai is a martial art that can contribute to all component
elements of psychological well-being, this article further contributes to the literature in
Figure 1.
This figure provides a bar plot with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for overall PERMA
scores for professional Muay Thai fighters (n = 14). For each element of psychological well-being,
the lowest possible composite score is 2 representing that professional Muay Thai fighters strongly
agree that shadowboxing negatively impacts that element of psychological well-being, whereas the
highest possible composite score is 14 representing that professional Muay Thai fighters strongly
agree that shadowboxing positively impacts that element of psychological well-being. A composite
score of 8 (dotted line) reflects a neutral position on whether shadowboxing contributes positively or
negatively to that element. Results of this study by Croom [
77
] show that professional Muay Thai
fighters strongly agree that shadowboxing positively contributes to all five component elements of
psychological well-being. Statistics were calculated using IBM SPSS Statistics software.
3. Perspectives from an Everlast Master Instructor
We have now reviewed the literature on psychological well-being and found ample
empirical evidence confirming that positive emotions [
33
39
], engagement [
36
,
44
48
], rela-
tionships [
51
56
], meaning [
36
,
60
65
], and accomplishment [
67
72
] are important elements
that contribute to overall psychological well-being [
16
]. We have also reviewed recent
research on Muay Thai training and found a growing body of empirical work suggesting
that Muay Thai training can contribute to positive emotions [
40
43
], engagement [
49
,
50
],
relationships [
41
,
50
,
57
59
], meaning [
42
,
49
,
66
], and accomplishment [
41
,
50
,
58
,
73
,
74
,
76
].
Our review of the literature on psychological well-being and Muay Thai training therefore
supports the main hypothesis in this article that Muay Thai training can contribute to
overall psychological well-being by contributing to the individual elements that constitute
overall psychological well-being [
16
]. This is an important contribution to the literature
on martial arts since existing research has not yet positioned the potential psychological
benefits of martial arts training within the context of an empirically adequate theoretical
model of psychological well-being. Since previous work has also not demonstrated that
Muay Thai is a martial art that can contribute to all component elements of psychological
Philosophies 2022,7, 65 12 of 25
well-being, this article further contributes to the literature in martial arts by showing that
practicing this specific martial art is capable of improving all five elements of psychological
well-being from the PERMA framework. This is not to deny that other martial arts are also
capable of improving all five elements of psychological well-being, and in fact, in other
work I have argued that other martial arts can contribute to psychological well-being [
17
].
However, it is important to be specific in our research in the martial arts, since general
claims of the form “the martial arts improve physical fitness” and “the martial arts improve
psychological well-being” fail to provide us with important information about the martial
arts, given the important fact that distinct martial arts can provide distinct physical and
psychological benefits to practitioners. For example, Tai Chi and Muay Thai are clearly
distinct and very different forms of martial arts, which may offer very different physical and
psychological benefits to their respective practitioners. Accordingly, in order to investigate
the extent to which distinct martial arts contribute distinct physical and psychological
benefits to practitioners, we must investigate specific martial arts and not merely theorize
about the martial arts in a general way. In fact, by doing careful research on specific martial
arts, we will become better positioned to subsequently draw theoretical generalizations
that are grounded in specific findings from empirical research.
Now that we have reviewed empirical research that supports the hypothesis that
Muay Thai training can contribute to overall psychological well-being by contributing to
the components elements of psychological well-being, here I would like to further discuss
the psychological benefits of boxing and Muay Thai training from my personal experience
as an Everlast Master Instructor. Before completing my Ph.D. and joining the cognitive
science faculty at the University of California, I taught Real Deal Boxing at Equinox South
Bay and the Striking Specialist Level 1 Course for Everlast Worldwide. I have been training
in martial arts for over 30 years, focusing especially on the striking arts (Karate and Kung
Fu as a child, boxing, kickboxing, and Muay Thai as an adult), and I believe that my martial
arts training has significantly contributed to my overall physical health, psychological
well-being, and academic success. There are many reasons for practicing martial arts
and the reasons that an individual has for practicing martial arts can change over time.
One major reason for practicing martial arts is for the purpose of mastering self-defense
and other combat techniques, whereas another major reason for practicing martial arts
is for the purpose of improving overall health and fitness. However, both reasons are
incredibly important for the martial artist and are in fact complementary rather than
mutually exclusive reasons for practicing martial arts.
First, mastering combat techniques is central to martial arts training since a martial art
like Muay Thai is a striking system that is characterized in terms of the combat techniques
that are utilized in that system. For example, Muay Thai is distinct from kickboxing in
that the Muay Thai striking system includes elbow strikes whereas the kickboxing striking
system does not. If an individual is simply swinging their arms and legs around in a random
and unsystematic way, this does not yet constitute practicing a martial art since each martial
art consists of a system of movement patterns and techniques. Just as producing a single
isolated and unsystematic sound does not constitute speaking a natural language (English,
Spanish, etc.), it is similarly the case that producing a single isolated and unsystematic
movement with the body does not constitute practicing a martial art (Muay Thai, Karate,
etc.). Natural languages and martial arts are systems of interrelated technical components,
and an individual cannot be said to be “speaking English” or “practicing Muay Thai”
unless they are working within these specific systems in the appropriate ways. Clearly, one
must practice real English words in order to master English, and one must practice real
techniques from Muay Thai in order to master Muay Thai. Even if you speak English and
practice Muay Thai for fun and personal enrichment, and have no interest in becoming a
professional debater or Nak Muay, it is nonetheless crucially important to understand and
practice the actual component parts that make English and Muay Thai what they uniquely
are: distinct linguistic and martial art systems among other distinct linguistic and martial
art systems.
Philosophies 2022,7, 65 13 of 25
Second, improving health and fitness is also central to martial arts training in order to
develop the physical capacities to execute a system of movement patterns and techniques
effectively. For example, an individual clearly cannot practice a Muay Thai flying knee if
that individual does not have the energy, strength, mobility, and coordination to physically
execute this maneuver. This component of training is often neglected in scholarly discussion
of the martial arts, but it is nonetheless of great importance to the practicing martial artist.
As Bruce Lee [
86
] discussed in Bruce Lee’s Fighting Method: “One of the most neglected
elements of martial artists is the physical workout. Too much time is spent on developing
skill in techniques and not enough in physical participation. Practicing your skill in
fighting is important, but so is maintaining your overall physical condition. Actually,
both are needed to be successful in a real fight” (p. 8). Since a martial art like Muay
Thai is a system of movement patterns and techniques, and since executing this system of
movement patterns and techniques requires a body of sufficient physical fitness, the proper
goal of the practicing martial artist is at least twofold: “developing skill in techniques” and
“maintaining your overall physical condition” (p. 8).
Consider two common forms of martial arts training that are aimed at developing
technical skill and overall physical conditioning: shadowboxing and mitt work. Shad-
owboxing is the practice of rehearsing and refining martial arts techniques and mentally
simulating training or combat-relevant scenarios in order to develop technical mastery and
physical capacity. For example, a Muay Thai practitioner may use a shadowboxing session
to practice their jab–cross-hook–roundhouse-kick combination, both aiming to improve
the mechanics with which this complex movement pattern is executed as well as their
energetic ability to execute this complex movement pattern successfully. Given the large
number of individual strikes and common combinations available in the “Art of Eight
Limbs”, shadowboxing sessions provide the Muay Thai practitioner with a mentally and
physically engaging activity with potentially limitless aspects of this art to work on. Given
that shadowboxing requires no equipment or partners, it is an extremely convenient form
of martial arts training that can be done almost anywhere and at any time.
Mitt work or pad work is another form of martial arts training that is aimed at
developing technical skill and overall physical conditioning. Mitt work involves the
practice of executing strikes and combinations into the mitts or pads of your coach or
partner. Sometimes your coach or partner will verbally call out strikes for you to perform,
such as “jab-cross” or “1–2”. Other times your coach or partner will hold the pads in a
particular configuration that solicits or affords a particular strike, without providing an
accompanying verbal call. For example, when your coach quickly turns the two focus mitts
towards you at chin height, this is your signal that they are ready to receive your “jab-cross”
or “1–2”. Similarly, your coach may throw a leg kick while appropriately preparing the pads
so that you see their incoming kick as affording an opportunity to check-and-return-with-a-kick
(blocking a kick then immediately returning with a kick, a common technique to practice
with partners in Muay Thai). The psychologist James Gibson [
87
,
88
] used the concept of an
affordance to clarify the important point that humans do not engage in a form of “abstract
perception” of objects that is detached from their relation to the human perceiver (e.g.,
seeing an approaching leg as a purely geometrical object moving through physical space),
but rather, humans engage in a form of “affordance perception” of objects that is situated
in relation to the human perceiver (e.g., seeing an approaching leg as an attack to evade
or counter).
As Gibson [
88
] writes in The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception, “To perceive a cliff
is to detect a layout but, more than that, it is to detect an affordance, a negative affordance
for locomotion, a place where the surface of support ends [
. . .
] What animals need to
perceive is not layout as such but the affordances of the layout [
. . .
] This is not abstract
depth perception but affordance perception” (pp. 157–158, 168). Gibson [
88
] further writes
about our perception of objects that “The shapes and sizes of objects, in fact, are perceived
in relation to the hands, as graspable or not graspable, in terms of their affordances for
manipulation. Infant primates learn to see objects and their hands in conjunction. The
Philosophies 2022,7, 65 14 of 25
perception is constrained by manipulation, and the manipulation is constrained by percep-
tion” (p. 224). In other words, we do not perceive an “apple” as a purely three-dimensional
object with certain geometric properties, but rather, we perceive an “apple” as something
that solicits or affords graspability in relation to the action possibilities of our hands. Impor-
tantly, Gibson [
88
] further extends this point about affordances to the human perception
of the social world: “different objects of the environment have different affordances for
manipulation. The other animals afford, above all, a rich and complex set of interactions,
sexual, predatory, nurturing, fighting, playing, cooperating, and communicating. What
other persons afford, comprises the whole realm of social significance for human beings”
(p. 128). Finally, Gibson [
88
] explains that “The theory of affordances implies that to see
things is to see how to get about among them and what to do or not do with them. If this is
true, visual perception serves behavior, and behavior is controlled by perception”
(p. 223)
.
Gibson’s [
87
,
88
] notion of affordance perception is highly relevant to our discussion of
martial arts training here since I argue that part of what martial artists are doing when
they engage in martial arts training is cultivating combat-relevant affordances, for example,
learning or fine-tuning their ability to see an incoming kick as affording an opportunity to
check-and-return-with-a-kick. Although one can practice striking and defensive maneuvers
while shadowboxing individually, my point here is that working interactively with a coach
is also crucially important for developing appropriate techniques, relevant reaction times,
and combat-relevant affordances (see Figure 2).
We now see that shadowboxing and mitt work are two forms of martial arts training
that provide at least two clear paths for developing positive emotions. First, since there is
always a technical component to martial arts training, one can develop positive emotions
from developing improved mastery in a martial art discipline. If you compare your first
Muay Thai session to your 100th Muay Thai session, you will likely feel great about the
technical improvements that you have made. Second, since there is always a physical
fitness component to martial arts training, one can also develop positive emotions from
achieving physical fitness goals. Muay Thai has become increasingly popular around the
world since it is fun and incredibly effective for improving physical fitness. Meeting friends
at the park or coaches at the gym for mitt work is easily one of my favorite activities and an
excellent way to add a serving of positive emotions to the day.
Muay Thai training can also contribute to engagement or flow experience. Whether
shadowboxing alone or engaging in focused mitt work with a partner (Figure 3), it is
easy to become completely absorbed in these activities. Muay Thai or the “Art of Eight
Limbs” is a technical system of complex movement patterns that requires focused attention
and sufficient practice to achieve flow, but similar to other athletes that have developed
highly refined technical motor skills, shadowboxing and mitt work can give Muay Thai
practitioners opportunities to utilize their highly practiced skills as a conduit for producing
positive emotions and inducing flow experiences. Since I have experienced flow while
shadowboxing individually as well as while engaging in mitt work interactively with
coaches, I want to point out that both individual flow and socially coordinated flow are pos-
sible. Different forms of martial arts training may contribute to different forms of flow
experience, so it is useful to distinguish between individual and social flow here. Whereas
shadowboxing may contribute more to individual flow experiences, interactive mitt work
may contribute more to social flow experiences. One of the great benefits of gaining skill
in a technical craft like Muay Thai is that the skill becomes a conduit for flow experience
(E), an important component of psychological well-being. Developing social flow with
others may also contribute to social relationships (R), another important component of
psychological well-being.
Philosophies 2022,7, 65 15 of 25
Philosophies 2022, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 25
Figure 2. Muay Thai training helps to improve relevant perception and action and can contribute to
the cultivation of combat-relevant affordances. Muay Thai training can also contribute to positive
emotions, an important component of psychological well-being. Training is fun and produces im-
mediate enjoyment and excitement while training. Training also provides a more long-lasting posi-
tive emotion as one pursues lifelong excellence in a highly technical craft. This image demonstrates
an orthodox cross (top) and orthodox lead hop (bottom). Thanks to UFC Coach Bob Perez and Hou-
ston Muay Thai in Houston, Texas, for the excellent training.
Figure 2.
Muay Thai training helps to improve relevant perception and action and can contribute to
the cultivation of combat-relevant affordances. Muay Thai training can also contribute to positive
emotions, an important component of psychological well-being. Training is fun and produces imme-
diate enjoyment and excitement while training. Training also provides a more long-lasting positive
emotion as one pursues lifelong excellence in a highly technical craft. This image demonstrates an
orthodox cross (
top
) and orthodox lead hook (
bottom
). Thanks to UFC Coach Bob Perez and Houston
Muay Thai in Houston, Texas, for the excellent training.
Muay Thai can therefore contribute to positive social relationships in several ways.
First, in order to begin learning a martial art like Muay Thai, one must find a coach or join
a martial arts gym, so this necessarily involves meeting new people and initiating new
social relationships. For example, when I started training at Boxing Works in California,
I met Coach Bryan Popejoy and other professional fighters and students that regularly
train together at Boxing Works. One thing that I liked about training at Boxing Works,
even though I worked at Equinox South Bay, was that Boxing Works was not just a general
Philosophies 2022,7, 65 16 of 25
fitness club with random members but was a more cohesive group united by a common
purpose, values, and culture. So, one of the great things about becoming a martial artist
is meeting others that share common goals and values and that will support you in your
personal endeavors. Muay Thai training, as an interactive social activity, brings together
individuals from different backgrounds, professions, and socioeconomic statuses and unites
them under the common goals of improving fitness and developing mastery in martial arts
skill. As partners continue training together over time and continue to experience positive
emotions and flow experiences with each other, they continue to forge a special social bond
that can potentially last a lifetime (Figure 4).
Philosophies 2022, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 25
Figure 3. Muay Thai can contribute to engagement or flow experience. Whether shadowboxing
alone or engaging in focused work with a partner, it is easy to become completely absorbed in the
activity. One of the greatest benefits of gaining skill in a technical craft like martial arts is that the
skill becomes a conduit for flow experience, an important component of psychological well-being.
Developing social flow with others may also contribute to social relationships, another important
component of psychological well-being. For video demonstrations of shadowboxing and interactive
mitt work, please see the martial arts playlists on my YouTube channel:
https://www.youtube.com/c/DrAdamMCroom (accessed on 25 April 2022).
Muay Thai can therefore contribute to positive social relationships in several ways.
First, in order to begin learning a martial art like Muay Thai, one must find a coach or join
a martial arts gym, so this necessarily involves meeting new people and initiating new
social relationships. For example, when I started training at Boxing Works in California, I
met Coach Bryan Popejoy and other professional fighters and students that regularly train
together at Boxing Works. One thing that I liked about training at Boxing Works, even
though I worked at Equinox South Bay, was that Boxing Works was not just a general
fitness club with random members but was a more cohesive group united by a common
purpose, values, and culture. So, one of the great things about becoming a martial artist is
meeting others that share common goals and values and that will support you in your
personal endeavors. Muay Thai training, as an interactive social activity, brings together
individuals from different backgrounds, professions, and socioeconomic statuses and
unites them under the common goals of improving fitness and developing mastery in
martial arts skill. As partners continue training together over time and continue to expe-
rience positive emotions and flow experiences with each other, they continue to forge a
special social bond that can potentially last a lifetime (Figure 4).
Figure 3.
Muay Thai can contribute to engagement or flow experience. Whether shadowboxing
alone or engaging in focused work with a partner, it is easy to become completely absorbed in
the activity. One of the greatest benefits of gaining skill in a technical craft like martial arts is
that the skill becomes a conduit for flow experience, an important component of psychological
well-being. Developing social flow with others may also contribute to social relationships, another
important component of psychological well-being. For video demonstrations of shadowboxing
and interactive mitt work, please see the martial arts playlists on my YouTube channel: https:
//www.youtube.com/c/DrAdamMCroom (accessed on 25 April 2022).
Philosophies 2022,7, 65 17 of 25
Philosophies 2022, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 25
Figure 4. Muay Thai training can contribute to social relationships. Individuals across cultures, pro-
fessions, religions, political affiliations, and socioeconomic statuses are united by the common goals
of improving fitness and developing mastery in martial arts skill. Photo with Kru Bryan Popejoy
and the Boxing Works familia in Redondo Beach, California.
Furthermore, Muay Thai can contribute to meaning or purpose in life. As Seligman
[16] explains, “having meaning in life” consists of “belonging to and serving something
you believed was bigger than you were” (p. 233) and martial arts training certainly pro-
vides opportunities to serve something you believe is bigger than yourself. For example,
as a Muay Thai student at a gym like Boxing Works, individuals are not simply there for
their own sake but are also there for the sake of others. In class you will not only practice
executing your own punches and kicks, but also hold pads for others that are practicing
their punches and kicks. When practicing Muay Thai at a gym like Boxing Works, your
commitment to show up for yourself is inextricably intertwined with your commitment
to show up for others. As you support other martial artists working towards their own
goals and you play this role of supportive partner for your fellow martial artists, you ben-
efit as well by belonging to and serving something that you believe is bigger than yourself
[16]. Some of the martial artists at Boxing Works are champions with hundreds of thou-
sands of fans, and children look up to them as role models and mentors. As a fellow train-
ing partner and friend, each martial artist can play an important role in the lives of others
in their community and find meaning and purpose in life through this. One of the best
parts about working as a professional martial arts instructor in California was being able
to earn a living serving an important role in the lives of the people that I care about, since
coaching can be rewarding in the meaning that it confers through service to others (Figure
5).
Figure 4.
Muay Thai training can contribute to social relationships. Individuals across cultures,
professions, religions, political affiliations, and socioeconomic statuses are united by the common
goals of improving fitness and developing mastery in martial arts skill. Photo with Kru Bryan Popejoy
and the Boxing Works familia in Redondo Beach, California.
Furthermore, Muay Thai can contribute to meaning or purpose in life. As Seligman [
16
]
explains, “having meaning in life” consists of “belonging to and serving something you
believed was bigger than you were” (p. 233) and martial arts training certainly provides
opportunities to serve something you believe is bigger than yourself. For example, as
a Muay Thai student at a gym like Boxing Works, individuals are not simply there for
their own sake but are also there for the sake of others. In class you will not only practice
executing your own punches and kicks, but also hold pads for others that are practicing
their punches and kicks. When practicing Muay Thai at a gym like Boxing Works, your
commitment to show up for yourself is inextricably intertwined with your commitment to
show up for others. As you support other martial artists working towards their own goals
and you play this role of supportive partner for your fellow martial artists, you benefit as
well by belonging to and serving something that you believe is bigger than yourself [
16
].
Some of the martial artists at Boxing Works are champions with hundreds of thousands
of fans, and children look up to them as role models and mentors. As a fellow training
partner and friend, each martial artist can play an important role in the lives of others in
their community and find meaning and purpose in life through this. One of the best parts
about working as a professional martial arts instructor in California was being able to earn
a living serving an important role in the lives of the people that I care about, since coaching
can be rewarding in the meaning that it confers through service to others (Figure 5).
Philosophies 2022,7, 65 18 of 25
Philosophies 2022, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 25
Figure 5. Muay Thai can contribute to meaning or purpose in life. An important part of martial arts
training is serving as a supportive training partner for others. The photo on the right is from a social
media ad posted by Box N Burn in Santa Monica, California.
Finally, Muay Thai can contribute to personal accomplishments. The martial arts pro-
vide many opportunities for accomplishment as a student, partner, or competitor, since
most martial arts utilize a ranking system or have professionally sanctioned competitions
where martial artists can compete for rank and championship titles. Some Muay Thai
schools also utilize an armband ranking system, where each rank represents a higher level
of Muay Thai mastery, so that students can devote themselves to productively progress-
ing through the armband ranks (Thai Boxing Association). This may be especially useful
for children since it provides clear and specific goals to work toward (basic goals for white
armband students) as well as a low-stakes way to experience accomplishment (being pro-
moted from white to yellow armband). However, most modern Muay Thai gyms focus
less on ranking systems and more on the craft for its own sake or for the sake of winning
championship titles, such as a WBC MuayThai, One Championship, Lion Fight, or Glory
title. Boxing Works, for example, is filled with championship titles representing the ac-
complishments of their students and coaches. This is all very motivating and encourages
students from all walks of life that they, too, can achieve their goals if they are willing to
train, learn, and develop themselves in this form of life. Importantly, one does not even
need to be a competitor, professional fighter, or win a championship title to experience
accomplishment in martial arts, since there are many ways to experience success in this
community. For example, you may serve as an essential training partner or coach for a
friend that is about to participate in their first professional bout, and you may experience
accomplishment in helping your friend achieve their first victory. Muay Thai can also be
used to accomplish health and fitness goals [75], and using Muay Thai to achieve your
own fitness goals or to help others achieve their fitness goals can contribute to a genuine
sense of accomplishment. Further, by gaining mastery in Muay Thai, you also thereby
gain greater mastery over your own body, which is an important kinesthetic accomplish-
ment. And personally, as a lifelong practitioner of martial arts, being selected to serve as
the first Master Instructor to teach Everlast’s Striking Specialist Level 1 course in Southern
California contributed both to my sense of meaning or purpose in life (“I am responsible
for successfully delivering the first striking specialist course in California for Everlast”) as
well as to my sense of accomplishment (“How excellent that I was able to successfully
Figure 5.
Muay Thai can contribute to meaning or purpose in life. An important part of martial arts
training is serving as a supportive training partner for others. The photo on the right is from a social
media ad posted by Box N Burn in Santa Monica, California.
Finally, Muay Thai can contribute to personal accomplishments. The martial arts
provide many opportunities for accomplishment as a student, partner, or competitor, since
most martial arts utilize a ranking system or have professionally sanctioned competitions
where martial artists can compete for rank and championship titles. Some Muay Thai
schools also utilize an armband ranking system, where each rank represents a higher level
of Muay Thai mastery, so that students can devote themselves to productively progressing
through the armband ranks (Thai Boxing Association). This may be especially useful for
children since it provides clear and specific goals to work toward (basic goals for white
armband students) as well as a low-stakes way to experience accomplishment (being
promoted from white to yellow armband). However, most modern Muay Thai gyms
focus less on ranking systems and more on the craft for its own sake or for the sake of
winning championship titles, such as a WBC MuayThai, One Championship, Lion Fight, or
Glory title. Boxing Works, for example, is filled with championship titles representing the
accomplishments of their students and coaches. This is all very motivating and encourages
students from all walks of life that they, too, can achieve their goals if they are willing to
train, learn, and develop themselves in this form of life. Importantly, one does not even
need to be a competitor, professional fighter, or win a championship title to experience
accomplishment in martial arts, since there are many ways to experience success in this
community. For example, you may serve as an essential training partner or coach for a
friend that is about to participate in their first professional bout, and you may experience
accomplishment in helping your friend achieve their first victory. Muay Thai can also be
used to accomplish health and fitness goals [
75
], and using Muay Thai to achieve your
own fitness goals or to help others achieve their fitness goals can contribute to a genuine
sense of accomplishment. Further, by gaining mastery in Muay Thai, you also thereby gain
greater mastery over your own body, which is an important kinesthetic accomplishment.
And personally, as a lifelong practitioner of martial arts, being selected to serve as the
first Master Instructor to teach Everlast’s Striking Specialist Level 1 course in Southern
California contributed both to my sense of meaning or purpose in life (“I am responsible
for successfully delivering the first striking specialist course in California for Everlast”)
as well as to my sense of accomplishment (“How excellent that I was able to successfully
deliver the first striking specialist course in California for Everlast!”) (Figure 6). Finally,
Philosophies 2022,7, 65 19 of 25
earning a living as a martial arts instructor in California also contributed to my greatest
accomplishment, since it helped me pay my way through graduate school and accomplish
my goal of earning my Ph.D. and joining the cognitive science faculty at the University
of California.
Philosophies 2022, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 25
deliver the first striking specialist course in California for Everlast!”) (Figure 6). Finally,
earning a living as a martial arts instructor in California also contributed to my greatest
accomplishment, since it helped me pay my way through graduate school and accomplish
my goal of earning my Ph.D. and joining the cognitive science faculty at the University of
California.
Figure 6. Muay Thai can contribute to personal accomplishments. The martial arts provide many
opportunities for accomplishment as a student, partner, or competitor. There are many professional
Figure 6.
Muay Thai can contribute to personal accomplishments. The martial arts provide many
opportunities for accomplishment as a student, partner, or competitor. There are many professional
competitions that individuals can participate in to become amateur, professional, and master champi-
ons (UFC, One Championship, WBC MuayThai, Lion Fight). There are also many other opportunities
within the martial arts community to experience accomplishment, for example, by becoming a boxing
coach or Master Instructor for a martial arts company or gym. Martial artists also experience more
immediate forms of accomplishment by completing challenging training sessions and developing
kinesthetic mastery over their own body. Since I have been practicing martial arts for over 30 years,
being given the opportunity to teach the first Everlast Striking Specialist Level 1 course in my home-
town of Redondo Beach, California, also gave me a great sense of accomplishment. The top photo
shows the Everlast Master Instructor team at City Boxing Club in Las Vegas, Nevada. The bottom
photo shows the assigned coaching gear for Everlast Master Instructors.
Philosophies 2022,7, 65 20 of 25
4. Discussion
At this point it should now be clear that most critics of martial arts are theorists that
speculate from a position unsupported by experience or empirical data. Further, their
discussion about martial arts is centered on artificially contrived cases based on negative
stereotypes about martial artists that do not reflect their actual behaviors and cognitive
states. For example, Russell [
9
] claims that in martial arts “athletes win by harming their
opponents [
. . .
] it is how one wins” (p. 32) and Dixon [
11
] further claims that “its explicit
goal is to hurt and incapacitate opponents” (p. 365). However, the simple fact of the matter
is that martial artists compete in highly regulated sports where judges do not score fights
based on pain but rather based on rules [
89
92
]. This is how fights can be won in video
games where participants do not experience pain at all, but win or lose based on points or
rules of the game.
Consider also the philosophical case of a zombie fighter that has no phenomenal experi-
ence of pain whatsoever. A zombie fighter without the subjective experience of pain can
still win or lose a fight in Muay Thai or MMA, since winning and losing are not based on
pain but rather based on rules of the professional sport. For example, the zombie can lose
their fight by scoring fewer points than their opponent, resulting in the zombie’s loss by
decision regardless of its phenomenology. It is clearly false to claim that “athletes win by
harming their opponents” just as it is false to claim that “philosophers win by harming their
interlocutors”. It may very well be the case that physical harm leads to one’s opponent
giving up a fight in martial arts, just as it may very well be the case that psychological harm
leads to one’s interlocutor giving up an argument in philosophy. Nonetheless, causing
pain in others is not necessary or essential to the practice of martial arts or the practice
of philosophy.
Furthermore, the claims of critical philosophers contradict the actual behaviors of
martial artists displayed to millions of fans during martial arts competitions. For example,
if Russell [
9
] and Dixon [
11
] were right that the explicit and sole objective of a martial artist
is to inflict pain on others, then an expert martial artist should never aim to minimize the
pain of an opponent during a championship competition. However, professional martial
artists often purposely avoid inflicting more harm than is necessary to win a bout, even
during championship events where their record and millions of dollars are on the line.
For example, at UFC 254, Khabib Nurmagomedov had Justin Gaethje in an armbar and
could have easily ended the fight there by breaking Justin’s arm. However, since Khabib
knew that Justin’s parents were in attendance watching the fight, and Khabib remembered
Justin stating in an interview that he would never tap out under any circumstances, Khabib
switched holds on Justin mid-fight in order to avoid breaking Justin’s arm right in front of
his parents. Khabib therefore switched from the armbar to a triangle choke instead, which
simply caused Justin to pass out instead of breaking his arm. Jones [
93
] describes the event
nicely in an article for The Sun:
Khabib—who lost his dad to Covid-19 this summer—could have won [at UFC
254] even earlier, when he had his rival in a trademark armbar, had Gaethje’s
family not been in attendance. According to former heavyweight champion
Daniel Cormier, Khabib feared he would end up breaking his opponent’s arm,
after hearing Gaethje’s pre-fight claims that he would never tap out. So the
Russian [Khabib] chose to use the triangle method instead, choking his opponent
unconscious to take his record to 29–0.
As Khabib explained in a post-fight interview, “I didn’t want to hurt him [Justin] in
front of his parents so I went to the triangle [choke]—if he goes to sleep, he goes to sleep,
you wake up and you’re fine” quoted in [
93
]. Khabib clearly accomplished his goal at
UFC 254 by defeating Justin Gaethje in the second round, improving his perfect record
to 29–0, and cementing his status as one of the greatest mixed martial artists of all time.
However, Khabib accomplished his goal as a martial artist while intentionally aiming to minimize
the pain or harm of his opponent. As Khabib clearly demonstrates, the principal goal of the
Philosophies 2022,7, 65 21 of 25
martial artist is to win based on the rules of the sport [
92
], not to cause pain or harm in
others. Philosophers such as Russell [
9
] and Dixon [
11
] who maintain that the very purpose
of martial arts is to harm others hold an implausible position since they are unable to
account for many actual instances of true sportsmanship in professional martial arts, such
as that demonstrated by Khabib Nurmagomedov at UFC 254. Furthermore, martial artists
often embrace and congratulate each other post fight, forming life-long friendships and
business collaborations through this process (for example, Khabib donated $100,000 to the
charity of another fighter he defeated, Dustin Poirier, and offered him a place in the new
promotion he created called Eagle FC) [
94
,
95
]. Importantly, for a martial artist, an opponent
for a particular event is not necessarily an enemy and can very often become a great ally in
the broader context of life.
As I have argued throughout this article, practicing a martial art can provide an oppor-
tunity for many individuals to experience improved physical health as well as improved
psychological well-being. Recently, other scholars of martial arts have also argued that mar-
tial arts and combat sports can be useful for taking care of the self and cultivating health [
96
].
By improving our research methods on the study of martial artists—relying less on negative
stereotypes about martial artists from pop culture and relying more on empirical facts about
martial artists derived from expert experience and systematic experiments—cognitive sci-
ence and philosophy have much room for growth in this area of research, especially as
martial arts concerns flow experience, mental simulation, positive psychology, expertise
development, and embodied cognition. As I have presented the case here, by further
studying the minds of martial artists, we may gain fresh new insights in philosophy (for
example, about mental simulation during shadowboxing and the experience of social flow
during coordinated mitt work) and help to remove negative ungrounded stereotypes about
martial artists, contributing both to progress in philosophy as well as social equality in
our society.
5. Conclusions
Some scholars such as Russell [
9
] and Dixon [
11
] have argued that martial arts training
is maladaptive, contributes to psychological illness, and provides a social harm, whereas
other scholars such as Croom [
17
] and Allen [
1
] have argued that martial arts training
is adaptive, contributes to psychological wellness, and provides a social benefit. This
debate is important not only to scholars but also to the general public since beliefs about
martial arts training can have a real impact on how we evaluate martial artists for job
opportunities and career advancement, and in general, how we treat martial artists from
different cultures in our communities. This debate is also important for children and adults
that have considered enrolling in martial arts training programs but remain uncertain about
the potential benefits of martial arts training due to the lack of scientific research in this
area. The purpose of this article was therefore to make several important contributions to
the literature on martial arts and psychological well-being. First, this article provided a
review of the PERMA framework for psychological well-being from positive psychology
that characterizes psychological well-being in terms of five elements including positive
emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment. Second, this article
provided a review of the relevant empirical literature on Muay Thai training from the
fields of social psychology, sociology, education, and health and exercise science. Third,
this article argued that the results of the literature review on Muay Thai training support
the hypothesis that Muay Thai training can positively contribute to all five elements of
psychological well-being. Fourth, this article provided supporting discussion on Muay Thai
and psychological well-being from the perspective of an Everlast Master Instructor. Fifth,
this article introduced the concept of affordance perception to the martial arts literature and
discussed how martial arts training leads to the cultivation of combat-relevant affordances.
Finally, this article argued that most critics have offered uncharitable views about the
martial arts because they fail to understand the rules and regulations of these professional
sports as well as the actual conduct of real martial artists. This leaves philosophers such
Philosophies 2022,7, 65 22 of 25
as Russell [
9
] and Dixon [
11
] in an explanatorily weak position, where their account of
martial arts is not only disconnected from, but in direct conflict with, the rule systems of
specific martial arts. For example, Russell [
9
,
10
] discusses the practice of “eye gouging”
and “fish-hooking” in martial arts, although these are completely illegal in professional
martial arts events [
97
]. Further, the critical account of martial arts presented by Russell [
9
]
and Dixon [
11
] fails to explain the many cases of true sportsmanship that we see in the
martial arts, such as the example of Khabib Nurmagomedov at UFC 254 [92].
Contrary to critics, I have presented the case in this article that empirical evidence
supports the hypothesis that Muay Thai training in particular, and martial arts training
more generally, may in fact contribute to overall psychological well-being. As I have
presented the case here, the art of eight limbs can contribute to overall psychological
well-being by contributing to the five elements that constitute psychological well-being,
including positive emotions, engagement or flow experience, social relationships, meaning
or purpose in life, and accomplishment.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.
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... The social aspect of modern MA&CS is described as the most integral aspect in creating social bonds (Sugden 2021). It nurtures trust with teammates (Andersen 2021) and advances social skills and responsibility (Croom 2022;Destani et al. 2014). Interactions with peers solidify social identity (Rodrigues, Evans, and Galatti 2019) and promote transferred learning and motivation (Bueno and Saavedra 2016). ...
... Interactions with peers solidify social identity (Rodrigues, Evans, and Galatti 2019) and promote transferred learning and motivation (Bueno and Saavedra 2016). It also enhances social cohesion and group bonds through shared experiences (Kavanagh et al. 2019) and builds supportive communities that foster relationships which impart life skills (Chinkov and Holt 2016;Croom 2022). Although the systematic reviews are limited, Palumbo et al. (2023) highlighted Judo's ability to foster mutual learning and reduce social isolation through collaborative training, and by reducing fears of falling, increased social activities and overall sociality. ...
... Extending previous MAs and modern MA&CS literature, the internal methods of self-confidence were gained through physiological benefits (i.e., gaining strength and athleticism), which led to an enhanced body image (Costarelli and Stamou 2009), and self-esteem (Kostorz, Gniezinska, and Nawrocka 2017). The confidence gained from external methods came through praise from peers and coaches (Croom 2022), higher perceptions of physical ability (Richman and Rehberg 1986) and skill development (Ball and Martin 2012). Through skill development, practitioners were physically and mentally equipped to handle unsafe situations, increasing participants' perceived safety (Kotarska et al. 2019), which further strengthened their external confidence. ...
Article
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Martial arts and combat sports (MA&CS) have emerged as a promising avenue for enhancing health and wellbeing amidst growing concerns about noncommunicable diseases and mental health issues. This study explored the lived experiences of practitioners engaged in modern MA&CS, such as mixed martial arts (MMA), to understand how the practice of modern MA&CS impacts individuals biologically, psychologically and socially. Guided by the Biopsychosocial Model of Health and adopting a social constructivism lens, 16 participants aged 28-55 years underwent semi-structured interviews, exploring the physiological, psychological and social dimensions of their engagement in modern MA&CS. Through thematic analysis, three overarching themes were developed. The first theme highlighted the role of rigorous training in fostering resilience, discipline and personal growth. The second theme demonstrated how MA&CS builds self-confidence, reduces aggression and encourages prosocial behaviour. Lastly, the third theme underscored the importance of gym environments in fostering inclusivity, mutual respect and belonging. Modern MA&CS training transcends the gym offering a unique framework that promotes biopsychosocial wellbeing through resilience, confidence and community connection. Modern MA&CS holds potential for educational, therapeutic and community interventions aimed at fostering holistic wellbeing across diverse contexts.
... Some philosophers argue that martial arts and combat sports training is maladaptive, contributes to psychological illness, and provides a social harm (Dixon, 2015), whereas others argue that martial arts training is adaptive, contributes to psychological wellness, and provides a social benefit (Croom, 2022). Today, martial arts are often considered an element of global culture, seen both as a form of self-defense and as recreational and health exercises (Warchoł et al., 2021). ...
... The study of martial arts has seen growth in research and presentations at sports scientific congresses and more specific events dedicated to martial arts studies itself. A key debate is whether martial arts practice is beneficial for psychological well-being and social benefits, or if it is detrimental and causes harm (Croom, 2022). ...
... External motivations can motivate individuals to practice martial arts through instrumental desire to acquire skills for coping with situations of physical conflict (Kostorz & Sas-Nowosielski, 2021). The results from empirical research support the hypothesis that martial arts training can contribute to psychological well-being by contributing to the five elements of psychological well-being, including positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment (Croom, 2022). Nosanchuk and MacNeil (1989) point out that in martial arts the philosophy that permeates is that of reaching the Zen state of mushin, a state in which the participant is able to fight to the fullest but without aggressive feelings. ...
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Considering the mechanized modern living in restricted indoor spaces, aggression and mental disorders among young people and adults and their negative consequences in Iran, in-depth studies of this issue are important. The purpose of this article is to understand the meaning of combat sports for Iranian athletes and to understand how it drives them to action. Following an Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) approach, 17 male kickboxing and muay Thai athletes in the Kurdistan province in western Iran were surveyed through semi-structured interviews. Four main themes and 12 sub-themes were extracted from analyzing the experiences of the research participants: (1) Increasing existential capacity, (2) cultivating a moral personality, (3) enhancing one’s health and (4) improving one’s lifestyle. Our research suggests that, for these participants, kickboxing and muay Thai have a positive effect in many mental, social and moral dimensions of existence. Moreover, because of the potential positive impact on the individual behavior, these sports are also very effective in reducing societal problems such as hooliganism, destructiveness and vandalism, suicide, inappropriate lifestyle, decline of values and violence.
... Suddenly, the philosophy of martial arts does not seem all that fringe. Rather, it participates in highly relevant epistemic themes that feature in more standard domains of philosophy [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13] 1 . ...
... 1 Indeed, the philosophy and science of martial arts has been receiving an increased amount of academic attention, of late. See: [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13]. 2 There are philosophical and sociological traditions that detail how scientific practice is relevant to systems under study. For instance, Hacking describes 'effects', which are regularities that are produced through intervention [18]. ...
... See: [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13]. 2 There are philosophical and sociological traditions that detail how scientific practice is relevant to systems under study. For instance, Hacking describes 'effects', which are regularities that are produced through intervention [18]. ...
Article
Full-text available
We argue that an epistemology of martial arts is at least as complex as advanced epistemological positions available to the philosophy of science. Part of the complexity is a product of the epistemic relation between the knower and known, or the scientist and the object of inquiry. In science, we measure things without changing them and, sometimes, complex systems can change as we measure them; but, in the epistemology of sport that we are interested in, each measurer is also an object of inquiry. As such, each martial arts practitioner has to use various epistemic tools to measure a responsive system. We proceed in three steps. First, we discuss three epistemological frameworks in the philosophy of science—perspectivism, productivism, and distributed cognition. Second, we develop an epistemology of martial arts that features components from each of those epistemic frameworks. Third, we close the paper with a brief discussion about the unique complexity available to the martial artist, focusing on the responsive measurements that occur between two systems.
... In fact, Thai Fight recently invested over $5.5 million USD (200 million THB) into developing and opening the world's first Muay Thai luxury hotel [15]. Not only is Muay Thai a fun and effective form of exercise that is enjoyed by people of all kinds from all over the world, it is also one of the most popular and effective striking systems in mixed martial arts, as evidenced by the prominent usage of Muay Thai techniques in contemporary MMA [2,34]. Further, at the 138th International Olympic Committee session ...
... In the existing literature on martial arts, "shadowboxing" has been characterized by Croom [2] as: ...
... Exercise physiologists, sports psychologists, and positive psychologists have not yet investigated the physical and psychological effects of Muay Thai training, making this an exciting area for new research. For example, previous empirical research on Muay Thai largely adopted a semi-structured interview methodology and did not provide quantitative data on the influence of Muay Thai training on the individual elements of psychological well-being, such as positive emotions, flow experience, social relationships, meaning or purpose in life, and accomplishment [2,4,22]. Further, previous 1 3 empirical research did not yet consider how Muay Thai training may benefit people differently based on their gender, martial arts experience, and training location. ...
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Does martial arts practice contribute to psychological well-being in professional martial artists? If so, what are the specific ways that martial arts practice accomplishes this? It has been a long-standing and widely held belief that martial arts practice can contribute to psychological well-being, however, there has been a lack of empirical research in the psychological literature focused on investigating the details of this hypothesis. The purpose of this research is therefore to investigate the impact of a paradigmatic martial arts practice — shadowboxing — on the psychological well-being of professional martial artists. In this article I present the results from an original empirical study on professional Muay Thai practitioners (n= 14) that reveals how a martial arts practice (shadowboxing) contributes to their overall psychological well-being by contributing to their positive emotions, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment. I present general results for how shadowboxing contributes to the psychological well-being of these professional martial artists overall, as well as more specific results for how shadowboxing contributes to the psychological well-being of these professional martial artists based on factors such as their gender, fight experience, and training location. This article also provides qualitative first-person reports from professional Muay Thai practitioners (n = 14) about their use of visualization and mental imagery and their experience of flow while shadowboxing, offering unique insight into the minds of professional martial artists as they are actively engaged in their craft. Finally, this article discusses the value and limitations of the present study and outlines suggestions for future research.
... The frequent repetition of traditional technical forms benefits us throughout our daily life'. Numerous sources cite the potential for moral and spiritual growth through martial arts practice as well (Croom, 2014(Croom, , 2022(Croom, , 2023Cynarski, 2022;Holt, 2023;Lloyd, 2014). ...
... Funakoshi insisted that 'Karate-dō is not only the acquisition of certain defensive skills but also the mastering of the art of being a good and honest member of society' (Funakoshi, 2012a, p. 101). Perhaps in this way, too, the shared embodied imagination of karate practitioners can inspire a certain ethics that carry into actuality thanks to the kata performed in virtuality (Croom 2022, Rosenberg 2022). I agree with Steeves when he argues that the virtual body with its embodied imagination offers the potential for an 'inter-corporeality', one that 'introduces a unity-indifference that embraces without eliminating the alterity of the Other' (Steeves,p. ...
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This paper is an exploration of how a particular moment in time - the 2020 pandemic - created a paradigm shift that both has and has not affected the way martial artists train. I argue rethinking the concept of virtuality beyond the bounds of technology provides a lens through which to better understand certain aspects of embodied existence that both reinforce and go beyond the physical. I discuss the virtual effects on training in terms of a phrase I call embodied imagination via a phenomenological analysis using Gilles Deleuze, Edward Casey, and Maurice Merleau-Ponty. I focus on karate kata and their bunkai, which serve to exemplify how embodied imagination is always already both virtualized and actualized in senses individual and communal. I end with a description of a combination of techniques that relies on narrow line work, utilizing creative interpretations of limited and liminal spaces.
... One popular stereotype is that martial arts training improves mental health [12], while another refers to violent depictions of the martial arts in the media [28] and is concerned that martial arts training increases aggressive behaviour. Notably, this dichotomy has been debated by philosophers in recent years especially in terms of whether martial arts training (a) promotes psychological wellness or illness, or (b) creates social benefit or harm [29]. Some of the philosophical critiques regarding martial arts have validity. ...
Article
Full-text available
Physical activities are generally accepted as promoting important psychological benefits. However, studies examining martial arts as a form of physical activity and mental health have exhibited many methodological limitations in the past. Additionally, recent philosophical discussion has debated whether martial arts training promotes psychological wellbeing or illness. Self-efficacy has an important relationship with mental health and may be an important mechanism underpinning the potential of martial arts training to promote mental health. This study examined the effect of martial arts training on the psychological construct of self-efficacy. A total of 283 secondary school students with a mean age of 12.76 (SD = 0.68) years were recruited to complete a time-limited (10-session) martial arts intervention, which was examined using a randomised controlled trial. Univariate ANOVAs found that the intervention improved the experimental group’s self-efficacy compared to the control group, which was sustained at follow-up. Regression analysis indicated that socio-educational status moderated this outcome. These findings support the martial arts-based intervention’s potential to improve self-efficacy and promote wellbeing through physical activity. Martial arts training may be an efficacious psychosocial treatment that can be used as a complementary approach to promote mental health.
... One of the strengths of this proposal is that it coheres with other extant research on martial arts. If martial arts at their best contribute to psychological well-being, as argued for instance by Croom [10], Allen [11], and Young [12], this may be accounted for at least in part because of their broad purpose of embodying wisdom, even if perspectives vary widely on questions either of what constitutes wisdom or the best way to realize it through the discipline(s) of martial arts [13]. It respects the distinction between a martial art as a do (way) over and above a jutsu (technique) [13,14], that there is, in other words, a crucial philosophical element in the martial arts [13,15], whether aspects of Confucian courtesy, Daoist wu-wei ("no-action"), or Zen Buddhist "no-mind", and so forth. ...
Article
Full-text available
While defining martial arts is not prerequisite to philosophizing about them, such a definition is desirable, helping us resolve disputes about the status of hard cases. At one extreme, Martínková and Parry argue that martial arts are distinguished from both close combat (as unsystematic) and combat sports (as competitive), and from warrior arts (as lethal) and martial paths (as spiritual). At the other extreme, mixed martial arts pundits and Bruce Lee speak of combat sports generally as martial arts. I argue that the fine-grained taxonomy proposed by Martínková and Parry can be usefully supplemented by a broader definition, specifically the following: martial arts are systematic fighting styles and practices as ways of embodying wisdom. A possible difficulty here is that such views face the charge of overemphasizing the “philosophical” aspect of martial arts. My definition can, however, avoid this apparent problem. If martial arts essentially aim to embody wisdom, this applies no less to the (strategic) practical wisdom of The Art of War than to the (ethical) practical wisdom of the Tao Te Ching. In an extended sense, then, any systematic fighting style, including combat sports, may count as a martial art insofar as it embodies wisdom by improving practical fighting skills.
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Mixed martial arts (MMA) is frequently criticized as barbaric and inhumane. This stands in stark contrast with the booming popularity of the sport. Before now, what little philosophical work has been written on MMA depicts it as something inherently wrong (as with Dixon) or as something merely permissible (as with articles by Weimer and Kershnar and Kelly, respectively). Contrary to these foregoing analyses this chapter argues that MMA is not only permissible, but a morally praiseworthy and virtuous endeavor in virtue of developing moral character and recognizing the intimate connection between body and mind.
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