Marine Protected Areas Management in the Mediterranean Sea—The Case of Croatia

Abstract

Marine protected areas (MPAs) are widely used tools to conserve marine ecosystems and their services. They are complex socio-ecological systems where human activities and nature interact. Croatia has 409 protected areas, of which 19 are coastal-marine. The aim of this paper is to analyze the management model of MPAs in Croatia and to identify their strengths and weaknesses. For this purpose, three MPAs have been chosen: Brijuni National Park, Telašćica Nature Park, and Pakleni Islands Significant Landscape. The methodology used assesses 26 specific indicators to analyze the status of 4 key factors: management body, planning subprocess, public participation, and implementation subprocess. The results of this evaluation are 5 possible scenarios: proactive (1), learning (2), interactive (3), centralized (4), and formal (5) management. The results show that Brijuni presents a proactive scenario (1), Telašćica an interactive scenario (3), and Pakleni Islands a centralized scenario (4). A series of measures are presented, which can improve the score. In general, MPA management in Croatia tends towards a proactive model, where the management body is its greatest strength. There is a shift from a top-down to a bottom-up approach, which implies a greater involvement of the population in decision-making. However, public participation is not yet fully consolidated.

Full text

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Diversity2022,14,448.https://doi.org/10.3390/d14060448www.mdpi.com/journal/diversity
Article
MarineProtectedAreasManagementintheMediterranean
Sea—TheCaseofCroatia
MaríaMaestro
1,
*,JuanAdolfoChica‐Ruiz
1
,ZvjezdanaPopovićPerković
2
andMaríaLuisaPérez‐Cayeiro
1

1
FacultyofMarineandEnvironmentalSciences,UniversityofCadiz,11510PuertoReal,Spain;
adolfo.chica@uca.es(J.A.C.‐R.);isa.perez@uca.es(M.L.P.‐C.)
2
UniversityDepartmentofMarineStudies,UniversityofSplit,21000Split,Croatia;
zvjezdana.popovic@unist.hr
*Correspondence:maria.maestro@uca.es
Abstract:Marineprotectedareas(MPAs)arewidelyusedtoolstoconservemarineecosystemsand
theirservices.Theyarecomplexsocio‐ecologicalsystemswherehumanactivitiesandnatureinter‐
act.Croatiahas409protectedareas,ofwhich19arecoastal‐marine.Theaimofthispaperistoana‐
lyzethemanagementmodelofMPAsinCroatiaandtoidentifytheirstrengthsandweaknesses.For
thispurpose,threeMPAshavebeenchosen:BrijuniNationalPark,TelašćicaNaturePark,and
PakleniIslandsSignificantLandscape.Themethodologyusedassesses26specificindicatorstoan‐
alyzethestatusof4keyfactors:managementbody,planningsubprocess,publicparticipation,and
implementationsubprocess.Theresultsofthisevaluationare5possiblescenarios:proactive(1),
learning(2),interactive(3),centralized(4),andformal(5)management.Theresultsshowthat
Brijunipresentsaproactivescenario(1),Telašćicaaninteractivescenario(3),andPakleniIslandsa
centralizedscenario(4).Aseriesofmeasuresarepresented,whichcanimprovethescore.Ingeneral,
MPAmanagementinCroatiatendstowardsaproactivemodel,wherethemanagementbodyisits
greateststrength.Thereisashiftfromatop‐downtoabottom‐upapproach,whichimpliesagreater
involvementofthepopulationindecision‐making.However,publicparticipationisnotyetfully
consolidated.
Keywords:assessment;Croatia;management;marineprotectedarea;publicparticipation

1.Introduction
Marineprotectedareas(MPAs)arewidelyusedtoolstoconservemarineecosystems
andtheirservices.Theyarefoundworldwide[1]andhaveproventobeasuccessfulman‐
agementinstrumenttoconservebiodiversity[2–4],beingcriticalforhumanwell‐being
[5,6]andprovidingnumerousbenefitstosociety,especiallyrelatedtorecreationandtour‐
ism[7,8].Inrecentyears,theyhaveevolvedfromapristinemodel,wherenohumanpres‐
encewasallowed,toanecosystemapproach,wherethesocialpartisequallyimportant
asthephysical–naturalone[9–15].
Nowadays,MPAsarecomplexsocio‐ecologicalsystemsinwhichhumanactivities
andnatureinteract.Theyaretypicallyfoundincoastalorcoastal‐marineareas,which
havehistoricallybeenusedbyfishermenandindigenouspeople[16–18].Infact,only
1.18%ofMPAsarefoundininternationalwaters[19].Thismeansthattheircreationand
managementdirectlyaffecttheactivitiesandbehaviorofpopulationslivingalongthe
coast,makingitnecessarytoreconciletheuseandexploitationofresourceswithconser‐
vation.
MPAscanhavedifferentdegreesofprotectionand/oruseofsitesandtheirresources.
Generally,benefitsforlocalcommunitiesandgeneralpopulation,andforbiodiversity,
tendtobegreaterasthedegreeofprotectionincreases[20–22].However,resultsarenot
alwaysobviousorimmediate.Sometimes,localpeoplearelimitedintheiraccessto
Citation:Maestro,M.;Chica‐Ruiz,
J
.A.;PerkovićPopović,Z.;
Pérez‐Cayeiro,M.L.Marine
ProtectedAreasManagementinthe
MediterraneanSea—TheCaseof
Croatia.Diversity2022,14,448.
https://doi.org/10.3390/d14060448
AcademicEditors:MichaelWink
andCharalamposDimitriadis
Received:12May2022
Accepted:31May2022
Published:2June2022
Publisher’sNote:MDPIstaysneu‐
tralwithregardtojurisdictional
claimsinpublishedmapsandinstitu‐
tionalaffiliations.

Copyright:©2022bytheauthors.Li‐
censeeMDPI,Basel,Switzerland.
Thisarticleisanopenaccessarticle
distributedunderthetermsandcon‐
ditionsoftheCreativeCommonsAt‐
tribution(CCBY)license(https://cre‐
ativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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resourcesafterdeclaration,andthiscanleadtoconflictorlackofsupportandrespectfor
regulations[23].Nonetheless,MPAsarefundamentaltotheeconomicandsocialwell‐
beingofthepopulation.
Therefore,conservationofecosystemsandtheirresourcesmustbeaddressedto‐
getherwiththecommunitiesthatusethesespaces.Infact,severalauthorsconsidersocial
acceptanceasthemainindicatortomeasurethesuccessofanMPA[24–27].Nowadays,
notonlyistheinclusionofthepopulationintheuseandenjoymentofresourcesbeing
contemplated,butthereisanincreasingtrendtowardsaparticipatorymanagement
model,inwhichsocietyhasthetoolstoinfluencedecision‐making[11,28].
AnothernotableproblemisthatmanyofthecurrentMPAsdonothavemanagement
plansandarenotbeingadequatelymanaged[9].Sometimes,theonlyprotectiontheyre‐
ceiveisdesignationasaprotectedarea,butwithoutappropriatehumanandfinancialre‐
sources,biodiversityconservationisnotensured.Thisleadstopoormanagementand,in
theworstcases,toso‐called“paperparks”,i.e.,areasthathavebeendesignatedaspro‐
tected,butinpracticereceivenomanagementatall[29–31].Appropriatemanagement
thatisadaptiveandensuresthesustainableandequitableuseofecosystemsandtheir
servicesisneeded.
Forallthesereasons,theimprovementofmanagementandthedevelopmentofdif‐
ferenttoolstohelpmanagerstoexerciseamoreparticipativemanagementandtomonitor
progressarebeingpromoted.Toanalyzehowmanagementactionsandcomponentsare
doing,andtoidentifystrengthsandweaknesses,amanagementassessmentisaveryuse‐
fulelement.Numerousframeworksconsiderthisasanintegralstepbecauseitmakesit
possibletoreceivefeedbackthatfacilitatesdecision‐makinganderrorcorrection[32,33].
Itdoesnotonlymeanobservingproblemsbutalsoidentifyingandanalyzingthoseas‐
pectsthatarebeingdonewell,inordertoprovidethenecessaryinformationfordecision‐
makingbyareamanagers[34].Differentmethodologiesexisttoevaluatemanagement
[35–43].However,thereisalackofinternalanalysisofthemanagementbodyitselfand
oftheMPAmanagementmodel.
Croatiaisextremelyrichintermsoflandscapeandfavorableclimateandhasagreat
biologicaldiversity.Ithas409protectedareas,ofwhich19arecoastal‐marine.Thesystem
ofprotectedareasnationallydesignatedcoversapproximately1.04%ofthesea,although
theCroatianpartoftheNatura2000networkincludes8.79%ofthemarinearea[44].The
NatureProtectionActensurestheconservationofthenaturalenvironment.Itprovides
forninecategoriesofprotectedareasthatcorrespond,asfaraspossible,tooneofthe
internationallyrecognizedIUCNcategories.Nationalandnatureparksaredesignatedby
theParliament,strictandspecialreservesbytheGovernment,andtheothercategoriesby
thecountyassembliesandtheZagrebCityAssembly.ThisActprovidesforpublicpartic‐
ipationandaccesstodesignationacts[45].ProtectedareasaremanagedbyPublicInstitu‐
tions,whosemainfunctionistheprotection,maintenance,andpromotionofprotected
areas,andmonitoringcompliancewithregulations.
TheaimofthepaperistoanalyzethemanagementmodelofMPAsinCroatiaandto
identifystrengthsandweaknesses.Forthispurpose,threeMPAswithdifferentprotection
statuseshavebeenchosen:BrijuniNationalPark,TelašćicaNaturePark(bothmanagedat
nationallevel)andPakleniIslands(significantlandscapemanagedbySplit‐Dalmatia
County)(Figure1a).Thesethreecasesstudiesaccountfor2.48%ofCroatia’sprotected
coastalandmarinearea.

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(a)(b)

(c)(d)
Figure1.(a)MapofCroatiashowingthelocationofthethreestudyareas:(b)MapofBrijuniNa‐
tionalPark;(c)MapofTelašćicaNaturePark;(d)MapofPakleniIslandsSignificantLandscape.
2.MaterialsandMethods
2.1.StudyAreas
2.1.1.BrijuniNationalPark
BrijuniNationalPark(Figure1b)consistsof14islands,islets,andcliffslocatedalong
thewesterncoastofIstria.Itwasdeclaredanationalparkandmemorialsiteon1Novem‐
ber1983bytheNationalParksActandtheBrijuniMemorialSite.Ithasalmost47kmof
coastlineandis3395.0ha,ofwhich2651.7aremarine[46].Itwasdeclaredthankstoits
geomorphological–hydrological,climatic,andlandscapecharacteristics,togetherwiththe
flora,fauna,anditsuniqueculturalheritage.In2021,itwasawardedtheBlueParkprize
forachievingthehighestscientificstandardsofmarinelifeprotectionandmanagement.
AswithallnationalparksinCroatia,commercialfishingaroundBrijuniisprohibited.
Therearenopopulationcentersinthenationalpark.Assomeislandsareveryclosetothe
mainlandandlocalpeoplehavealwaysenjoyedtherighttofish,todaythePublicInstitu‐
tionstillissuespermitforrecreationalfishingaroundtwoislands.However,thereissig‐
nificantpressureonfishstocksinandbeyondtheboundariesofthePark,andtheestab‐
lishmentofabufferzonearoundthecurrentparkboundariesisunderconsideration.
2.1.2.TelašćicaNaturePark
TelašćicaNaturePark(Figure1c)wasdesignatedassuchin1988withtheseparation
fromKornatiNationalPark,ofwhichitwasapartoffrom1980to1988.Telašćicaobtained
thestatusofaprotectedareathankstoitsfaunaandflora,geologicalandgeomorpholog‐
icalphenomena,diverseseabedcommunities,andarchaeologicalheritage.Threebasic
unitsrepresentthefundamentalcharacteristicsofthisarea:thebayofTelašćica,thecliffs
ofDugiOtok,andthesaltlake“Mir”.Thetotalareaofthenatureparkis70.50km2,with
25.95km2inDugiOtokandtheislets,and44.55km2inthesea[47].

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OnLongIslandthereare2873inhabitants(accordingtotheCensusofPopulation,
HouseholdsandDwellings.RepublicofCroatia:CentralBureauofStatistics,2011).The
populationworksintourism,agriculture,orfishing,althoughasurveyconductedin2010
revealedpublicconcernaboutthestateoffishstocks.Respondentspointedoutthatthere
havebeenchangesinthecommunityduetotheemigrationofyoungpeoplefromthe
islandandreducedqualityoflifeduetoinabilitytofindemploymentandinsufficient
culturaloffer[48].
FishingactivitiesinNatureParksinCroatiaareregulatedthroughtheFisheriesAct
withnodifferencesinsizeandtypeoffishinggearoutsideandinsideprotectedareas.
OnlyrecreationalfishinghasbeenregulatedsinceJuly2018.Specific(morerestricted)
regulationsarejustabouttobedevelopedandadopted.
2.1.3.PakleniIslandsSignificantLandscape
PakleniIslands(Figure1d)areanarchipelagoof19islandsandisletsdeclared“sig‐
nificantlandscape”in1968fortheircomplexgeographyof634.38ha.Theunderwater
environmentssurroundingtheislandsarepartoftheEuropeanecologicalnetwork
Natura2000andwerechosenwiththeaimofpreservingPosidoniaoceanicabeads,reefs
withestablishedalgalandcoralbiocenoses,infralittoralsands,mudflats,andsandflats
notcoveredbyseawateratlowtideandseacaves.Theyaremanagedbythe“MoreiKrš”
Institution,undertheCountyofSplit‐Dalmatia.
Onthenearestinhabitedisland,Hvar,thereare11,077inhabitants,whileonthe
largerisland,Sv.Klement,therearethreevillagesthatareonlyoccasionallyinhabited
[49].Tourismisoneofthemainsourcesofincomeforthecommunities.Manyareengaged
inagriculture,animalhusbandry,orfishing.
2.2.Methodology
ThemethodologyusedtoanalyzethemanagementofPakleniIslands,TelašćicaNa‐
turePark,andBrijuniNationalParkhasbeenappliedbeforeinAzoresMarinePark[50]
andinthreenationalparksofCostaRica[51].Ithasasocialperspectivethatisbasedon
theanalysisoftwofundamentalelements:processesandpeopleinvolved.Thestepstobe
takenareasfollows.
2.2.1.Step1.SelectionofKeyManagementAspects
Fourmanagementaspectswereidentifiedaskey.Keyaspectsarethoseofatransver‐
salnaturethatalsoencompassdifferentelements.Theseare:managementbody,planning
sub‐process,publicparticipation,andimplementationsub‐process.Basedonthemethod‐
ologiesdevelopedbytheWorldDatabaseofProtectedAreas(WDPA),thesefouraspects
havebeenchosenbecause,inafirstapproach,weaimtocoverthewholeprocessofplan‐
ningandexecution,andthepeopleinvolvedinthemanagement:themanagersandstake‐
holders.
2.2.2.Step2.IdentificationofSpecificIndicators
Aseriesofspecificindicatorswereselectedforeachaspect.Anindicatorisaspecific,
observable,andmeasurablecharacteristicthatcanbeusedtoshowthestatusofanaspect
ofmanagement.Inthiscase,indicatorsareinquestionformat.Thisresultedin26indica‐
tors(Table1),whichwerechosenbasedontheliteraturereviewedandonourexpertcri‐
teria.Someofthemweredevelopedbytheauthors,whileotherswereadaptedfromother
methodologies.Table2showsthegeneralthemesthatweredrawnfromthesesources.


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Table1.IndicatorsforMPAmanagementanalysis.
KeyManagement
AspectIndicatorEvaluation
ManagementBody
1.Backgroundofthestaff
1Withoutbasictrainingoreducation.
2Highereducation:onlynaturalsciences.
3Highereducation:multidisciplinaryteam(naturalandsocialsciences)
2.Technicaltrainingofferedtostaff
1No,orsporadically.
2Yes.
3Italsoanticipatesfutureneeds.
3.MPAstaffparticipationintheplanning
processes
1No.
2Sporadic.
3Inallplanningprocesses.
4.MPAstaffhavethenecessaryproceduresto
participateintheplanningprocesses
1No.
2Ithassomeprocedures,sometimesinsufficient.
3Yes.
5.Cooperationwithotherinstitutionsatthe
locallevel
1No.
2Notwithallinstitutionsornotonaregularbasis.
3Itexistsonaregularbasiswithallinstitutions.
6.Cooperationwithotherinstitutionsatthe
regionallevel
1No.
2Notwithallinstitutionsornotonaregularbasis.
3Itexistsonaregularbasiswithallinstitutions.
7.Cooperationwithotherinstitutionsatthe
internationallevel
1No.
2Notonaregularbasis.
3Itexistsonaregularbasis,withalargenumberofinstitutions.
8.Collaborationandexchangeofknowledge
withotherinternationalprojects/programs
1No.
2Notonaregularbasis.
3Itexistsonaregularbasis,withalargenumberofprojects/programs.
Planningsub‐process
9.Managementplan
1No.
2Notimplemented,oronlypartiallyimplemented.
3Itexists,isupdated,isfullyimplemented,andhasanestablished
scheduleforregularreviewsandupdates.
10.Strategiesandmanagementmeasures
identifiedwiththemanagementobjectives
1Theydonotexistorarenotrelatedtotheobjectives.
2Theyexistpartlyinrelationtotheobjectives.
3Theyexistandarecompletelyidentifiedwiththeobjectives.
11.OperationalPlan
1No.
2Partiallyimplemented.
3Fullyimplemented.
12.Ecosystemdiagnosiscarriedoutpriorto
thedevelopmentofthemanagementplan
1No.
2Notavailabletointerestedparties.
3Yes,anditispublishedoravailable.
13.TheMPAintegratedintoanMPA
network
1No.
2Itisintheprocessofbeingintegrated.
3Yes.
PublicParticipation
14.Publicparticipationintheprocessof
developingthemanagementplan
1Therewasorisnomanagementplan.
2Yes.
3Yes,atallstagesofthedevelopmentofthemanagementplanand
participationisforeseenfortheevaluationofthemanagementplan.
15.Representativepublicparticipationinthe
processofdevelopingthemanagementplan
1Therewasnomanagementplan,itwasnotrepresentative,orthereis
nomanagementplan.
2Onlytheprioritygroupswererepresented.
3Bothprimaryandsecondaryuserswererepresented.
16.Socialactorsparticipationinmanagement
decisionmakingorplanningprocesses
1No.
2Throughconsultation
3Interactiveparticipationwithadirectimpactondecisionmaking
17.Collegiatebodyforparticipation
1No.
2Isnotrepresentativeand/ordoesnotfunctionproperly.
3Itexists,itisrepresentative,anditworksproperly.
18.Communicationbetweenstakeholders
andmanagers
1Verylittleornone.
2Notwithinanestablishedprogram.
3Acommunicationprogramsisbeingimplementedtobuild
stakeholdersupportfortheMPA.

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19.Sustainabilityeducationactivities
1No.
2Sporadically.
3Onaregularbasisandwithwideparticipation.
20.Volunteerorenvironmental
communicationactivities
1No.
2Sporadically.
3Onaregularbasisandwithwideparticipation.
21.MPAinformationavailableto
stakeholdersandthegeneralpublic
1No.
2Partisavailableuponrequesttotheparkmanagement.
3Itisavailableonthewebsite,availabletoanyinterestedparty.
ImplementationSub‐Process
22.ZoningoftheMPA
1Itdoesnotexistfortheuseorconservationofresources.
2Itexistsforuseandconservation,butitisonlypartiallyfunctionalor
outdated.
3Itexistsupdated,withmeasuresandconcreteusesforeachzone.
23.Budgetallocatedforthemanagementof
theMPAisadequate
1Thisinformationisnotaccessible.
2
Thebudgetguaranteesthecostsoftheadministrationand
surveillancestaffandthemeansnecessaryformanagement(vehicles,
equipment,fuel,etc.).
3Thebudgetalsoallowsforotherinnovativeactivitiessuchas:
research,development,etc.
24.Monitoringandevaluationofbiophysical,
socio‐economicandgovernanceindicators
1No.
2Itdoesnotfollowastrategyorregularcollectionofresults,whichare
notsystematicallyusedformanagement.
3Thereisagoodsystemofmonitoringandevaluation,whichiswell
implementedandusedinadaptivemanagement.
25.Scientificinformationintegratedinto
MPAmanagement
1No.
2Insomecases.
3ItservestoevaluateandimprovethemanagementoftheMPA.
26.TheMPAconsideredasocio‐ecosystem
1No.
2Thesocialsystemisanimportantfactor,butthenaturalsystemisa
priority.
3Itisconsideredandtakenintoaccountthroughouttheprocess.
Table2.Topicsevaluatedwithindicatorsadaptedfromothermethodologies.
TopicsSources
Trainings[37,38,52]
Planningtools[52]
Managementplans[37–39,52]
Operativeplans[37,38]
Publicparticipation[38,52]
Collegiatebodies[39]
Communication[37–39,52]
Environmentaleducation[38,52]
Volunteer[38]
Information[39]
Budget[38,52]
Monitoring[38,52]
Scientificknowledge[37–39]
2.2.3.Step3.DataCollectionandAssessmentofIndicators:Scorefrom1to3Points
Eachoftheindicatorshasbeenratedonascaleofonetothree,withonebeingthe
mostunfavorablesituationandthreetheoptimum.Althoughusingtheseoptionsisasim‐
plerepresentation,itcoverstheentirespectrumofresponses,fromanegativeassessment
oftheindicatortoanoptimalsituation,passingthroughanintermediatestate.Thissystem
facilitatesresponsesandfutureproposalsforimprovement.Foreachindicator,eachof
therangeshasbeenspecifiedtoidentifywhat“optimalstate”means.
Torespondtotheindicators,severalsourcesofinformationhavebeenused,primar‐
ilyinterviewswiththemanagersoftheprotectedareas.Onemanagerwasinterviewedin
BrijuniandPakleni,andthreeinTelašćica.Semi‐structuredface‐to‐faceinterviewswere
conductedwithmanagersatthreeparks,alwaysbythesameperson.Thesewerebased

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onaquestionnairewithopen‐endedquestions,buttheconversationwasallowedtobring
upnewtopicsorissuesofrelevancetotheinterviewee.Theinformationobtainedfrom
theinterviewsandfieldobservationswascontrastedwiththebibliographicsourcesto
determinethescoreobtainedforeachindicator.Specifically,managementplans,annual
reports,technicaldocuments,projectdocuments,andscientificarticleswereanalyzed.
Fieldobservationsincludedvisitstothefacilitiesoftheparkadministrationandtothe
mostimportantphysical,natural,andculturalsites.Onceallsourceswereanalyzed,the
scoreforeachindicatorwasdetermined.
2.2.4.Step4.DefinitionofFiveManagementScenarios:ExpertCriteria
Onceallindicatorshaveavaluefrom1to3,theaverageiscalculatedtofindouthow
eachofthefourkeyaspectsisvalued.Thedifferentpossibilitiesthatcanbefoundare
considered,dependingonthevaluefrom1to3ofeachoftheaspects.Fromthiscombina‐
tion,wehaveproposedfivemodelsthatrepresentfiverealities,dependingonfourvari‐
ableseach(Table3).Theyareorderedfromtheidealsituationtotheleastfavorableas
follows:
‐ Scenario1:Proactivemanagement.Theteamthatmakesupthemanagingbodyis
multidisciplinaryandhighlytrained.Theycollaborateandcooperatewithotherin‐
stitutions.Participatorymanagementiscarriedoutwhereallstakeholdersarerepre‐
sented.Itisplannedyearsaheadandpossibleproblemsareanticipated.
‐ Scenario2:Learningmanagement.Allfourelementshavethesameintermediate
value;therefore,theyareinasituationwheretheycouldbeimproved.Themanage‐
mentbodyismultidisciplinary.Itisplannedforthemediumtermandismanaged
inresponsetopastmistakesandsuccesses.Thereispublicparticipation,butitisnot
fullyrepresentativeorwellconsolidated.
‐ Scenario3:Interactivemanagement.Themanagementresponsibilityfallslargelyon
socialactors.Allstakeholdersarewellrepresentedandhaveappropriateparticipa‐
tionmechanisms.Planningandimplementationsubprocessesarecarriedouttrans‐
parentlybytheauthorities.Awarenessishighamongthepopulation.
‐ Scenario4:Centralizedmanagement.Themanagingbodyissoundandmultidisci‐
plinaryandfunctionscorrectly.Itcanbelongtodifferentscales.Ithasresponsibility,
determinesthemanagementobjectives,anddevelopsandexecutesthemanagement
plan.However,publicparticipationisnotverycommonindecision‐making.
‐ Scenario5:Formalmanagement.Priorityisgiventoshort‐termmanagement.Plan‐
ningisextremelystatic,publicparticipationindecision‐makingisnotcarriedout,
norarethereevaluationmechanismsorstrategicmediumtolong‐termobjectives.


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Table3.ManagementScenarios.
Typeof
Management
Rating
Figures
Management
Body
PlanningSub‐
Process
Public
Participation
Implementation
Sub‐Process
Proactive
3333

Learning
2

222

Interactive*
1,2,3

1,2,331,2,3

Centralized
31,2,31,21,2,3



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
Formal**

1,21,21,21,2

*Interactivemanagementiswherepublicparticipationscoresthehighestbutatleastoneofthe
other3aspectsdoesnothaveascoreof3.**Formalmanagementoccurswithanycombinationof
oneandtwowhenthetotalisnottwo.
Amethodofanalysisandprojectionofrealitythroughtheconstructionofscenarios
wasused,byapplyingalternative(fiveoptions)andcontrasted(canbecompared)scenar‐
ios[50].Thisisatoolforunderstandingthepotentialandlimitsofmanagement.Thefac‐
torsthatdefinethesescenarioscanchangeovertime,andthusareimagesofpresent,fu‐
ture,and/ordesirablesituations[53,54].Therefore,itisaproposalthatallowsustoun‐
derstandtheevolutionofamanagementmodel.Inaddition,itcanbeseenwhethercertain
specificchanges(inanyoftheindicators)causesignificantchangestothegeneralmodel
ornot.
3.Results
BrijuniNationalParkscored2.9forthemanagementbody,2.8fortheplanningstage,
2.5forpublicparticipation,and2.6fortheimplementationstage.Withtheseresults,the
parkmanagementmodelisconsideredtoresembletheproactivescenario(Figure2a).
TelašćicaNatureParkscored2.9forthemanagementbody,2.6fortheplanningstage,
2.5forpublicparticipation,and2.2fortheimplementationstage.Withtheseresults,the
parkmanagementmodelisincludedintheinteractivescenario(Figure2b).

(a)(b)(c)
Figure2.(a)EvaluationofthemanagementofBrijuniNationalPark;(b)Evaluationofthemanage‐
mentofTelašćicaNaturePark;(c)EvaluationofthemanagementofPakleniIslandsSignificant
Landscape.
PakleniIslandsscored2.9forthemanagementbody,2fortheplanningstage,2.1for
publicparticipation,and2fortheimplementationstage.Withtheseresults,theparkman‐
agementmodelfallsintothecentralizedscenario(Figure2c).
Figure3showstheassessmentforeachoftheindicatorsanalyzedinBrijuniNational
Park,TelašćicaNaturePark,andPakleniIslandsSignificantLandscape.Table4shows
somedetailsontheassessmentofeachoftheindicators.

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Figure3.Assessmentofindicators.


Managementbody
Planningsub‐process
Publicparticipation
Implementationsub‐process

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Table4.Detailsoftheratinggiventoeachindicator.
Key
Management
Aspect
Indicator
Details
BrijuniTelašćicaPakleniIslands
ManagementBody
1.Backgroundofthe
staff
Boardof5members,
multidisciplinary,
managedbythe
BrijuniNationalPark
PublicInstitution
Boardof5members,
multidisciplinary,
managedbythe
PublicInstitutionof
theTelašćicaNature
Park
Boardof5members,
multidisciplinary,
managedbythe
InstitutionMorei
Krš,underthe
CountyofSplit‐
Dalmatia
2.Technicaltraining
offeredtostaff
Budgetissetaside,
butthereisnoset
program
Budgetissetaside,
butthereisnoset
program
Budgetissetaside,
butthereisnoset
program
3.MPAstaff
participationinthe
planningprocesses
YesYesYes
4.MPAstaffhavethe
necessaryproceduresto
participateinthe
planningprocesses
YesYesYes
5.Cooperationwith
otherinstitutionsatthe
locallevel
YesYesYes
6.Cooperationwith
otherinstitutionsatthe
regionallevel
YesYesYes
7.Cooperationwith
otherinstitutionsatthe
internationallevel
YesYesYes
8Collaborationand
exchangeofknowledge
withotherinternational
projects/programmes
Yes,itisinvolvedin
manyprojects
Yes,e.g.,
FishMPABlue2Yes
PlanningSub‐Process
9.Managementplan
Yes,validfor10years
(2016–2025).Currently
underrevision.In
additiontothisplan,
thedocumentsthat
regulatethe
organization,use,
planning,protection,
andmanagementof
MPAsarethespatial
planandtheinternal
organizationalrules
Yes,validfor10years
(2012–2021).Anew
oneiscurrentlybeing
developed.In
additiontothisplan,
thedocumentsthat
regulatethe
organization,use,
planning,protection,
andmanagementof
MPAsarethespatial
planandtheinternal
organizationalrules
Underdevelopment

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10.Strategiesand
managementmeasures
identifiedwiththe
managementobjectives
YesYes‐‐
11.OperationalPlanYesYes
Yes,ithasexercised
thefunctionsofthe
managementplanso
far
12.Ecosystem
diagnosiscarriedout
priortothe
developmentofthe
managementplan
No,butanexternal
analysisofthestateof
ecosystemswas
developed
No
No,butanecosystem
servicesassessment
wasdeveloped
13.TheMPAintegrated
intoanMPAnetwork
Yes,national
(CroMPA)and
international
(MedMPAnet)
Yes,national
(CroMPA)and
international
(MedMPAnet)
Yes,national
(CroMPA)and
international
(MedMPAnet)
PublicParticipation
14.Publicparticipation
intheprocessof
developingthe
managementplan
Yes,participationwas
mainlythroughtwo
workshops,providing
phonenumbersand
emailsforenquiries
andinterviewing
visitors.Thefirstwas
“Objectivesand
activitiesofBrijuni
NationalPark
management”andthe
second“Zoningof
BrijuniNationalPark”
[46]
Yes,itwasthefirst
eventthatincluded
thepopulation.The
implementationof
themanagementplan
iscarriedoutin
cooperationwiththe
SunceAssociation
andtheMedPAN
SouthProject[47]
Yes
15.Representative
publicparticipationin
theprocessof
developingthe
managementplan
YesYesYes
16.Socialactors
participationin
managementdecision
makingorplanning
processes
No
Population
participatesinsome
monitoring
No

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17.Collegiatebodyfor
participation

No
Forsomespecific
aspects,suchas
fishing.Anetwork
hasbeencreated
betweenfishermen,
thegovernment
(Directorateof
Fisheries),thepark
management,and
WWFAdriatoco‐
managefisheries.The
networkispartofthe
FishMPABlue2
project
No
18.Communication
betweenstakeholders
andmanagers
Yes,thereisanannual
marketingplan,and
theparkisveryactive
onsocialmedia
Yes,thereisno
communicationplan
inplace,butthepark
isveryactiveon
socialmedia
Thereisno
communicationplan,
butthereisa
telephoneandemail
available,andannual
meetingsareheld
withthepopulation
19.Sustainability
educationactivitiesYesYes
Yes.Someinitiatives
aremobile
applicationsto
identifyinvasive
speciesorillegal
activities
20.Volunteeror
environmental
communication
activities
Yes
Yes,butthereare
areaswheremore
informationpanels
androutesare
needed.An
informationpointis
underconstruction
Yes
21.MPAinformation
availableto
stakeholdersandthe
generalpublic
YesYes
Asitismanagedat
Countylevel,the
websiteandsocial
mediaareshared
withtherestofthe
MoreIKršprotected
areas,and
informationabout
thisparticularareais
morelimitedtothe
public,althoughitis
availableonrequest

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ImplementationSub‐Process
22.ZoningoftheMPA
Yes,butthereisagap
betweenthe
managementplanand
thespatialplan
Yes,butthereareno
powerstomanageit.
Anewinternal
regulationis
currentlybeing
developedthatwill
giveauthoritytothe
park
No.Thereisonlyone
habitatmap.Zoning
isnotmandatoryfor
thisprotection
category
23.Budgetallocatedfor
themanagementofthe
MPAisadequate

Ithassufficient
budgetforbasic
management,butnot
forthefull
implementationof
projectsandallthe
necessarystaff.Ithas
attractedattentionfor
itssustainable
financingstrategy,
whichincludesa
concessionprogram
fortourismactivities
thatwasusedto
achieveconservation
objectives.TheSARS‐
CoVpandemichas
significantlyaffected
theCroatianeconomy
Ithassufficient
budgetforbasic
management,butnot
forthefull
implementationof
projectsandallthe
necessarystaff.The
SARS‐CoVpandemic
hasconsiderably
affectedtheCroatian
economy
Ithassufficient
budgetforbasic
management,butnot
forthefull
implementationof
projectsandallthe
necessarystaff.The
SARS‐CoVpandemic
hasconsiderably
affectedtheCroatian
economy
24.Monitoringand
evaluationof
biophysical,socio‐
economic,and
governanceindicators
Whenthereare
projects.Biophysical
andsocio‐cultural
indicators
Whenthereare
projects.Biophysical
indicators
Whenthereare
projects.Biophysical
indicators
25.Scientific
informationintegrated
intoMPAmanagement
Yes.Severaldatabases
havebeencreated,for
exampleoneon
marinehabitats,
culturalheritagesites
fromprehistorictimes
tothe20thcentury,
andgeological–
paleontologicalsites
ofinterest
Forexample,the
analysisofmetal
concentrationsin
waterisservingasa
basisfordelimiting
thecarryingcapacity
ofanchoredvessels
andisabouttobe
determinedonland
[47].Adatabaseon
thefishingsituation
inthemarinepartof
theparkwouldbe
needed,whichis
planned
Yes
26.TheMPA
consideredasocio‐
ecosystem
YesInprocessInprocess

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4.Discussion
Allparkshavealmostthehighestscore(2.9)forthemanagementbody,showingthat
itisoneofthegreateststrengthsoftheCroatianprotectedareasystem.Thisissimilarin
otherEuropeancountries,suchasFranceandtheUK[55].AppropriatetrainingofMPA
managersortechniciansshouldbemultidisciplinary.InCroatia,eachparkhasaManage‐
mentBoard,whichisresponsibleforadoptingthemanagementplanandannualplans,
drawingupafinancialplanandmanagingtheaccounts[46].Inaddition,ithasanexpert
service,withspecializeduniversitytraining,whichadvisestheBoardinmakingdecisions
thathaveadirectimpactonthebiophysicalsystems.Therefore,theparkshaveamulti‐
disciplinaryteamthatallowsthemtoapproachmanagementwithanecosystemap‐
proach,whichisnecessarytoreconciletheprotectionofecosystemsandtheirservices
withtheeconomicdevelopmentoflocalpopulations[56,57].
Thereisnodoubtthatcapacitybuildingisfundamentaltosuccessfullyaddressing
managementofprotectedspaces.VanderMolen[58]arguesthatconflictresolutionand
workingtowardsasustainablerelationshipbetweenenvironmentandsocietyisamulti‐
facetedprocessthatencompassesdifferentformsofcapacitybuilding.ThethreeMPAs
provideforstafftrainingbasedoncurrentprioritiesandspecificneeds.However,thereis
noestablishedtrainingplanassuch,andtheresponsibilityandinitiativeliewiththeem‐
ployeehimself/herself.Nevertheless,ananalysisoftheannualreportsshowsahighlevel
ofstaffinvolvement,asmanymultidisciplinarycoursesareheldeachyear.Atthemore
operationallevels,thereiscompulsorytrainingtoenablethemtocarryoutcertainactivi‐
ties.Theabsenceofaregulatedtrainingprogramisashortcomingobservedinother
MPAsaroundtheworld,suchasCostaRica[51],eventhoughtheymanagetheirresources
adequately.
IntheMediterranean,MPAsaregenerallyunderstaffed(Brijuniisanexception)or
havestaffwithnoexperienceinmanagement,conservation,andplanning[59],making
capacitybuildingprogramsveryuseful.DiCarloetal.[59]identified250trainingoppor‐
tunitiesrelatedorapplicabletoMPAmanagementintheMediterranean,providedover
thepastfiveyearsby51nationalandinternationalorganizations.Ofthese,onlyfourwere
extensivecoursescoveringthefullrangeofmanagementtopics.Mostofthemareone‐
timecoursesanddonotbelongtoanyregulartrainingprogram.Withafewexceptions,
onlyonlinecoursesareavailableonacontinuousbasisandcanbetakenatanytime.How‐
ever,MPAstaffmaychange(newstaffjoiningandrequiringtraining)orfaceemerging
problemsandneeds,somechanismsneedtobeputinplacetoensurethatknowledge
remainswiththemanagingbodyandMPAstaffandiscontinuouslyupdated.Examples
ofwaystoovercomethisproblemarethecreationoflearningnetworks,supportteams,
oracoregroupoftrainers.
Cooperationwithotherlevelsofadministrationandevenwithotherinternational
agenciesandbodiesshouldbehighlighted.Theseincludenationalandinternationaluni‐
versitiestoresearchinstitutesandlocalassociations.ProjectssuchasMedPanSouthPro‐
ject,whichsupportedthecreationofBrijuniandTelašćicamanagementplans,standout.
Brijuni,beinganationalpark,isinvolvedinalargenumberofprojects.Thisbroadcollab‐
orationisaverypositivefactor,asitiskeytotheimplementationofmarinepolicies[60]
andfosterspublicawarenessandsupportforprotection.Increasingly,MPAmanagement
ismovingtowardsinterdisciplinarity.
Itisclearthatgoodmanagementrequirestheadoptionofclearobjectivesandgov‐
ernancesystems,theallocationofadequateandappropriateresources,andtheimplemen‐
tationofmanagementstrategiesandprocesses[61].Moreeffortneedstobedevotedto
planningforthefutureandplanningandimplementingcurrentactivities[62].Benefits
derivedfromMPAsarerelatedtothedesign,thenumberofresources,thedegreeofpro‐
tectionprovidedthroughfairgovernanceandeffectivemanagement,andthescaleat
whichitworks[63].Brijuniscorednearthehighestscoreintheplanningstage,demon‐
stratingthatthisprotectioncategory(nationalpark)iscommittedtoshort‐,medium‐,and
long‐termplanningformarineenvironment.ThemanagementplansforBrijuniand

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Telašćicaarealmostfullycompliedwith.InPakleniIslandsthemanagementplanisinthe
processofdevelopmentand,sofar,theannualoperationalplanhasexercisedthefunc‐
tionsofthemanagementplan.However,theimplementationoftheactivitiesofthethree
parkshasbeenreducedduetotheSARS‐CoVpandemic.Thishasoccurredinmanycoun‐
tries,includingBrazil,CostaRica,Namibia,Ecuador,Indonesia,Canada,theUnited
States,andSouthAfrica[64–66].AdaptingMPAmanagementtothecurrentsituationleft
bythepandemicisaglobalchallenge.Parksfaceemergingchallenges,suchasdrastically
decreasingbudgets[64,67]orincreasingcontaminationfromsingle‐usemasks[68],andit
isessentialtoaddresstheminaholisticmanner,seekingnature‐basedsolutions[64].
CroatiahasanetworkofMPAs(CroMPA),whichwaspromotedbytheBrijuniPublic
Institutionwiththeobjectivesofincreasingmanagementeffectiveness,capacitybuilding,
dataexchange,implementingacommonapproachtosolvingmanagementproblems,in‐
fluencingthefuturedevelopmentofastrategiclegalframework,andplanning,preparing,
andimplementingcommonprojects.Thisnetworkprovidestheopportunitytoestablish
Croatiaasaleadingcountryintheprotectionofthemarineenvironment.Inaddition,all
parksarepartoftheMediterraneanMPANetwork(MedMPAnet),whichisindispensable
forlong‐termmarinebiodiversitymonitoringprojects[69].
AnimportantpartofMPAplanningandmanagementisunderstandingandincor‐
poratingtheprioritiesofdifferentgroups[70–73].ThedesignandmanagementofanMPA
shouldbebasedonknowledgeofthephysicalandecologicalsystemsthataffectit,and
onhumandimensions,includinggovernance,socio‐economic,andculturalaspects
[74,75].Managementmustbeadaptedtothesocio‐culturalsituationofeachplace.Fur‐
thermore,thedesignofthedecision‐makingprocessmustbetransparentandcoverall
stagesofmanagement.
Until2004,aneffectivesystemwasinplacetoensurearepresentativeinclusionof
stakeholdersinmanagement.Boardsconsistedofrepresentativesofscientificcommuni‐
ties,localcommunities,theNatureProtectionDirectorate,andpoliticalrepresentatives.
However,thissystemwasabandoned,andmembersarenowdeterminedsolelyonpolit‐
icalgrounds[76].Despitethis,thereisabalancebetweenallsectorsinvolvedintheBoards
ofthethreeparks,whicharemultidisciplinary.RecentpublicationssuggestthatMPA
managementshouldevolvetowardsabottom‐upmodel,inwhichlocalpeoplearein‐
volvedinplanningprocesses[77],ortowardsanintermediatemodelcombiningbothtop‐
downandbottom‐upelements[78–80].
Inthissense,Croatiaisgettingclosertothisdesirablesituation.Forexample,inthe
caseofTelašćica,thedevelopmentofthemanagementplanwasthefirsteventthatin‐
cludedthepopulation.Sincethen,ithascollaboratedinsomemonitoringandlocalfish‐
eriescouncilshavebeenestablished.IntheframeworkoftheFishMPABlue2project,for
thefirsttimeinCroatia,fishermenwereinvolvedinthedesignofthefisheriesmanage‐
mentplan.Theydecidedtocreateno‐takezoneintheMPAthemselvesandreplacedtheir
netswithmoreselectiveonestoreducefishingpressureandcatchperuniteffort.Thisis
agoodexampleofamanagementplandevelopedinabottom‐upapproachinvolving
fishermen,scientists,non‐governmentalorganizations,andthegovernment[81].
However,thereisstillalongwaytogo.MPAsareonlylegallyobligedtoensure
stakeholderparticipationinrelationtothedesignationofanMPAandintheformofpub‐
licconsultationsregardingproposalsformanagementplansandactsofsecondarylegis‐
lationaffectingtheirinterests.Nevertheless,aneffectivesystemofstakeholderparticipa‐
tioninday‐to‐daymanagementhasnotbeendeveloped[76].
ThissituationisfoundinotherMPAsaroundtheworld,forexampleinCalifornia,
wherethedesignandplanningofitsMPAnetworkwashighlyparticipatory.Stakehold‐
ersplayedakeyroleandwerethesolegroupresponsibleforproposingMPAconfigura‐
tionsandlocations[82].However,withoutspecificstructuresforthisprocess,maintaining
thehighlevelofparticipationandengagementischallenging,especiallywiththetop‐
downmodelthatislegallyinplace[82].InThailand,meanwhile,nationallegislationcon‐
tainsprovisionsforparticipation,butministerialmandatesandlocalmanagersmaintain

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top‐downapproaches,leadingtoconflictsbetweenthecommunityandmanagers[83].As
canbeseen,itisessentialthatpublicpoliciesarealignedatallscales,andthattheinstitu‐
tionsinchargeofmanagingMPAshavethewillandthetoolstodosoinaparticipatory
way,beyondthedesignoftheMPAortheelaborationofthemanagementplan.
TherearenopopulationcentersinBrijuniNationalPark,sostakeholdersbelongto
thenearestcommunities(mainlyFažana).Oneoftheactivitiescarriedoutduringthede‐
velopmentofthemanagementplanwereinterviewswithvisitors.Itwasobservedthat
mostofthemhaveconcernsrelatedtoproblemswithinfrastructureandservices,tourism
management(hotelsandvisitors),andconservationofnaturalandhistorical‐culturalher‐
itage[46].Someofthemhavenoproblemswiththecurrentlevelsofcooperationandex‐
pecttocontinuetodoso(inresearch,education,orvolunteering),whileotherswantto
increasethelevelofcooperationandparticipatemoreactivelyinthepark’sactivities[46].
Overall,thesefindingsshowthatthedesiresofcommunitiesinterestedincoastal
MPAsarecontext‐specific,evenwhenthegroupsappeartobesimilar.Asimilarfinding
occursinaCanadianMPA,BasinHead,wherestrongcommunitysupportwasfound[84].
Mostintervieweesinthisparkindicatedthattheyweresatisfiedwithjustreceivingup‐
datesandallowinglocalmanagementandleaderstomakemanagementdecisions.This
wasinfluencedbythefactthatthepartnershipformedbymanagersandthepopulation
generatedahighleveloftrust,allowingotherstakeholderstotakeahands‐offapproach.
However,inBrijuni,sincethecreationofthemanagementplan,socialactorshavenot
beeninvolvedinmanagementprocessesandrelationswiththecommunityarenotascon‐
solidated,althoughcommunicationchannelsarealwaysopenforsuggestionsandconsul‐
tations.
Toavoidconflict,itisimperativethatallstakeholdersareinvolvedinplanningand
managementprocessesinarepresentativemanner[85,86],leadingtogreatertransparency
andrecognitionoftheviewsandconcernsofdifferentactors.Thisincreasesthelikelihood
ofagreementsandimprovessocialacceptability,legitimacy,andsupportforfuture
MPAs.InCroatia,effortshavebeenmadetoinvolvestakeholdersinoceanprojectsand
management.However,despiteitslongexperienceincreatingandimplementingpark
policies,thereareobviousdifficultiesingettingprotectedareastoplaytheirrolethrough
theinvolvementoflocalcommunities[87].Successfulparticipatoryconservationrequires
alegislativeframework,understandinganddeterminationofmanagement,andlocalwill‐
ingnesstoimplementconservationprograms.OnecaseofanMPAthathassignificantly
improveditspublicparticipationisTubbataha,inthePhilippines.Initially,thestatedid
nottakecommunityinputintoconsiderationduringthedesignoftheMPA.However,
eightyearslater,aparticipatorygovernancesystemwasestablished,whichhasbeenin‐
strumentalinthesuccessofthisarea.Themanagementplanwassubjecttoextensivecon‐
sultation,andparticipatoryevaluationiscarriedoutaspartofanadaptiveplanningpro‐
cess.Research,information,andeducationcampaignsareoftencarriedoutincollabora‐
tionwithvariousorganizations[88].Zengetal.[89]proposepromotingpublicparticipa‐
tionthroughbetteradvocacyandincentivemechanisms,andthecreationoflocaladvisory
councils,whichallowformoreactivestakeholderparticipationandprovideopportunities
tointeractwithmanagementagencies.
BothTelašćicaandBrijunihaveeducationandvolunteerprogramsandactivities,alt‐
houghbothwereaffectedduetorestrictionscausedbytheSARS‐CoVpandemic.In
Brijuniseveralactivitiesarebeingdevelopedtobetterpresenttheparkanditsheritage
[46],andinTelašćicatherearevariousactivitiesonthevaluesofthepark.However,there
aresomeproblems,especiallyintheMirBayarea,whichreceivesmorethan100,000vis‐
itorsduringthetouristseason[47].
Inordertoimplementmanagementactionseffectively,sufficienthumanandfinan‐
cialresourcesareessential.ThemainsourcesofincomeinCroatianparksareEUand
nationalfunds,donations,andsponsorships,andthosegeneratedthroughtheirownac‐
tivities.ThefundsfortheannualbudgetoftheBrijuniPublicInstitutioncomefromthe
incomeearnedbytheinstitution.Until2014,theparkreceivedsmallfinancial

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contributionsfromtheCroatiangovernmentforcertainstaffsalariesandcapitalprojects.
Sincethen,theparkhasbeenfinanciallyindependentfromthegovernmentandisfunded
throughtourismrevenues,donations,andEU‐sponsoredprojects.Ithasattractedatten‐
tionforitssustainablefundingstrategy,whichincludesaconcessionprogramfortourism
activitiesthatwasusedtoachieveconservationobjectives.This,amongotherreasons,has
ledtoitbeingawardedtheBlueParkAwardin2021.
However,itisrelevanttonotetheimpactthattheSARS‐CoVpandemichashadon
theCroatianeconomy,whichisheavilydependentontourism.InthePlitviceLakesNa‐
tionalPark(alsoinCroatia),tourism‐relatedrevenuesaccountforapproximately98%of
thetotal,whichleadstoMPAsbeingunabletocarryouttheiractionsandmanagement
plansintheabsenceofvisitors.Aparadigmshiftisneeded,includingdiversificationof
fundingsourcesforareasandcommunities,effectiveallocationoffinancialresources,and
responsibletourismrecoveryplans[64].
Themeaningofmanagementisnoneotherthantoimplementtheplanandprograms
thathaveemergedintheplanningstage.Inadditiontoexecutingthevariousmeasures,
itisalsoessentialtomonitorimplementation[90].Severalauthoritiesadoptadaptive
managementasacentralorientationofconservationmanagement[79].Itisthecyclical
processofsystematicallytestingassumptions,generatinglearningbyevaluatingresults,
andcontinuingtocorrectandimprovemanagementpractices[33].Thisenablestheiden‐
tificationofthemosteffectivemeasurestoachievedesiredoutcomes,andabetterunder‐
standingofhowobjectivesshouldbemodifiedinthecontextofchangingconditions[91].
Itrequiresaregularsystemofmonitoringandevaluation.Attentionshouldbepaidtothe
analysisofsocio‐economicaspectsoftheMPAandlocalperceptions[92,93].
Monitoringofindicatorsiscarriedoutwhenthereisaprojectthatrequiresit.In
TelašćicaandPakleniIslands,onlybiophysicalindicatorsareconsidered.InBrijunithey
alsohavevisitormonitoring.Thisaspectcouldbeimprovedbyestablishingaregular
monitoringsystem,asitsabsencecanleadtoconflictsbetweenmanagers,fishermenand
thescientificcommunity,ashashappenedintheSanyaCoralReefs[94].However,all
threeparkshaveasystemofannualevaluation,throughreporting,whichexaminesthe
degreeofcompliancewiththeoperationalplan.Thisevaluationisusedtopropose
changestothemanagementplanforthefollowingyear.Thisprocedureisusedinother
successfulMPAs,suchastheAustralianGreatBarrierReef[95],althoughpublicpartici‐
pationinthisparkishigher.Monitoringofmanagementactivitiesiswellestablishedin
Croatiabutmonitoringofbiophysicalandsocio‐economicindicatorsisnotsystematic.
Despitethis,allparkshavealongscientifictraditionandresultsareintegratedinto
management.InthecaseofBrijuni,biophysical,cultural,andarchaeologicalissuesare
studied.Forexample,severaldatabaseshavebeencreated,suchasmarinehabitats,cul‐
turalheritagesitesfromprehistorytothe20thcentury,andsitesofgeological–paleonto‐
logicalinterest.InTelašćica,thebiophysicalpartisthemostimportant,althoughthesocial
partisbecomingincreasinglyimportant.Adatabaseonthefishingsituationisplanned.
ThelicenseholdersarenotobligedtoreporttheamountoftheircatchestothePublic
Institution,soithasnotbeenpossibletomonitorthefishingeffortwithinthepark.Con‐
sideringthatalmostthewholeareaisprivatelyowned(95%),itsmanagementbecomes
morecomplex,andmutualco‐operationisofutmostimportance.Anotherexampleofthe
useofscientificinformationinmanagementinthisparkistheanalysisofmetalconcen‐
trationsinthewater,whichisservingasabasisfordelimitingthecarryingcapacityof
anchoredvessels[47].
Ingeneral,publicparticipationandtheimplementationstagearetheaspectsthat
needtobestrengthenedthemost.Theseweaknesseshavebeenidentifiedatleastsince
2014[96].Atthetime,theidentifiedweaknesseswerefacilitationandconflictresolution,
communicationwiththelocalcommunityandtheirparticipationinmanagement,dissem‐
inationofMPAvalues,issuesandrulesofbehaviorwithvisitors(publicparticipation),
andmonitoring,evaluation,andmanagementoftheprojectcycle(implementationstage).
Theseelementscouldserveasastartingpointfordevelopingatrainingprogramfor

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managersatthenationallevel,strengtheningcommunityrelationsandadaptivemanage‐
mentthroughconstantfeedback.ThishappensinmanyMPAs.CasestudiesinFrance,
England,andPortugalshoweddeficienciesintheimplementationoftheiractions,which
waspresentinonly40%ofcases,whilethispercentagewassomewhathigherinSpain
[55].Thismaybedueto