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KIU Journal of Social Sciences
129
KIU Journal of Social Sciences Copyright©2021
Kampala International University ISSN: 2413-9580; 7(1): 129-135
Imperativeness of Ethics in Christianity: Perspectives and Praxis
PETER O. O. OTTUH, O. G. IDJAKPO
Delta State University, Abraka, Delta State, Nigeria
Abstract. The issue of rightness or wrongness and
good or bad is a very crucial matter that society
contends within contemporary times. Most religions
today including Christianity that promote the making
of ethical decisions do not at the same time address a
variety of ethical problems which their adherents
face. Using several ethical underlying principles, this
theoretical paper argued that ethics is imperative to
Christianity. It concluded that ethics in Christianity is
rooted in the love for God and humanity as a whole.
Keywords: Imperativeness, Ethic, Christianity,
Perspectives, Praxis.
1. Introduction
In most cases, ethics is mixed up with a variety of
ways in which decisions are made. While most
religions support their adherents to make healthy
ethical decisions, they have failed to address the
ethical crisis faced by them.
The advent of Christianity occasioned a new trend in
ethics because it introduced a religious perception of
good into Western reasoning. Rooted in a Christian
view, is the perception that an individual is
holistically dependent on God and cannot attain
goodness by means of the will or reason but only
with the assistance of the grace emanating from God
(Holloway & Holloway, 2013). The „kpim’ (core) of
any Christian ethical belief is premised on “the
golden rule” contained in (Matthew 7:12) that says,
“So whatever you wish that men would do to you, do
so to them”; also in the injunctions to love one‟s
neighbour as oneself in Leviticus 19:18; and to love
one‟s enemies also in Matthew 5:44. Worthy of note
is that Jesus believed that the fundamental
significance of the Jewish law is predicated on the
commandment that says, “You shall love the Lord
your God with all your heart, and with all your soul,
and with all your strength, and with your entire mind;
and your neighbour as yourself” (Luke 10:27). Thus,
early Christianity emphasized as virtues asceticism,
martyrdom, faith, mercy, forgiveness, and non-erotic
love, few
of which had been considered important by the
philosophers of classical Greece and Rome (Bulafia,
2002).
Seen from the above context, the rightness and
wrongness of decisions or actions cut across every
segment of human life. In this sense, ethics affects
every stage of life including the proper ways to act by
individuals, groups and governments; and having
ethically rooted human society. The aim of this
research is to synthesize ethics and ethical choices in
Christianity. The research recognizes that in
individuals‟ Christian context, ethical decisions
concerning what is “right” or “wrong” are a difficult
task. This implies that in taking ethical decisions
sensitivity and intelligence are required because of
the underlying moral situations. While the paper
believes that ethics requires practice, it argues that
strong frameworks for ethical decision-making are a
sin-qua-non.
2. Ethics and Ethical Approaches
Etymologically, the term, “Ethics” is from the
Greek “ethika” or “ethikos”, also “ethos”, which
means “character” or “custom”; and in Latin, it is
called “mores” or “customs (Goldsenth, 2009).
Technically speaking, from the Greek and Latin
contexts, ethics is the principles or standards of
human conduct; and by extension, it studies such
principles also called moral philosophy.
Ethics, as a branch of philosophy, is rated as science
KIU Journal of Social Sciences
130
which creates standards due to its relation to
standardizing of human behaviours (Goldsenth,
2009). However, this research is concerned with
ethics mainly in the sense of standards of human
conduct and its scope is limited to the Christian
religion.
Ethics uses ethical theories (principles) as
instruments to measure ethical decisions or
judgments (Emeka & Ekpenyong, 2011). Theories
underlying ethical decisions are grouped into three
with each of them having a variety of approaches that
may also cut across one another.
2.1 Consequentialist theories
These theories are solely rooted in ethical outcomes
resulting from specific actions. To accomplish their
aims, consequentialist theories employ the utilitarian,
egoistic and the common good approaches.
Utilitarianism which is traced to Epicurus argues that
the life which creates less pains and frustrations is the
best, while Bentham employed a criteria that is
similar to that of individual‟s acts, and developed a
pattern whereby acts may be explained as right or
wrong premised on the measure of the results they
intended to create (Ramsey, 2009). David Mill, on
the other hand, streamlined this pattern by creating a
format for the good and a non-impartial notion of
happiness which is in variance with the materialistic
idea of pleasure (Miller, 2007). One of the
commonest approaches employed in ethical decision
making is utilitarianism, particularly the choices that
have consequences as end results and that have a
connection with a larger group of individuals.
Utilitarian ethics instructs people to always appraise
the rightness and wrongness of their intended actions
before they under take them (Peschke, 1998). One of
the variations of utilitarianism is ethical egoism (self-
interest). Some influential proponents of this
approach include Thrasymacus, Thomas Hobbes and
Ayn Rand who posited that respect for one own self
and other people are core indicators of ethical egoism
(Peschke, 1998). Their views are in variance to that
of Plato, Aristotle and Jean-Jacques Rousseau‟ s
“Common approach” which promote the perspective
that human action should contribute to ethical
communal life where the best society should be
guided by the collective will of the people which
would in turn produce what is best for the people
holistically.
2.2 Non-Consequentialism
These theories employ the duty-based, rights, fairness
(or justice), and divine command approaches.
Deontological ethics as it is also called is linked to
Immanuel Kant, even though it has significant
proponents of non-consequentialism in the past who
are serious religious thinking people such as St.
Augustine of Hippo that dealt on the relevance of the
individual‟s will and the choice to make decisions
that are ethical. Immanuel Kant asserted that doing
what is good is not about the consequences of our
actions but about having the proper intention in
performing the action (Insole, 2013). What Kant
refers to as ethical act or behaviour is the one rooted
in duty, this means, such action is carried out based
on a person‟s duty to carry out the act. Hence, the
choice to obey a moral law that is universally
accepted amounts to ethical behaviour.
The strength of the rights approach is rooted in the
Kantian deontological ethics, having a long historical
connection with stoicism in Ancient Greece and
Rome, and with John Locke‟s work (Insole, 2016;
Alexander & Moore, 2020). The approach states that
protecting people‟s ethical rights, especially those
who are directly affected by such acts amounts to
acting ethically, and implying that every human
being is entitled to the dignity of humanity. The
divine command approach is predicated on God‟s
will – that is, any action commanded by the Supreme
Being is right and that ethical standards are the
creation of God‟s will. This is because, God could
change what is now considered ethical, and he is not
bound by any standard of rightness or wrongness
short of logical contradiction. Proponents of this
approach include: William of Ockham, Martin
Luther, Jean Calvin, and Søren Kierkegaard.
2.3 Agent-centered theories
They deal with the ethical balance of the individual
persons or groups (Ranganathan, 2018). These
theories employ the virtue and feminists approaches
which argue that actions that are ethical ought to be
consistent with good human virtues. For instance,
Aristotle postulated an ethical value devoid of
individualism but devoted to the totality of human
life at all times. Thus, one with a good character
would be the one that has attained certain virtues.
Additionally, the approach from a feminist context in
recent times has emphasized the relevance of the
inclusion of women and vulnerable groups in society
in ethical discourse.
3. Christian Ethics and Virtues
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131
Christian ethics is a branch of Christian theology that
defines virtuous behaviour and wrong behaviour
from a Christian perspective. In other words,
Christian ethics is an organized theological study
called moral theology (Gustafson, 2007). Christian
ethics ask questions regarding how the rich ought to
act in regards to the poor, how women should be
treated, and the morality of war. Historically, much
of Christian ethics is derived from biblical scripture
and Christians have always considered the Bible
profitable to teach, reprove, correct, and train in
righteousness (Wogaman, 2011; Roger, 2017).
The New Testament generally asserts that
all morality flows from the Great Commandment, to
love God and one‟s neighbour as oneself (Hultgren,
2017). In this, Jesus was reaffirming teaching
of Deuteronomy 6: 4-9 and Leviticus 19: 18. Christ
made himself an example of love John 13: 12 seen in
the New Testament (Emil, 2002). Christian ethicists
tackle ethical issues from a variety of ethical
frameworks and contexts.
In addition, Christian virtues are commonly divided
into four cardinal virtues and three theological
virtues. The four cardinal
virtues are prudence, justice, restraint, and courage.
They are called cardinal virtues due to their
importance in living a virtue-centered life (Ferreira,
2014). The three theological virtues are faith, hope,
and love (Yoshino, 2020). The approach of virtue
ethics became more relevant in recent times, because
of the works of Alasdair Maclntyre and Stanley
Hauerwas (Long, 2010). Christian Ethics has been
criticized because on the ground that the Bible
contains both right and wrong teachings which are
morally inconsistent.
Like conventional ethics, Christian ethics is governed
by some ethical principles or theories. This includes
the: Divine command, Just war, Moral Relativism,
and Natural Law Theories. The divine command
theory holds that all actions commanded or willed by
God are morally right (Kain, 2005). This theory is
often criticized by Plato‟s argument known as
Euthyphro dilemma which begins by posing a
question whether morally good acts are willed by
God because they are ethically good (Grudem, 2018).
The Just war theory tackles the question as to under
what circumstances it is legitimate to go to war. The
theory developed by Thomas and his followers
identifies various specific conditions to be met if a
war is to be justified. This includes: Just cause; being
declared by a constituted authority; right intention;
and proportionality.
Moral relativism is opposed to objective ethical
truths, and that moral facts only hold relative to a
given individual or society. In this ethical theory,
what is morally good for one person or culture might
be morally bad for another, and vice versa, hence,
there is no moral absolutism (Singer, 2011). Thus,
moral relativism suggests that ethical truths are
subjective rather than objective. The natural law
theory has existed in many forms. In its classical
form, it is simply the opposite of conventionalist
moral skepticism. In its Thomist form, it
characterizes morality as a function of the rational
human nature that God has given, stressing God‟s
purposes in creation as defining humankind purpose
as humans, and how they ought to lead their lives.
4. Bible-Based Ethical Teachings
The Old Testament (OT) morality is housed in the
Decalogue and in the Mosaic Law. Two tables of the
Decalogue can be identified as the principal moral
text and spirituality foundation of Israel‟s life. The
first three commandments (Exodus. 31:18; 34:1-29)
deals with human‟s relation to God, while the fourth
to the tenth commandments (Exodus 20 &
Deuteronomy 5) are in the second table, deals with
human‟s relation to human beings. This law is
recorded in the document of the covenant between
God and his people, Israel whose obligation is to
keep to the covenant as the condition for the
fulfillment of Yahweh‟s promises, which he on his
part had given to them in the mutual bond of the
covenant (Grudem, 2018; Card, 2005). The covenant
between God and Israel is based on a free initiative
from God‟s part when he destined Abraham to be the
father of many nations (Genesis. 2:1-3; cf. Isaiah.
51:4) (Holloway & Holloway, 2013). The covenant at
Sinai is the most dynamic event in Israel‟s history.
The Decalogue has been characterized as an
“apodictic law” because it explains the obligations in
absolute, in operative form, and in brief negative
sentences, e.g. “you shall not kill, you shall not
commit adultery” etc. It curtains some basic
principles of the mutual moral law, which are of
lasting reliability for ethics. On the other hand, the
code of the covenant has been described as a
“casuistic law” because it has much more the nature
of the positive legislation of civil and penal code,
which formulates concrete obligations in social life
and determine penalties for offences against the
rights of others. With respect to inter-personal acts
social ethics, OT morality or ethics is guided and
motivated by a strong sense of community (Stang,
2015). The tribes of Israel feel bound together by
their common racial, origin, initially, culture and
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132
above all, by the religion bound of the covenant
which Yahweh has entered into with them. The
communal sense positively referred to a basic
knowledge of social obligation and great regard for
the weal and woes of the community (Roger, 2017).
This communal sense also reveals an act of common
solidarity.
Christianity is presented by the New Testament (NT)
as the “new covenant” (Mark 14:24; 1
Corrinthians11:25; 2 Corinthians 3:6; Hebrew 8:6-13;
9:15; 12:24; 14:20). What this implies is that the new
covenant is a confirmation and revival of the
covenant theme of the OT. In this sense, the new
covenant is the initiative to the bond of unity and
communion between God and human that comes
alone from him. As the old covenant rested upon the
act of God in delivering Israel from the Egyptians, so
the new covenant rest upon the action of God in
redeeming humankind through Jesus‟ death and
resurrection (Pinckaers, 1995). And as the old
covenant laid upon Israel consequential obligation
which was defined in the Decalogue and more
explicitly on the whole law of Moses, so the new
covenant lap consequential obligations upon the
Christian church, which are in the view of Matthew,
defined in the sermon on the mount (5:1-2)
(Ridlehoover, 2020). Christian ethics also has its
source in the Gospels.
Prominent among them are that of Mark and Luke.
At the beginning of the Gospel according to Mark,
Jesus‟ preaching is summarized in the word: “The
time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of God is at hand;
repent and believe in the Gospel” (1:15). The
proclamation of the kingdom is to be followed by a
response on the part of human; “Repent and believe
in the gospel”. What this implies on those to whom
the call to repentance is made, is to turn from their
former wrongdoings. The attitude of mind that should
often militate against repentance is self-righteousness
and presumption as illustrated in the parable of the
Pharisees and Publicans in Luke 18:10 -14. Christ
formulated the great commandment of love of God
and neighbour which remain the outstanding
characteristics of Christian morality (Hultgren, 2017).
Summarily, Christ‟s message of salvation includes
the call to complete submission to the will of the
father by loving God and fellow humans.
Ethical teachings of the early Church form another
important source of Christian ethics. The Kerygma
(the proclamation or announcement) is the
presentation of the historical facts of the NT, which
form the basis of Christianity and of the fundamental
convictions of its faith (Pinckaers, 1995). The
Christian preacher thinks of himself as an announcer
or proclaimer of very important news (the good
news). The Christian kerygma is a brief account of
the life and work of Jesus, his conflicts, sufferings,
and death and his resurrection from the dead. The
aim of the preacher is to convince hearers that a new
era in the relationship between God and humanity has
begun and those who respond to this appeal to begin
a new life with God become members of the church‟s
community.
The members are then to be instructed in the ethical
principles and obligations of the Christians life, the
moral instruction so given is covered by the Greek
term, “Didache” (teaching) (Hill, 2013). So it was
first, the Kerygma, and followed by the teaching
(Didache). The epistles to the Romans, Galatians,
Colossian and Ephesians and some other epistles
present Christianity as an ethical religion to a certain
set of religious convictions about God, human and
the world. Christians, being reconciled with God
through Christ, are new creatures, members of
Christ‟s body and children of God. This new life in
Christ is the root and foundation of Christian ethics.
5. Ethical Praxis in Christianity
Human activities amongst other things, behaviours or
actions are objectively condemned as ethically
wrong. Actions such as stealing, killing, cheating,
rape, bribing, adultery, amongst others are
objectively acknowledged as morally wrong actions
in society (Isiramen & Akhilomen, 1998). Some
other actions or attitudes are also accepted as morally
right and good in society. This includes such as
actions like hospitality, kindness, forgiveness,
honesty, fidelity, sincerity, etc. On the other hand,
there are some human attitudes or actions that cannot
be universally appraised as ethically wrong or right.
For instance, abortion, euthanasia, smoking,
masturbation, celibacy, homosexuality, same-sex
marriage, alcoholism, assisted reproduction, cloning,
transexualism, genderism and their likes. What
principles of ethics or morality can be used to decide
the rightness or wrongness of all the human actions
mentioned above? This is where ethics comes into
play. To answer this question, the praxis of Christian
ethics is imperative.
One of the major shaping forces in Christian ethics
was the competition with Manichaeism, a rival
religion of Persian origin which held that good and
evil or light and darkness were opposite forces
struggling for mastery. Manichaeism had an
enormous following in the third and fourth centuries
(Wogaman, 2011). St. Augustine regarded as the
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133
founder of Christian theology was originally a
Manichaean but abandoned Manichaeism after being
influenced by Platonic thought. After his conversion
to Christianity in 387, he sought to integrate the
Platonic view with the Christian concept of goodness
as an attribute of God and sin as Adam‟s fall, from
the guilt of which one is redeemed by God‟s mercy.
The Manichaean belief in evil persisted, however, as
may be noticed in Augustine's conviction of the
sinfulness of human nature (Card, 2005). The
Christian theologian St. Thomas Aquinas succeeded
in reconciling Aristotelianism with the church‟s
authority by acknowledging the truth of sense
experience but holding it to be complementary to the
truth of faith.
The great intellectual authority of Aristotle was thus
made to serve the authority of the church, and the
Aristotelian logic was used to support the
Augustinian concepts of original sin and redemption
through divine grace (Summa Theologica cited in
Peschke, 1998). These attitudes and views may have
influenced contemporary Christian morality or ethical
decisions on certain ethical issues such as abortion,
alcoholism, divorce, sexual morality, celibacy,
homosexuality, wealth and poverty, etc.
Christian positions on abortion have a complex
history as there is no explicit prohibition
of abortion in either the OT or NT books. Other
writers say that early Christianity held different
positions at different times about abortion; others say
that, in spite of the silence of the NT on the issue,
they condemned abortion at any point of the
pregnancy as a grave sin. The Didache (teaching), in
all ramifications, disapproved of abortion of any king
(Peschke, 1998). The Roman Catholic Church (RCC)
for instance, teaches the total respect for human life
from conception to death. It is opposed to any
procedures having the intention to harm an embryo or
fetus for whatever reasons (Onimhawo, 2001). RCC
has always declared its unchanging decision or
position against abortion (Peschke, 1998; Singer,
2011; Ramsey, 2000). Since the twentieth century,
Protestant views on abortion have varied
considerably, with some taking positions in the anti-
abortion and abortion-rights camps (Beach,
1988). Conservative Protestants tend to be anti-
abortion whereas mainline Protestants lean towards
an abortion-rights stance (Peschke, 1998; Grudem,
2018). For instance, African-American Protestants
are much more strongly anti-abortion than white
Protestants (Peschke, 1998). Although the scripture is
silent on abortion, some parts of it inform Christian
ethical positions on this issue (see Genesis 4:1; Job
31:15; Isaiah 44:24, 49:1, 5; and Jeremiah 1:5, etc.).
Another prevalent contemporary ethical issue is
alcoholism. Current positions on alcoholism in
Christianity are grouped into moderationism,
abstentionism, and prohibitionism. Abstentionism
and prohibitionism are most times grouped together
since they share common notions. However, those in
the camp of prohibitionism do not drink alcohol
because a divine law says so, while Abstentionists,
do so in the name of prudence, calling it “the wisest”
decision to take in all circumstances. Some
Christians, including Pentecostals, Baptists
and Methodists believe that a person should abstain
from alcoholism. Fifty-two percent
of Evangelical leaders across the globe believe
alcoholism is not compatible with a right Christian
attitude hence they do not support drinking alcohol.
There are a number of Christian ethical positions on
poverty and wealth acquisition. One view says that
wealth and materialism are evil that ought to be
avoided and combatted (Weber, 2009; Ramelli,
2012). Some Christians argue that a proper
understanding of Christian teachings on wealth and
poverty needs to take a larger view where the
accumulation of wealth is not the focal point of one‟s
life rather a resource to foster the good life (Ramelli,
2012). Miller (2007) produced a three-part model that
gives three common attitudes found among
Protestants concerning wealth.
According to Miller, Protestants in varied manners
have considered wealth as: (1) standing at variant to
Christian belief (2) a stumbling block to faith and (3)
a result of faith. Cobb (cited in Miller, 2007) invoked
the teaching of Jesus that says a human cannot serve
God and Mammon (wealth). Jesus did not condemn
wealth rather he condemned its wrong acquisition,
motive, and usage. In this sense, wealth gotten
through dubious means or not used for the communal
good of society is condemnable. Thus, Christian ethic
creates the awareness of its adherents that honesty,
truthfulness and other Christ-like attitudes are better
than ill-gotten wealth especially, these days of yahoo-
yahoo business boom around the globe.
6. Conclusion
In this paper, I have been able to highlight some
important perspectives in ethics as it relates to
Christianity including highlighting some ethical
theories and approaches which underline ethical
judgments. For instance, I used the framework of
consequentialism to focus on the future effects of the
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134
possible courses of action, considering people who
are directly or indirectly affected. An individual
using this framework ought to produce the best
action. On the other hand, it is not always possible to
predict the consequences of an action, so some
actions that are expected to produce good
consequences might actually end up harming people.
In the duty framework, I focused on the duties and
obligations that humans have in a given situation, and
consider what ethical obligations they have and what
things they should not do.
Using the virtue framework, it is obviously useful in
situations that ask what sort of person a Christian or
one should be. Also, using Christian ethical
standards, the paper examined the issues of abortion,
alcoholism and wealth acquisition, and arrived at the
conclusion that such human actions are inimical to
Christian teachings and ethical standards. The motive
of Christian ethics, therefore, is the love for God and
the love for humanity as a whole. This is the reason
for the imperativeness of ethics in Christianity.
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