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Cypriote antiquities in Late Ottoman Istanbul and Smyrna - II: Cypriote antiquities in the Greek Evangelical School Museum and their Trading in Late Ottoman Smyrna (Modern Izmir)
In the 19th century, the number of European travelers visiting the Anatolian Peninsula and Constantinople was on the increase. The interest they took in the Greek-Roman past of these areas resulted in intensive digging of the ancient sites and led to the illegal exportation of monuments to Europe. In an attempt to stop this illegal practice, the authorities of the Ottoman Empire made efforts to implement modern law-making. Consequently, new legal acts were introduced in 1869, 1874, and 1884. These documents testify to the evolution in attitudes toward the protection and maintenance of heritage. Changes that occurred also involved the development of museology. The written accounts of Polish travelers provide an opportunity to trace how the legalities were (or were not) implemented and enforced. These testimonies offer, though in a somewhat sketchy manner, insight into the birth and growth of antiquities collection in the first Ottoman museum.
The archaeological life of Veronica Seton-Williams is briefly sketched, drawinglargely on her autobiography, and her contribution to archaeology and Egyptology is discussed in the context of personal recollections.
Avrupalı bir devletin tüccarlarının Osmanlı İmparatorluğu sınırları içerisinde serbestçe ticaret yapabilmesi için Osmanlı devletinin söz konusu Avrupalı devlete ahidname-i hümayun vermiş olması gerekliydi. Ahidname-i hümayun sayesinde dost devletler İstanbul'da elçi bulundurabilir, Osmanlı ticaret merkezlerinde konsolosluk kurabilir ve ahidname sahibi devletin tüccar ve tebası kendi bayrakları altında serbestçe ticaret yapabilirdi. Bir başka deyişle yabancı elçiler, konsoloslar, tüccar ve teba kapitülasyon şemsiyesi altında faaliyet gösterirdi. Bu çalışmanın temel amacı XVIII. yüzyılda Kıbrıs'ta görev yapan İngiliz konsoloslarını tespit ederek; bu yüzyılda konsolosların görev anlayışında yaşanan değişimi, Kıbrıs konsolosluğunun Halep'e bağlılığını, Kıbrıs İngiliz konsoloslarının diğer devletler adına yaptığı konsolos vekilliğini, Kıbrıs İngiliz konsolosların gelir kaynakları ile güvenliklerini ve XVIII. yüzyılda Kıbrıs'ta, kapitülasyon koruması altında faaliyet gösteren İngiliz tüccarların durumunu incelemektir. Çalışmada konuyla ilgili Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivi'nde bulunan defter ve belge koleksiyonları kullanılarak konu aydınlatılacak ve bu tür çalışmalarda Doğu Akdeniz'e ve Yakın Doğu'ya hâkim olan Osmanlı İmparatorluğu'ndan intikal eden kaynakların önemi vurgulanacaktır.
Les supports à l’étude archéologique : confrontation : L’archéologie est une discipline de terrain, dont trouvailles enrichissent les musées, en particulier pour la sculpture. La photographie est un outil essentiel dans ce cas pour l’archéologie, pour permettre une large diffusion des résultats. Il s’agit dans cette exposition de mettre en valeur les sculptures à partir de photographies, et de photographies anciennes, qui sont en elle-mêmes un patrimoine.
Red Lustrous Wheel-made Ware is a widely distributed ware and shows cultural connections between different regions and sites of the Eastern Mediterranean. Its origin being not clarified, the overall analysis cannot be elucidated fully in its Eastern Mediterranean context. Recent studies at Kilise Tepe in Rough Cilicia, Kinet Höyük in Plain Cilicia and Alalakh in the Amuq Valley by the author yielded new results, which open a new perspective in understanding the distribution of the ware in Anatolia and in the Amuq Valley. In this article different cultural regions of Anatolia (Central Anatolia, Rough Cilicia and Plain Cilicia) and the Amuq Valley will be compared in terms of typology. An updated examination of the shapes in Anatolia and the Amuq Valley will be a step forward in contributing to the solution of the problems concerning the origin of this very specific ware.
La découverte fortuite en octobre 1845 à Larnaca (Chypre) de la stèle de Sargon II d’Assyrie aujourd’hui à Berlin (Vorderasiatisches Museum) a suscité au cours des années des recherches pour localiser le vrai site de découverte et retracer l’histoire de son acquisition par les Königliche Museen de Berlin. Elle passe généralement pour avoir été trouvée à Bamboula de Kition, mais des recherches bibliographiques indiquent que sa provenance est plus vraisemblablement sur le rempart qui entourait l’ancienne cité (ou à côté du rempart), près de l’église de la Phaneroméni. Dans la compétition entre la Grande-Bretagne et la France qui souhaitaient l’acheter pour le British Museum ou le Louvre, les autorités prussiennes réussirent à acquérir cette stèle, premier monument de cette sorte pour les musées de Berlin. D’autre part, aucun argument ne conforte la possibilité que la stèle ait été fabriquée à Chypre, plutôt qu’importée toute faite, et érigée à l’origine sur le mont Stavrovouni près de Larnaca, ou que le bol d’argent (incomplet) donné au Louvre en 1851 par Félix de Saulcy ait été découvert avec le monument assyrien. Le bol venait en réalité de Kition, non d’Idalion, et il fut rejoint dans les collections du Louvre en 1853 par un autre bol d’argent qui, cette fois, provenait peut-être d’Idalion.
Around 1863, Philipp Anton Dethier, future director of the Imperial Museum in Constantinople, posed for a photograph where he stood surrounded by eight objects forming what he called a "group for the history of Greek art". This article tries to identify and trace each of these objects, in order to draw attention to the pressing need for detailed studies on the history of collections, especially in relation to excavations and acquisitions in the Ottoman lands before the 1890s. Such an approach also allows for a better understanding of the mechanisms behind archaeological scholarship, from discovery to identification, and from acquisition to publication. In this particular case, the study of Dethier's sample reveals the vicissitudes of objects as they change hands, the often dubious way in which he tried to identify and interpret them, and the surprising way in which some of these objects have ended up being misidentified in Istanbul and Berlin.
Georges Lapierre was until now better known for having organized in 1827 the monopoly of the agricultural productions of the island of Cyprus, especially the one for cotton which enabled the organizers of this traffic to make their fortune in a few months. From consular correspondence and his archives, Louis Lapierre recounts the life of his ancestor and highlights some aspects : his career within the French Consulate in Larnaca, his role in the massacres of 1821, the establishment of his real estate located at La Comtée, as well as the trouble he had with the representatives of France.
Sir George Francis Hill (1867–1948), was perhaps best known as a numismatist, although his scholarly interests and accomplishments included a range of time periods and subjects. A classicist by training, Hill built his career at the British Museum's department of coins and medals. In his forty-three years there he produced volumes on coins of antiquity; Greek history and art; coins, heraldry, and iconography of medieval and Renaissance Italy; and treasure troves. In 1931 Hill became the Museum's director and principal librarian, the first archaeologist to hold this post. His four-volume History of Cyprus (1940–52) ranged from Cyprus's earliest years to the twentieth century, and became the standard text on the subject. It is a valuable resource for scholars of the country, of antiquity and of the Mediterranean world. Volume 3, organized largely around monarchical reigns, concludes Hill's analysis of the Frankish period (1432–1571).
The distinguished archaeologist David G. Hogarth (1862–1927) excavated in Cyprus, Egypt, Greece and Asia Minor over the course of his career. He wrote books about his excavations and travels to bring archaeology to a popular audience. His A Wandering Scholar in the Levant (1896; also reissued in this series) was described by T. E. Lawrence as 'one of the best travel books ever written'. Hogarth later became president of the Royal Geographical Society, and Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, from 1908 to 1927. This work, first published in 1889, describes his travels around Cyprus in the summer following his excavations at Old Paphos. He visited areas that had not been examined by archaeologists before, and the book contains many illustrations of buildings and objects he found during his journey, providing details of sites and landscapes still of interest to those studying the history of the island or of archaeology.
Henri de Morgan (1854-1909) discoverer of the predynastic site of Adaïma (Upper Egypt) was trained early in prehistoric research through contacts with some of the great personnalities of the French archaeological circle of the second half of the 19th century. Expatriated in the USA in 1876, he added to his first centres of interest the prospecting of Indian archeological artefacts for the Parisian dealers Rollin and Feuardent, while maintaining scientific contacts with the MAN. At the same time, he travelled many times, each of a scientific nature, in the Mediterranean. In the field of the beginning of the metal-working, Henri de Morgan shared so closely the preoccupations of his brother Jacques that he accompanied him on his explorations in Armenia, toward the end of the 1880’s, and rejoined him once more on the field in 1901 in the study of necropolis in north-western Iran. However the exploration of prehistoric sites in Upper Egypt remains without doubt his main contribution to archaeobgical research of his age ; he enriched considerably the corpus of artefacts (divided between the Brooklyn Museum and the MAN) supporting the thesis, still contested by many of his contemporaries, of the prehistoric origins of Egypt. Through the site of El Adaima, the reading of H.de Morgan’s notebooks preserved at the MAN also gives information on his methods of recordingfleld observations and turning them to the best account for publishing.
André Joubin on a special mission in the Ottomon Imperial Museum (1893-1894).
The Turkish journey of André Joubin (1868-1944) on a mission as a deputy heritage curator at the Ottomon Imperial Museum in Constantinople puts the Middle East journey to the test of modernity ; it is a turning point in the artistic and scientific relations between the two countries and, in a more general way, in the Eastern travel experience. From the middle of the 19th century, French artists or official representatives follow each other in Turkey and their presence tends to be permanent, for the greater renown of France. As a representative of French museology and archeology in Turkey, André Joubin acquired a great insight in the men as well as in the history and art of their country and perhaps was one of the first French Turkish scholars. Nonetheless, his mission highlights how hard it was for Europe to admit the part the Turks played in the construction of their own heritage and how disturbing it was to face a local competence.
L’article met en évidence le rôle joué par Charles Newton dans la constitution des premières collections chypriotes du British Museum. Ses relations avec l’érudit Démétrios Pieridès lui permirent de faire quelques acquisitions, enrichies par les découvertes effectuées par les consuls britannique et français Colnaghi et de Maricourt aux Salines de Larnaca. Surtout, il réussit à acquérir l’ensemble des objets mis au jour par Lang dans le sanctuaire d’Apollon à Idalion, puis à lui faire publier un rapport sur ses fouilles. Il ne put, cependant, obtenir l’achat de la collection Cesnola, dont les principales pièces avaient été exposées à Londres en 1872. En 1879, un an après le passage de Chypre sous l’administration britannique, il fit un voyage dans l’île et rédigea un rapport qui est publié ici en appendice.
La vie en Amérique de Luigi Palma di Cesnola a moins attiré l’attention que ses activités archéologiques à Chypre entre 1865 et 1876. Son service dans l’armée de l’Union pendant la Guerre civile et son rôle de premier plan dans la création du Metropolitan Museum of Art, dont il devint directeur en 1879, sont eux-mêmes de riches sujets d’observations. Cette note concerne quatorze lettres à sa femme et sa mère, écrites entre septembre 1863 et mars 1864, lorsque Cesnola était enfermé dans la Libby Prison à Richmond en Virginie.
By Vassos Karageorghis, in collaboration with Joan R. Mertens and Marice E. Rose
The Cesnola Collection in The Metropolitan Museum of Art is the richest and most varied representation, outside Cyprus, of Cypriot antiquities. These works were purchased by the newly established Museum in the mid-1870s from General Luigi Palma di Cesnola, a Civil War cavalry officer who had amassed the objects while serving as the American consul on Cyprus. The Cesnola Collection was the earliest acquisition of Mediterranean antiquities by the Museum and constituted its primary display of archaeological material. In 1879 Cesnola became the Museum's first director, a position that he held until his death in 1904.
This splendid catalogue is published on the occasion of the opening of the Museum's four permanent galleries for ancient art from Cyprus. It is also the first scholarly publication since 1914 devoted to the Cesnola Collection (which totals approximately six thousand objects). The volume features some five hundred pieces from the collection, illustrated in superb new color photography. Dating from about 2500 B.C. to about A.D. 300, these works rank among the finest examples of Cypriot art from the prehistoric, Geometric, Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic, and Roman periods. Among the objects are monumental sculpture; weapons, tools, and domestic utensils; vases, lamps, and ritual paraphernalia; dedicatory figurines; engraved sealstones and jewelry; and luxury objects. They represent every major medium worked in antiquity—stone, copper-based metal, clay, faience, glass, gold and silver, ivory, and semiprecious stones. These pieces testify to the quintessentially Cypriot amalgam of indigenous traditions and elements assimilated from the ancient Assyrians, Egyptians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans who, one after the other, controlled the island. Special emphasis is placed on the Metropolitan Museum's collection of Cypriot limestone sculpture, which includes impressive sarcophagi from Golgoi and Amathus and is the finest in the world.
This article discusses the concept of vanity and its driving role in the formation of collections of antiquities. It focuses on the parallel cases of Luigi Palma di Cesnola and Paolo Azzati and their respective collections of Aegean and Cypriot antiquities. It is argued that both the collectors were condemned by their insatiability and dissatisfaction to make analogous choices, however different they may have been in social status and in the context in which their collections were formed. These aspects influenced the way in which they were able to collect materials - but not the final result at which they aimed, which was, narcissistically, the collection itself.
Au Musée-château d’Annecy se trouvent les copies de deux bracelets en or donnés en 1893 par Ch. Balliard, savoyard d’origine. Les originaux gravés au nom du roi de Paphos Etewandros (viie-vie s. av. J.-C.), trouvés en 1875 à Kourion par Luigi Palma di Cesnola, furent exposés au Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, où on les a dérobés en 1887. Disparus sans laisser de traces, ils ont été remplacés par des copies en or fabriquées par Tiffany & Co. Le donateur Ch. Balliard est devenu restaurateur au Metropolitan Museum, dont Cesnola était le directeur. Ses rapports avec Gaston Feuardent, antiquaire français, lui aussi installé à New York et adversaire farouche de Cesnola, restent à éclairer.
L'histoire définitive du Cyprus Museum à Nicosie reste à faire, mais une lacune peut maintenant être comblée, pour la période ancienne, par un rapport inédit daté de 1909. Son auteur était Wilfrid Jerome Farrell, membre associé de la British School à Athènes, qui, à la suite d'une visite à Chypre, avait décrit avec une franchise hors du commun le laxisme de l'action archéologique contemporaine dans l'île. Cette situation peu satisfaisante, qui découlait du manque d'intérêt, de l'insuffisance du personnel et des crédits mis à la disposition du Cyprus Museum par l'administration britannique, a suscité une vive réaction chez les savants intéressés en Angleterre et a provoqué des démarches auprès des responsables gouvernementaux à Londres, ce qui amènera peu à peu une amélioration de l'attitude officielle face à la question de la sauvegarde du patrimoine culturel chypriote.
The activities of many foreign diplomats, including Luigi Palma di Cesnola and his brother Major Alessandro Palma di Cesnola, the Consul and vice-consul respectively of the United States in the years between 1865 and 1879 predated the introduction of scientific research on Cyprus. Their acquisition and export of Cypriot antiquities meant that these materials reached American Museums much earlier than American archaeologists reached Cyprus. The arrival of Cypriot artifacts in America seems to have had severe repercussions on the island's policy concerning the export of antiquities, as the first law prohibiting the illicit export of antiquities was enacted shortly thereafter. At the same time, however, Cypriot art was as a result recognized for the first time as a distinct school.