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Aligning bottom-up initiatives and top-down policies? A comparative analysis of overfishing and coastal governance in Ghana, Tanzania, the Philippines, and Thailand
Abstract
As coastal communities across the Global South confront the multiple challenges of climate change, overfishing, poverty and other socio-environmental pressures, there is an increasing need to understand diverse coastal governance responses and livelihood trajectories from a comparative perspective. This paper presents a holistic investigation of the pressures coastal communities face in four countries and examines possible meeting points between bottom-up initiatives and top-down policies. We compare the experiences of eight fishing areas in Ghana, Tanzania, Thailand and the Philippines and ask how small-scale fishing communities perceive overfishing and other socio-environmental pressures; what factors determine the success and failure of coastal governance initiatives; and how different initiatives can be made congruent to improve coastal, rural development outcomes. Results from an extensive survey of 835 fisherfolk and semi-structured interviews with 196 key informants show that overfishing remains a significant driver of livelihood trajectories in the communities and that fisherfolk respond through informal mechanisms of collective action. Drawing from these diverse experiences, we propose viewing coastal livelihood trajectories through the integrated dimensions of socio-environmental relationships and coastal governance options and discuss implications that address institutional scalar flexibility, illegal fishing, and persistent marginalisation.
... But what is more alarming in the backdrop of these three successive shocks is the slow crisis of declining fish stocks, which we fear will further erode fisherfolk's access and autonomy to secure good quality food. Andriesse et al. (2022) point out that overfishing and fish stock decline remain the most impactful stressor, even in the context of climate change. As discussed above, we imagine that the diminishment of fish stocks could potentially cause a huge impact not only on the fisherfolk's daily subsistence, but also on the long-term sustainability of their fishing livelihoods (see Clapp et al. 2022 on the sustainability dimension of food security). ...
The succession of shocks—sudden social and environmental crises, whether they be episodic or erratic, such as extreme weather events, pandemics, and economic recessions—has dire consequences on the ability of people, especially the vulnerable and precarious, to secure safe, nutritious, and culturally appropriate foods. While the scholarship on multiple shocks and stressors is increasingly recognized in the academic literature, there remains a dearth in scholarship that critically interrogates the impacts of successive and overlapping shocks on the various dimensions and temporalities of food security. In this paper, we adapt the double exposure framework to examine how a triad of shocks—a catastrophic typhoon, the COVID-19 pandemic, and high economic inflation—has led to varying magnitudes of transitory and chronic food insecurity among the fisherfolk in coastal communities in Capiz, the Philippines. Drawing from field research, we illustrate that the succession of shocks induced a decline in household incomes, an escalation of dependence on credit, and the consequential accumulation of debt among the fisherfolk. Credit and debt have allowed the fisherfolk to sustain meal frequency to some extent during periods of high vulnerability, but the succession of shocks continued to aggravate their lack of access to nutritious food. Looming in the background is the gradual crisis of declining fish stocks, which may exacerbate the impacts of successive shocks in the future.
... This research on social categories and categorization can be a useful addition to research on sh size-based management, including in Kenya, in relation to conservation that has sparked and continues to spark intense debate, in the search for optimal tradeoffs between nutrition security and ecological outcomes This article has shown that local practices and local categorizations of sh at the intersection of the local and global are neither xed nor de nite but emerge from negotiations and hinge on a few surrounding factors -as these conditions change, and artisanal sheries 'turn' into more 'advanced' and 'formal' semiindustrial shery, implications for access to sh by the poorer need to be accounted for. Developing a better knowledge of how these practices unfold on the ground and the values that determine them can help nd 'meeting points' at the intersection of the 'formal' and 'informal' arenas (Andriesse et al., 2022). ...
Burdened with food insecurity and inadequate nutrition, countries in the Global South have ample margins to benefit from more consideration for fish and aquatic foods for better nutrition. This article proposes the case of Kenyan coastal fisheries as a potentially crucial reservoir of food-related benefits for the poor and local communities, provided that a food-centred lens or approach are mainstreamed in local and national governance. Borrowing insights from post-structuralist maritime social sciences, and with evidence from the two coastal communities of Shimoni and Watamu, this article presents an ethnographic account of grassroots practices in-the-making such as handling, sorting, and allocating fish once caught, and how these practices lead to local categorizations and classifications of fish. This sort of evidence and knowledge around local categorizations and classifications of fish enables to delve into questions of access, availability, affordability, and agency that are crucial for a nutrition-sensitive approach to governance of fisheries. Through the analysis of the two different locations of Watamu and Shimoni in terms of the fisheries economy and overall development, the analysis of these categories and classifications highlights the necessity to account for a fairer access and distribution rather than solely production (of fish) that is overly market-oriented or exported.
... Ghana has a coastline of approximately 550 km. The SSF sector consists of 13,000 canoes, employs about 124,000 (mostly male) fishers and 1.9 million fish processors and traders (mainly female) and accounts for about 80% of total annual marine fish catch by volume (Dovlo et al. 2016;Andriesse et al. 2022). For this study, we selected six fishing communities that span the four coastal regions. ...
Migration is a common feature of most small-scale fisheries (SSF) across the globe. To enhance fisheries resources sustainability and management, we examined the social issues in the SSF from the perspective of fishers, Chief Fishermen, and Fisheries Technical Officers who are actively involved in SSF migration and fisheries management along the coast of Ghana. We conducted
in-depth interviews in six important migrant fishers’ communities and analysed documents
on the socio-economic conditions of migrant fishers, conflicts among migrant fishers, rights of
migrant fishers and the role of government in managing fishers’ migration. Findings showed that the successful integration of migrant fishers in the host communities resulted in minimal conflictual incidents that are resolved through dialogue. Furthermore, both the Fisheries Technical Officers and
Chief Fishermen are involved in conflict resolution depending on the nature of the dispute. Also, most migrant fishers (over 50%) have the same rights as the local fishers, though they are marginalized during the distribution of premix fuel. Migrant fishers with prominent status played key role during decision-making process in the host communities. Overall, the study showed that migrant fishers have aided in the progress of fishing technology, food security, and small-scale business in the host fishing communities. To avert any form of marginalization during the distribution of premix fuel, it is prudent for authorities to develop relevant policies that will ensure that migrant fishers receive enough fuel for their fishing activities in the host communities.
... Despite its large contribution to annual landings and being an important source of food, the current economic performance of small pelagic fisheries is believed to be far lower than could be possible given the available resources in Tanzania. There are records of initiatives that have recently taken place to safeguard fisheries from further decline (Andriesse et al., 2022). One of these initiatives includes prioritizing the development of a management plan for small marine pelagic fisheries. ...
To implement effective ocean governance, development of policies and management strategies needs to incorporate input from communities that will be impacted by the decisions. People engaging in small-scale fisheries and aquaculture mobilize themselves in anticipation of various challenges, for example, food sovereignty. Food sovereignty is the right for people to access healthy and culturally appropriate food that is produced through ecologically sound and sustainable methods. Little attention has been paid to documenting and understanding the struggles and efforts of small-scale fishers to ensure their own food sovereignty. In the Western Indian Ocean region, and Tanzania in particular, there has been a limited number of initiatives among coastal fishers that seek to transform food systems. To better understand these initiatives, this study was designed to examine collective actions undertaken in pursuit of food sovereignty among small pelagic fishers at three landing sites on the coast of Tanzania. Collection of primary data involved a survey of 206 individuals, 25 key informant interviews, 3 focus group discussions and participant observation. Secondary data was also collected from official fisheries records and published materials to supplement the primary data. The study revealed limited current capacity of the small pelagic fisheries to satisfy local demand of fifish for food security and sovereignty purposes due to increased fish trade supplying markets beyond the study sites. The prospects of satisfying an increasing fish demand from existing production systems are limited. Small pelagic fisheries need to be linked to the global food system through appropriate mechanisms to allow them to contribute meaningfully to food security and sovereignty.
The study examined the effectiveness of digital technology in enhancing blue tourism sustainability in Tanzania. Specifically, the study examined the use of solar panel technology, use of artificial intelligence and use of health technologies. The study employed a desk research method which involves the collection of data from various literature sources such as documents, scripts, previous research findings, journals, and related books. Qualitative content analysis was utilized as the method for analyzing the data. The findings revealed that solar panel technology is one of the most renewable and green energy sources in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and mitigating climate change. The findings also revealed that Artificial Intelligence has released up new tourism opportunities with positive effects on the economy, society, and environment. The study concludes that integration of solar power reduces Carbon footprints and increased appeal to budget conscious travelers. Artificial Intelligent enhances visitor’s management, safety, and eco-friendly experiences. Online platforms improve access to information about overseas care and empower patients to make informed decisions. The study recommends that the development and integration of renewable energy sources, like solar, wind, and hydropower, into the energy mix should be given top priority by government and tourism companies. Programs supporting sustainable agriculture and forestry conservation/reforestation should be put into place. Strategies to economic development and environmental sustainability should also be put into place such as encouraging eco-tourism, efficient manufacturing, and sustainable urban planning. The Ministry of Tourism of Tanzania should promote the use of AI technologies in the creation, use, and manufacturing of tourism products.
This research examines the bottom-up approach to maritime tourism policy in South Sulawesi, primarily focusing on collaboration and policy integration. This method involves the local community as the primary stakeholder who can determine the potential and needs of maritime tourism in their area. Data was collected through interviews with the South Sulawesi Provincial Culture and Tourism Office and analysis of relevant documents. The research results indicate that policy collaboration is carried out through cooperation between the government, namely the South Sulawesi Provincial Culture and Tourism Office, local actors, and the private sector. Furthermore, integrating inter-sectoral policies ensures that the development of tourism proceeds synergistically by considering several aspects, such as economic, social, and environmental factors. The bottom-up approach also supports the sustainability of maritime tourism through several empowerment initiatives for local communities. They should also be involved in the management of maritime tourism destinations and the promotion of local products. It can be concluded that a bottom-up approach involving inter-sectoral cooperation and policy integration encourages the development of sustainable maritime tourism while still paying attention to several aspects, such as local economic empowerment, social welfare, and environmental preservation.
The coastal zone is an area where terrestrial and marine ecosystems intersect. This region may be subject to outstanding environmental issues, as influenced by many stakeholders. Based on the framework of collaborative governance, the starting conditions for forming a coastal zone environment collaborative governance relationship are proposed as follows: coastal zone environment, balanced level of power and resources, superior-level government participation, and previous cooperation experience. The coastal environmental governance practices of 14 cities along the continental coastal zone of the East China Sea are selected as cases, in order to test the interactions between and influence mechanisms of the starting conditions. As qualitative comparative analysis (QCA), based on set theory and Boolean algebra, is a popular tool to explain complex collaboration situations in small-N cases; and as fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) allows for fine classification of the membership degree (where the condition can be allocated any number between 0 and 1), we use fsQCA to analyze the collaborative governance relationships. The results of the analysis demonstrate that three combination configurations promote the formation of medium–high intensity collaborative governance relationships: high balance level of power and resources × high previous cooperation experience, high pollution of coastal zone environment × high balance level of power and resources × low superior-level government participation, and high pollution of coastal zone environment × high superior-level government participation × high previous cooperation experience. Based on this conclusion, we determine three types of relationship formation modes: wheel-, echo state network-, and umbrella-shaped modes. Notably, under certain conditions, superior-level government participation is not necessary for the formation of a medium–high intensity collaborative governance relationship.
This purpose of this article is to demonstrate (1) how
growing seaweed in the central Philippines is affected
by multifaceted local dynamics and (2) how it is also
dependent on the complementary livelihood strategies
of in situ and ex situ diversification. This article explores
the livelihood trajectories of 45 households that were
all engaged in growing seaweed in 2015. Surveys and
semi-structured interviews were conducted with households
and key informants in two municipalities. Results
reveal a process of livelihood divergence. While in one
municipality growing seaweed has become a relative
success, virtually all households in the other municipality
have had to stop growing seaweed, returned to
fishing, and remained poor. The reasons for this divergence
can be found in the spheres of environmental
challenges, value chain governance dynamics, and local
coastal governance. Three implications are put forward
that could improve the inclusiveness of coastal development
in the Philippines and beyond.
Small-scale fisheries (SSF) contribute substantially to global food security, sustainable marine ecosystems and poverty alleviation. Yet many SSF face problems of overexploitation and poverty calling for novel governance approaches that enhance human-wellbeing, equity and ecological sustainability. External policies and interventions to support such governance transformations, however, need to take their often self-governed nature into account. Common practices based on informal arrangements between different fishery actors can make existing, mal-adapted structures very persistent and hence difficult to overcome. Here we combine multi-method empirical research on SSF in Mexico with agent-based modeling to analyze if and under which conditions interventions can shift ongoing self-organizing dynamics into directions that support the new governance form. We are particularly interested in the effectiveness of two different types of interventions, financial and social, and their performance under variable social and ecological conditions as commonly found in SSF. Our analysis reveals that a combination of financial and social support during extended periods of time is necessary to ensure persistence of new governance forms in face of competition with established forms, as well as environmental and social uncertainty. The findings highlight the importance of understanding the endogenous self-organizing dynamics created by the interplay between social (e.g. the dynamics of trust) and ecological (e.g. resource dynamics) processes in order to devise policies and measures to initiate a shift towards more sustainable pathways.
The current focus on mangroves as key ecosystems in mitigating the impacts of climate change has largely neglected the livelihoods of coastal dwellers interacting with mangroves. This article provides a review of scholarly and policy attention paid to these social groups and their means of struggle. It argues that the latest dominant governance discourse tying mangroves to blue carbon signifies a departure from catering to coastal people's interests and rights in mangroves. We describe the evolving discourses that have shaped mangrove use and conservation in the Philippines since the 1970s. While the mid-century preoccupation with mangrove conversion to fish farms gradually gave way to the pursuit of community-based mangrove conservation in the late 1980s and 1990s, recent experiences suggest a comparably weakened focus towards recognizing local access and use patterns. We contend that the present blue carbon framing of mangroves, which harbours technocratic and financialized ideals of sustainability, poses a fundamental disadvantage to local users of mangroves. We conclude by reflecting on ways to redress this trend via a new framing of mangroves.
Fishing constitutes a key source of income and food for rural communities worldwide. This is the case in predominantly rural Myanmar (World Fish, 2019), particularly in the Ayeyarwady (Irrawaddy) River Delta. Fishing has long been a central livelihood strategy and valuable source of food security in the Delta, and now also generates a substantial contribution to the gross domestic product. However, the livelihood practices of the fishers, particularly small‐scale fishers, are largely ‘invisible’ in the literature and policy. In this article, we advance understanding of the significant but understudied livelihoods of small‐scale fishers through interviews with fishers and a range of other actors in 2018. Taking a careful examination of the challenges, practices and responses of fishers in the Delta, our research underlines that fishers are important actors in the ‘making’ of the Delta as a geographical scale and concept, yet they are being pushed out of the very landscape they have helped co‐create and have lived in for generations. At this crucial point in Myanmar's development and change, we contend that a better understanding of the livelihoods of fishing households, as some of the nation's most vulnerable, is important for inclusive policy development, economic reforms and research strategy going forward.
Coastal tourism has been supported by the growth of middle-class tourist markets, promoted by governments who view it as an important avenue for economic growth and backed by environmental organisations who regard it as an alternative, more environmentally sustainable livelihood than capture fisheries. How policymakers and households in coastal areas negotiate the challenges and opportunities associated with growing tourism and declining capture fisheries is increasingly important. Drawing on extended ethnographic fieldwork from the Philippines between 2006 and 2018, this paper examines the transition from fishing to tourism and the consequences for one coastal community. I focus on land tenure as a key variable that shapes the effects and opportunities associated with livelihood transitions from fishing to tourism. While tourism has not been inherently positive or negative, the ability of local households to negotiate the boom and obtain the full benefits out of it is questionable. Many fishers have switched their primary livelihood activity to tourism, including the construction of tourist boats, working as tour guides or providing accommodation. However, the growth of tourism has prompted several attempts to evict the community, including from local elites who aimed to develop resorts on the coast and a recent push by the national administration to ‘clean up’ tourist sites around the country. I argue that land tenure in coastal communities should be more of a focus for researchers working in small-scale fisheries, as well as for researchers working on land rights.
Fishing communities are at the heart of policies of co-management in small-scale fisheries around the world, including Lake Victoria. The assumption is that, fish and the activity of fishing being carriers of locally shared values and identity underlying ‘fishing communities’, devolution of power (to the communities) will initiate a virtuous circle that can minimise exploitation and favour sustainable resource management. This article builds on emerging literature that has questioned these assumptions with an ethnography of community as developed in conjunction with heightened globalizing forces, and examining the effects of local-global linkages of identity. It emerges that fish continues to be central in determining identity and community but in novel ways, that is as a commodity to be exploited for economic success rather than as carrier of local identities. The local-global market linkages that have triggered this transformation have thus created new identities away from identity as ‘fisherman’, and grounded in individual rather than collective experience, but nevertheless leading to new short-term communities that emerge across space around particular business-related agendas. Fisheries policies need to be re-examined in light of this transformation; stronger attention needs to be paid to the broader socio-economic context in which ‘communities’ emerge for more effective co-management of resources.
Small-scale fisheries are an important source of livelihoods, articularly among poor coastal populations. To improve fisheries’ condition and maximize their contribution to human welfare, co-management approaches have proliferated worldwide. In this article, we conduct a systematic review of academic literature to examine the context and attributes of co-management initiatives in small-scale fisheries, and their expected outcomes. The review suggests that a supporting legal and institutional framework facilitates the emergence of co-management, because it contributes to clarify and legitimize property rights over fish resources. It is also found that co-management delivers both ecological and social benefits: it increases the abundance and habitat of species, fish catches, actors’ participation, and the fishery’s adaptive capacity, as well as it induces processes of social learning. Furthermore, co-management is more effective if artisanal fishers and diverse stakeholders become involved through an adaptive institutional framework. However, the review also suggests that more research is needed to discern when co-management initiatives can transform pre-existing conflicts, challenge power asymmetries and distribute benefits more equitably.
This paper builds on lessons learned from case studies of organization-building and collective action as a means of eradicating poverty in small-scale fisheries. The Voluntary Guidelines for Securing Sustainable Small-Scale Fisheries in the Context of Food Security and Poverty Eradication, endorsed by FAO Member States in 2014, recognize that addressing poverty depends in large measure upon the collective agency of small-scale fishers and fish workers themselves. We first discuss the nature of poverty in small-scale fisheries and argue that lack of rights and debilitating power relations are among the factors contributing to poverty. Secondly, the paper explores the possibilities of collective action and suggests that the support—but not the domination—of government and civil society is crucial. Finally, we look into the characteristics of fisher and fish worker organizations and emphasize the importance of autonomous decision making, and the need to address internal obstacles and opportunities, including those related to gender.
Inaccurate or incomplete diagnosis of the root causes of overfishing can lead to misguided and ineffective fisheries policies and programmes. The “Malthusian overfishing narrative” suggests that overfishing is driven by too many fishers chasing too few fish and that fishing effort grows proportionately to human population growth, requiring policy interventions that reduce fisher access, the number of fishers, or the human population. By neglecting other drivers of overfishing that may be more directly related to fishing pressure and provide more tangible policy levers for achieving fisheries sustainability, Malthusian overfishing relegates blame to regions of the world with high population growth rates, while consumers, corporations and political systems responsible for these other mediating drivers remain unexamined. While social–ecological systems literature has provided alternatives to the Malthusian paradigm, its focus on institutions and organized social units often fails to address fundamental issues of power and politics that have inhibited the design and implementation of effective fisheries policy. Here, we apply a political ecology lens to unpack Malthusian overfishing and, relying upon insights derived from the social sciences, reconstruct the narrative incorporating four exemplar mediating drivers: technology and innovation, resource demand and distribution, marginalization and equity, and governance and management. We argue that a more nuanced understanding of such factors will lead to effective and equitable fisheries policies and programmes, by identifying a suite of policy levers designed to address the root causes of overfishing in diverse contexts.
Following a precise evaluation protocol that was applied to a pool of 202 articles published between 2003 and 2014, this paper evaluates the existing evidence of how and to what extent capture fisheries and aquaculture contribute to improving nutrition, food security, and economic growth in developing and emergent countries. In doing so we evaluate the quality and scientific rigor of that evidence, identify the key conclusions that emerge from the literature, and assess whether these conclusions are consistent across the sources. The results of the assessment show that while some specific topics are consistently and rigorously documented, thus substantiating some of the claims found in the literature, other areas of research still lack the level of disaggregated data or an appropriate methodology to reach consistency and robust conclusions. More specifically, the analysis reveals that while fish contributes undeniably to nutrition and food security, the links between fisheries/aquaculture and poverty alleviation are complex and still unclear. In particular national and household level studies on fisheries’ contributions to poverty alleviation lack good conceptual models and produce inconsistent results. For aquaculture, national and household studies tend to focus on export value chains and use diverse approaches. They suggest some degree of poverty alleviation and possibly other positive outcomes for adopters, but these outcomes also depend on the small-scale farming contexts and on whether adoption was emergent or due to development assistance interventions. Impacts of fish trade on food security and poverty alleviation are ambiguous and confounded by a focus on international trade and a lack of consistent methods. The influences of major drivers (decentralization, climate change, demographic transition) are still insufficiently documented and therefore poorly understood. Finally the evaluation reveals that evidence-based research and policy narratives are often disconnected, with some of the strongest and long-lasting policy narratives lacking any strong and rigorous evidence-based validation. Building on these different results, this paper identifies six key gaps facing policy-makers, development practitioners, and researchers.
1. Five case studies from around the world illustrate key lessons in integrating top-down and bottom-up approaches to stakeholder and community engagement in the planning and implementation of marine protected areas (MPAs).
2. Community resistance to MPA proposals from centralized agencies can be addressed through effective participatory processes with consistent engagement over time, transparency, and the incorporation of benefits for communities.
3. Indigenous communities in particular are becoming key actors of some conservation initiatives (e.g. MPAs) and recognition of their inherent rights, traditional knowledge and deep connections to the marine environment can become the foundations for collaborative management of MPAs.
4. True participation requires empowerment for engagement, and this in turn requires education and capacity building for local people to get involved in the process of planning, implementing, and managing MPAs.
5. How bottom-up and top-down approaches are used should consider the scale of the MPA (e.g. small vs. large), the geographic scenario (e.g. coastal vs. remote), the level of anthropogenic influence, the conservation objectives (e.g. species, habitats, ecosystems), the political and governance context, and specific cultural conditions, such as the presence of indigenous communities.
Collaborative approaches are increasingly used to address challenging environmental problems in the United States and around the world. The inclusion of multiple stakeholders and sources of information is expected to solve such problems. Prior research has highlighted the importance of collaborative process characteristics in reaching agreements and building social capital, but less is known about what factors affect the implementation of such agreements. A parallel stream of research in policy implementation theory has developed variables and frameworks to explain the implementation of authoritative policy prescriptions. Drawing on the top-down/bottom-up perspectives on implementation, this study examines implementation of collaborative recommendations along a continuum of top-down/bottom-up approaches. A comparison of six cases in two states (Lower Saxony, Germany and Ohio, United States) indicates important differences in perceptions of implementation and environmental improvements, although whether an effort was more top down or more bottom up was not a key determinant of results. In both states, stakeholder collaborative planning efforts included substantial involvement from stakeholders and multiple government agencies and levels. Participants in the Ohio cases perceived higher levels of implementation and environmental improvements. Key factors promoting implementation of plan recommendations were resources (funding and a full-time coordinator), willing land owners, and networks. In the Lower Saxony cases, collaborative plans were seen as less impactful, but nevertheless the process of plan development did foster networks for implementing some actions to improve water quality.
Conservation success is often predicated on local support for conservation which is strongly influenced by perceptions of the impacts that are experienced by local communities and opinions of management and governance. Marine protected areas (MPAs) are effective conservation and fisheries management tools that can also have a broad array of positive and negative social, economic, cultural, and political impacts on local communities. Drawing on results from a mixed-methods study of communities on the Andaman Coast of Thailand, this paper explores perceptions of MPA impacts on community livelihood resources (assets) and outcomes as well as MPA governance and management. The area includes 17 National Marine Parks (NMPs) that are situated near rural communities that are highly dependent on coastal resources. Interview participants perceived NMPs to have limited to negative impacts on fisheries and agricultural livelihoods and negligible benefits for tourism livelihoods. Perceived impacts on livelihoods were felt to result from NMPs undermining access to or lacking support for development of cultural, social, political, financial, natural, human, physical, and political capital assets. Conflicting views emerged on whether NMPs resulted in negative or positive marine or terrestrial conservation outcomes. Perceptions of NMP governance and management processes were generally negative. These results point to some necessary policy improvements and actions to ameliorate: the relationship between the NMP and communities, NMP management and governance processes, and socio-economic and conservation outcomes.
The coast of Tanzania is characterised by a wide diversity of biotopes and species, typical of the tropical Indo- west Pacific oceans, and the peoples living there utilise a variety of its natural resources. Because of the extent of the diversity and variety, several different examples are used by this study to elucidate the complexity of issues and multiplicity of management responses related to use of coastal and marine resources. It emerges that coastal management requires an integrated cross-sectoral approach to address the wide array of interrelated issues involved. The study describes the status of selected resources from the principal biotopes (coral reefs, mangroves, sea grass beds and beaches) as well as fish stocks, and it examines various forms of their utilisation. Some special cases of endangered species are also examined. The study attempts to analyse questions of sustainable use in relation to ecosystem dynamics, socio-economic processes, institutions and policies. The characteristics for what we consider as approaching a state of sustainable use are proposed, and the requirements considered necessary for ensuring sustainability are outlined. Past experience and the current status of coastal and marine resource uses are summarised through the examples chosen in order to explain the main constraints to the attainment of sustainability. Crosscutting issues related to the breakdown of traditional management systems for common property resources in the face of increasing commercialisation, privatisation, and external interventions appear to pose general problems. The general experiences of community projects, legislation, and mitigation measures are assessed from the examples we have chosen. We present an array of general lessons learned and key factors affecting sustainable use of coastal and marine resources. Amongst these we emphasise: • Dialogue and linkage between traditional and scientific knowledge systems. • Mechanisms for interaction between scientists, managers and decision-makers. • Continued human and technical capacity building of research institutions. • Essentiality of addressing land and sea tenure and common property rights. • Genuine involvement and empowerment of local communities and civil society including community- based organisations (CBOs), and local non-governmental organisations (NGOs). • Credible and equitable arrangements for benefit-sharing with communities. • Open availability of information for overall transparency and accountability. • Integration of socio-economic opportunities into conservation programmes. • Recognition of and respect for local and traditional institutions. • Openness in collaboration between traditional and government institutions. • Strengthening of relevant institutions providing entry to decision-making. • Management agreements between institutions for cross-sectoral co-ordination. • Long-term and broad-based visions in policy thinking. • Democratic process of public involvement in policy-making and implementation.
The diversity of social, ecological and economic characteristics of small‐scale fisheries in developing countries means that context‐specific assessments are required to understand and address shortcomings in their governance. This article contrasts three perspectives on governance reform focused alternately on wealth, rights and resilience, and argues that – far from being incompatible – these perspectives serve as useful counterweights to one another, and together can serve to guide policy responses. In order to better appreciate the diversity in governance contexts for small‐scale fisheries it puts forward a simple analytical framework focused on stakeholder representation, distribution of power, and accountability, and then outlines principles for identifying and deliberating reform options among local stakeholders.
Top-down and bottom up development policies have been generally sold as two irreconcilable ends of the development intervention spectrum. Top-down policies, solidly based in micro- and macroeconomic theories, but lacking the adequate flexibility and ‘place-awareness’ to respond to local complexity; bottom-up approaches much more responsive to diverse territorial needs, but devoid of a clear conceptual framework. In this paper we aim to show that this division need not remain still and that the foundations of top-down and bottom-up development policies can be reconciled in a joint 'meso-level' conceptual framework which can serve simultaneously as a deductive justification for bottom-up local and regional development policies and as a coordination device between different policies.
Abstract The tremendous loss of life and assets resulting from the 2004 tsunami dealt a devastating blow to the coastal communities of Aceh Province, Indonesia. An assessment of the fishing fleet structure pre- and post-tsunami, including associated pattern in boat aid, in 15 coastal communities was conducted and compared with data on boat relief efforts over 17 districts of the Province. Aid was found to be not proportionally allocated to losses incurred by communities and was in many cases below what could be seen as a trend toward overcapacity. The distribution of aid appeared to be done without consideration of the former structure of the fleet, which changed significantly over time (pre- and post-tsunami), and resulted in a new fleet of reduced diversity with a strong focus on the smaller boat categories. If this situation perpetuates after the initial post-disaster period, it may further exacerbate the pre-existing economic and geographic marginalisation of some remote communities, and reduce the capacities of the fleets to diversify and develop multi-species harvesting strategies; thus, increasing the risk of ecologically unsustainable exploitation in near shore areas.
This study investigates the perception of the impact of climate change on the livelihoods of small-scale fishing communities in the Western Region of Ghana. A mixed-method approach was employed, consisting of a survey of 400 fisherfolk households and 20 interviews with stakeholders. Changes in rainfall pattern, decreasing rainfall, stronger waves and storms that increase coastal erosion and cause persistent flooding were found to be the main effects of climate change on the livelihoods of small-scale coastal fisherfolk. Transnational fishing practices by fisherfolk in response to climate change contributed to the building of resilience of fishing households, while other adaptation strategies appeared to be insufficient in the long run. Coastal communities are not homogenous with respect to climate change impacts and corresponding adaptation strategies. Based on the empirical results, policy implications are suggested related to early warning systems and multiscalar marine planning. Keywords: small-scale fisheries, sustainable livelihoods and climate change, traditional ecological knowledge, multi-scalar marine planning, West Africa.
With increasing decline in global fish stocks and the possibility of extinction of many small-scale fisheries (SSF) partly because of over-fishing by large-scale industrial fishers (both licensed and unlicensed) and partly because of harmful fishing gear used by small-scale fishers themselves, researchers are focusing on alternatives to the prevailing top-down systems of fisheries management. One such alternative that is receiving attention is the community-based approach to the governance of SSF, which maintains that small-scale or artisanal fishers have a special attachment to their geographical area which makes them better managers of their fish resources. This study investigates the viability of this approach in Sierra Leone’s Tombo and Goderich fishing communities. Fieldwork was carried out during 2017 and 2019 when a total of 51 key informant (KI) and 14 telephone in-terviews (TI) were conducted, and 200 survey questionnaires (SQ) were distributed in the two communities. The main finding is that although several community fisheries organisations (CFO) try to manage coastal stocks, they have no power to curb industrial over-fishing, and their power to stop artisanal fishers using harmful gear is compromised by government interference and by conflicts between CFOs. The study concludes that both top- down (governmental) and bottom-up (communitarian) approaches to SSF management have flaws, and each side needs to acknowledge its flaws, and work together with the other side to eliminate them
This article investigates collective action dynamics and local politics amidst Philippine seaweed‐growing communities. Government agencies and civil society organizations generally encourage collaboration at village level through the formation of cooperatives and associations, often on the assumption that it facilitates the translation of economic growth into rural poverty reduction. Here, we explain how the formation of associations is entangled with the local and central state politics. We argue that civil society initiatives cannot be analysed separately from local and community‐level politics. This contribution reveals a gap between the objectives of rural, coastal associations, and the organizational capacities of communities to sustain such initiatives. Utilizing community support as a means to compensate for market and government failures does not only depend on a facilitative policy environment and start‐up support but also on household‐level capabilities. It also demonstrates that in addition to the interests of big business and national‐level politics, village‐level politics can obstruct effective and sustained implementation of value chain interventions.
Transformations from artisanal fishing to aquaculture are now ubiquitous in many small-scale coastal fishing communities worldwide, often in response to the economics of fisheries and climate change. Understanding the long-term dynamics of community livelihoods is an important step in designing appropriate fishery management and adaptation policies to navigate the effects of such transformations. The literature has focused predominantly on addressing snapshots of livelihood conditions, with less attention being paid to how present conditions have emerged over time, and for whom. Using an integrated analytical approach, this study investigates the longitudinal livelihood trajectories in two small-scale fishery villages around the Tam Giang Lagoon in Vietnam, with particular attention paid to the changes since the introduction of aquaculture in the late 1980s. Three distinct livelihood trajectories — accumulating, fluctuating, and marginalising — represent the differential pathways available to fishing- and aquaculture-dependent households. In this constrained yet shared resource space, the transformational adaptation through aquaculture has benefitted the adopters and enhanced their livelihood resilience; yet, it has had detrimental consequences for the artisanal fishers who find themselves locked into a state of heightened vulnerability. The findings provide evidence of differential and unintended consequences of new adaptations to livelihood struggles in small-scale fishery communities, and they point to the need for well-targeted policies to reduce rather than exacerbate growing inequalities. Fishery management policies and interventions in this lagoon, and similar contexts, need to take into account the heterogeneity in livelihood trajectories and unequal social vulnerability to inform more just adaptation strategies and improve the wellbeing of fishery communities.
Small-scale fishing communities are expected to adapt to fish catch fluctuations linked to global environmental change. Notwithstanding, impacts from severe climate events and overexploitation of fisheries resources can compromise functions and resilience of ecosystems and associated species, and thereby jeopardize long-term population trend stability and fisheries productivity. To date, most assessments and vulnerability studies of fisheries-dependent populaces have focused on global, regional and national levels, while studies at village and community levels, where adaptive planning in the context of climate- and environmental changes is important, are less common. Based on data from official fishery records over a three-decadal period (1984–2016) and recent interviews with artisanal fishermen (319 fishers from eight communities) along the Tanzanian coast, we assessed small-scale fisheries with regard to (i) long-term trends in fishery landings, (ii) long-term alterations in fishing gear use, and (iii) fishers’ perceptions on how they have been coping and adapting to fluctuating fish landings. We further investigated (iv) the adaptive capacity of a wide range of coastal villages by assessing the fishers’ responses to an anticipated future scenario of a major (50 %) decline in landings from the current fisheries catch levels. The long-term trend records of fish landings showed a remarkable ∼50 % reduction in terms of both catch per vessel and catch per fisher from 1984 to 2016. According to the interviews, the majority of fishers (75 %) have changed fishing grounds from nearshore to offshore areas during the last decade, owing to a general perception that nearshore areas have suffered major reduction in fish stocks (due to overfishing and environmental changes related to extreme climate- or weather events), while offshore areas were considered still productive. The change in location of fishing grounds is probably a result of the clear switch in major gear type utilization from beach seine to ring net that occurred over the last decades. With a further progressive decline in fishery catches to a predictive level of 50 % of the current catch level, there is a general perception that artisanal fishers will continue fishing because alternative livelihoods (like crop farming, which employs more than 65 % of the population) have suffered similar negative impact. These findings highlight the need for building adaptive capacity in local coastal communities to develop alternative coping strategies for the impacts of climate- and environmental changes.
Diversification in rural coastal areas has been promoted for two major reasons: reducing overfishing and increasing living standards. This article investigates diversification efforts in light of coastal squeezes in central Philippines. It presents evidence from 11 coastal villages in Iloilo Province, all of these communities are confronted with overfishing, poverty and environmental change. The empirical focus is on the impact of external support as well as remittances from overseas relatives. Three results emerge. First, the impact depends on initial intra-village conditions; presuming that fishing associations are the natural go-to stakeholders can be counterproductive. Second, more attention should be paid to transforming short-term, exogenous interventions into longer-term, endogenous capabilities. Third, unlike for households with higher levels of human capital, remittances do not constitute a major diversification strategy for fisher folk. Avenues for further research are the relationships between social capital and intra-village inequality and the interrelated nature of livelihood capitals.
Small-scale coastal fisheries (SSCF) in the Western region of Ghana are affected by a combination of climate and non-climate stressors. Coastal communities are particularly vulnerable to these stressors because of their proximity to the sea and high dependence on small-scale fisheries for their livelihoods. A better understanding of how fishing communities, particularly SSCF, respond to climate and non-climate stressors is paramount to improve planning and implementation of effective adaptation action. Drawing on the capitals framework, this study examines the adaptive capacity of SSCF to the combined effects of climate-related (increasing coastal erosion, and wave and storm frequency) and non-climate-related stressors (declining catches; scarcity and prohibitive cost of fuel; inconsiderate implementation of fisheries laws and policies; competition from the oil and gas industry; sand mining; and algal blooms). The findings show how fishers mobilise and use adaptive capacity through exploitation of various forms of capital, including cultural capital (e.g., local innovation); political capital (e.g., lobbying government and local authorities); social capital (e.g., collective action); human capital (e.g., local leadership); and natural capital (e.g., utilising beach sand) to respond to multiple stressors. Nevertheless, in many cases, fishers’ responses were reactive and led to negative (maladaptive) outcomes. Furthermore, this study underscores the importance of critically considering the interactive nature of capitals and how they collectively influence adaptive capacity in the planning and implementation of adaptation research, policy and practice. The information, practices and views in this article are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the opinion of the Royal Geographical Society (with IBG). © 2018 Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers).
Petroleum extraction and fishing activities coexist off Ghana's Western coast with different stakes and conflicting opinions regarding ocean space utilization. Based on fieldwork in the coastal town Axim and analysis of interviews with different stakeholders, we identify three main discourses: pro-fishery, fish resource conservation, and pro-petroleum extraction. Whereas small-scale fishers stress that exclusion zones surrounding oil rigs and offshore vessel traffic limit their mobility and damage their equipment, officials of petroleum companies argue that the fishers’ mobility is irresponsible and that they pose a security threat. Similarly, government officials view fishers as irresponsible and that they overfish. We find that the negative stakeholder image of fishers established in the fish resource conservation discourse is invoked during fishing-petroleum industry conflict resolution processes, in which fishers often have the burden of proof and receive inadequate compensation. We conclude that the stakeholders’ unequal discursive power and the government's interest in the petroleum revenue favour petroleum companies’ interests over fishers’ interests in the governance of ocean space.
A Western bias limits progress, so educators must share how communities in the developing world manage environmental change, argues Harini Nagendra. A Western bias limits progress, so educators must share how communities in the developing world manage environmental change, argues Harini Nagendra.
This volume brings together the most up to date analyses of civil society in Africa from the best scholars and researchers working on the subject. Being the first of its kind, it casts a panoramic look at the African continent, drawing out persisting, if often under-communicated, variations in regional discourses. In a majority of notionally ‘global’ studies, Africa has received marginal attention, a marginality often highlighted by the usual token chapter. Filling a critical hiatus, the Handbook of Civil Society in Africa takes Africa, African developments, and African perspectives very seriously and worthy of academic interrogation in their own right. It offers a critical, clear-sighted perspective on civil society in Africa, and positions African discourses within the framework of important regional and global debates. It promises to be an invaluable reference work for researchers and practitioners working in the fields of civil society, nonprofit studies, development studies, volunteerism, civic service, and African studies.
Endorsements:
"This volume signposts a critical turning point in the renewed engagement with the theory and practice of civil society in Africa. Moving from traditional concerns with disquisitions on the appropriateness and possibility of the existence and vibrancy of the idea of civil society on the continent, the volume approaches the forms, contents, and features of the actually existing civil society in Africa from thematic, regional, and national angles.
It demonstrates clearly the extent to which core intellectual work on civil society in Africa has largely moved from concerns with cultural reductionism to a nuanced examination of the complexities of (formal, non-formal, organizational, non-organizational, traditional, newer, usual, unusual) engagements, detailing the extent to which, over time, civil society as a concept has been indigenized, appropriated and adapted in the terrains of politics, society, economy, culture and new technologies on the continent.
In all this, the book accomplishes the near-impossible. Without sacrificing the vigour, rigor and freshness of the often unpredictable fruits of up-to-date research into regional and national differences that crop up in the documentation of Africa's multiple realities and discourses, the volume weaves together a rich tapestry of the historical, theoretical and practical dimensions of an expanding civil society sector, and accompanying growth in popular discourse, advocacy, and academic literature, in such a diverse continent as Africa, into a meaningful whole of insightful themes.
Written and edited by a very distinguished cross-continental and multi-disciplinary collection of researchers, research students, practitioners and activists, the volume provides cutting-edge evidence and makes a definitive case for a new lease of life for civil society research in Africa."
-Adigun Agbaje, Professor of Political Science, University of Ibadan, Nigeria.
"Throughout Africa, forms of civic engagement and political participation have seen dynamic change in recent decades, yet conceptions of civil society have rarely accounted for this evolution. This volume is an essential source of new thinking about political association and collective action in Africa. The authors offer a wealth of analysis on changing organizations and social movements, new forms of interaction and communication, emerging strategies and issues, diverse social foundations, and the theoretical implications of a shifting associational landscape. The contributors provide an invaluable addition to the comparative literature on political change, democratic development, and social movements in Africa."
Peter Lewis, Johns Hopkins University School of Advanced international Studies
This article is concerned with how far-reaching economic and ecological changes are affecting the livelihoods of coastal households in Vietnam. In particular, we are interested in the livelihood effects of two aspects of this changing environment: (1) the transformation of the fisheries sector, including declining stocks and species loss and the rapid expansion of aquaculture, and (2) the broader structural change in the Vietnamese economy, from household-based primary-sector activities to wage and salary employment and self-employment outside the household. Our analysis, based on a survey of 599 households in 12 coastal communes in two provinces, shows considerable changes in livelihood patterns over the decade covered by the survey. Over one-third of the responding households reported a different primary earnings source in 2012 than in 2002. Fewer relied on aquaculture as their main livelihood activity in the later year. While aquaculture, encouraged by official policy, has assumed an increasingly dominant position in fish production in Vietnam then, this is not necessarily a shift that has worked to the benefit of households in the coastal communities we studied. For most, aquaculture has not generated very high incomes so some are making it a less important aspect of their livelihood portfolio, not dropping it completely but shifting productive efforts to other livelihoods. Meanwhile, economic growth and structural change have created new opportunities for wage employment and self-employment for growing numbers of households. However, human and financial capital are necessary conditions for taking advantage of such opportunities arising from Vietnam's economic development, which raises concerns about growing economic inequality in the country's coastal communities.
The main aim of this study was to assess the feasibility of the formation and set-up of one or more Public Private Partnerships (PPPs) for aquaculture in Ghana. The project consisted of two phases. The first phase was a value chain analysis (VCA) of aquaculture in Ghana to identify bottlenecks and business opportunities. The second phase was to develop business cases for investments in aquaculture in Ghana. Since the demand for Tilapia in Ghana is very high, the focus of this study is mainly on Tilapia.
Many developing countries are expanding their network of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) to meet ambitious marine conservation targets set globally and to develop tourism nationally. This study explores the human dimensions of MPA planning in Mozambique by engaging local resource users in a series of structured discussions about marine resource use, pressures on marine resources, ways to address such pressures, and the potential positive and negative impacts of MPAs on the management of marine resources and livelihoods, from a community perspective. Findings show that the groups and communities interviewed are at best ambivalent towards MPAs while at the same time supporting increased government regulation, including conventional fisheries management measures. The study suggests that without significant community involvement in the choice of marine conservation tools, the drive to establish MPAs to achieve biodiversity conservation and tourism development goals may be counterproductive, at least in terms of poverty alleviation and sustainable resource use. It argues that a wider range of marine conservation approaches and tools needs to be considered in addition to MPAs, taking into consideration local views and institutional capacities.
Two of the priority objectives in the new U.S. National Ocean Policy are “ecosystem-based management” (EBM) and “coastal and marine spatial planning” (CMSP). Drawing from several studies demonstrating these concepts in practice in the United States and elsewhere, we provide recommendations for those engaged in implementing the new policy. We describe the types of strategic policy actions and management choices currently being used in ecosystem-based management efforts to provide opportunities for learning and problem-solving, enable capacity for action, and enhance coordination among existing initiatives. We show that implementation of this ambitious national policy at local to regional scales—where people are most closely linked with coastal and marine systems—will require close attention to these social, political, and institutional issues, as well as to ecological constraints and objectives.
{textlessptextgreatertextless}br/textgreaterThe 20th anniversary issue of Global Environmental Change provides an important opportunity to address the core questions involved in addressing "global environmental" problems--especially those related to climate change. Climate change is a global collective-action problem since all of us face the likelihood of extremely adverse outcomes that could be reduced if many participants take expensive actions. Conventional collective-action theory predicts that these problems will not be solved unless an external authority determines appropriate actions to be taken, monitors behavior, and imposes sanctions. Debating about global efforts to solve climate-change problems, however, has yet not led to an effective global treaty. Fortunately, many activities can be undertaken by multiple units at diverse scales that cumulatively make a difference. I argue that instead of focusing only on global efforts (which are indeed a necessary part of the long-term solution), it is better to encourage polycentric efforts to reduce the risks associated with the emission of greenhouse gases. Polycentric approaches facilitate achieving benefits at multiple scales as well as experimentation and learning from experience with diverse policies.textless/ptextgreater
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