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Konin Language Studies
Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, State University of Applied Sciences in Konin, Poland
KSJ 9 (3). 2021. 337-355
http://ksj.pwsz.konin.edu.pl
doi: 10.30438/ksj.2021.9.3.3
Learner autonomy, motivation, and self-regulated
learning. How do these factors interrelate when senior
adults learn English as a foreign language?
Emese Schiller
Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1875-4842
sche.emese@gmail.com
Helga Dorner
Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9648-9992
dorner.helga@ppk.elte.hu
Abstract
Learner autonomy has become a key notion for adult education as it calls atten-
tion to the ability of directing one’s own independent learning. Although studies
extensively discuss adult learners’ autonomous learning behavior, research on
senior learners’ autonomy in the context of foreign language learning (FL) is
scarce. Therefore, this paper explores motivational and self-regulatory factors
that inf luence old-age d learners’ ind ependent FL lear ning. Survey data were col -
lected and analyzed. Findings of multiple regression analyses showe d that influ-
ential factors of older learners’ autonomous learning behavior are related to
goal commitment, positive attitude towards the culture and people of FL, and
the ability to control over boredom while studying. Recommendations on sup-
porting senior adults’ learner autonomy development are outlined.
Keywords:learner autonomy; motivation; self-regulation; senior learners
Emese Schiller, Helga Dorner
338
1. Introduction
The number of senior citizens has massively increased across the world (DESA, 2017).
Hence, in today’s society, active aging has become an important agenda (Naegele &
Bauknecht, 2013). In this context, learning is crucial for enhancing the quality of later
life (Escuder & Jaume, 2013; Narushima et al., 2016). In fact, in countries with aging
population, an extensively growing number of older adults would like to participate
in educational programs (Pearse, 1991). Therefore, instruction of senior adults has
become even more relevant in education (Schmidt-Hertha et al., 2014).
Research on gerontology has already uncovered instructional methods for
teaching senior adults (Berndt, 2003; Delaud et al., 2012). Results have indicated that
biological, psychological (Grein, 2013), as well as social factors need to be taken into
consideration when teaching older adult learners (Villar et al., 2010). For instance,
older adults’ FL learning behavior was found to be significantly different from that of
younger generations (Berndt, 2003). Various age-specific background variables such
as changed language learning motivation and learning aims (Klimczak-Pawlak & Kos-
sakowska-Pisarek, 2018), or the extent to which their out-of-class learning is main-
tained (Berndt, 2004) must be considered in older adults’ FL learning.
This study too is concerned with age-specific variables and aims to expand
the perspective on senior adult learners by focusing on their learner autonomy
in FL learning. In particular, we conducted a quantitative study on motivational
and self-regulatory aspects of older adults’ out-of-class learning and explored
how these constructs affect their learner autonomy.
2. Literature review
Three conceptual areas underpin this study, which have also informed the re-
search design and the research tool development. These are as follows: learner
autonomy, learning motivation, and self-regulated learning in the first instance.
2.1. Learner autonomy
Holec (1981) first defined autonomy in learning as “the ability to take charge of
one’s own learning” (Holec, 1981, cited in Benson, 2006, p. 23). Although there
are numerous definitions concerning learner autonomy, common features in-
clude the ability of conscious planning, maintaining, and evaluating one’s own
learning process (Hardeland, 2013; Little, 1999; Mynard & Carson, 2012). The
concept of learner autonomy emphasizes the importance of experienced inde-
pendence (Krumm, 2005); however, support from peer students and that of the in-
structor are needed for further developing autonomous learning-related skills
Learner autonomy, motivation, and self-regulated learning. How do these factors interrelate when…
339
(Cubucku, 2016; Thavenius, 1999; Vieria, 1999). Benson’s (2001) model of learner
autonomy thus encompasses classroom and curriculum decisions as well as as-
pects of independent studying, such as the effective use of autonomous learn-
ing skills and study resources.
Moreover, learner autonomy was found to play an important role in the
development of language proficiency, namely, effective use of learning strate-
gies for memorization or (meta-)cognition have a positive impact on the
achievement in FL classroom (Griffiths, 2003; Jianfeng et al., 2018; Murray, 2010).
Concerning strategic language learning of older adults, Schneider and Uhl (1990)
pointed out that senior learners obtain fewer effective methods of learning as
compared to younger generations. However, it was also found that targeted
strategy training has an overall positive effect on senior learners’ learning per-
formance (Ball et al., 2002; Blackburn et al., 1988; Kliegl et al., 1989).
2.2. Self-regulated learning
The concept of autonomous language learning and self-regulation are assumed
to overlap. The first term, however, has its origins in the reform pedagogical
conceptualization of educational change of the 20th century and highlights the
notion of individual differences and needs among learners (Krumm, 2005). Fur-
ther, autonomy refers to a broader concept of learning including not only the
ability to take responsibility over the organization of learning procedure but also
the management of study-content and the social context in which knowledge
acquisition occurs (Kormos & Csizér, 2014, p. 280). As opposed to that, self-reg-
ulated learning is related to educational psychology concerning the behavioral
control over certain cognitive and affective aspects of learning (Murray, 2014).
Nevertheless, self-regulatory strategies were found to play a significant role in
learners’ independent learning process (Stefanou et al., 2013), since self-regu-
lation concerns learners’ capability of behavioral control regarding the motiva-
tional and cognitive elements of their own learning process (Zimmerman, 1998).
Dörnyei (2001) presented a taxonomic system on self-regulation in FL learning,
which was empirically validated (Tseng et al., 2006). His conceptualization of
self-regulatory skills entail control over one’s achievement goals, attentive per-
formance, study environment, and emotions during learning (Dörnyei, 2001).
As for attentive performance, older adults’ capability of maintaining focus
was found to be significantly different than that of younger generations. It was
found that this age-group may have difficulties in closing out irrelevant infor-
mation during sustained attention (O’Halloran et al., 2013). This may influence
their cognitive performance and achievement (Bäckman & Molander, 1986) and
play an affective role during their learning process (Grein, 2013). Similarly, older
Emese Schiller, Helga Dorner
340
adults’ learning aims are also considerably different than achievement goals of
younger generations (Villar et al., 2010). Older adults’ study goals are mainly
related to their cognitive interest in learning (Lin & Sandmann, 2012) or to cer-
tain communication situations (Eguz, 2019), which may influence their learning
progress (Klimczak-Pawlak & Kossakowska-Pisarek, 2018).
2.3. (FL) learning motivation
Most models of motivational language learning entail the notion of invested effort
and persistence (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011); therefore, research has been con-
ducted to examine the potential motivational factors of language learning (Dö-
rnyei, 1994). Amongst others, Gardner (1985) investigated possible reasons of
motivational behavior and formulated the categorization of motivation by indicat-
ing two main types, namely, instrumental and integrative orientation. The former
one refers to practical reasoning of learning a foreign language, while the latter
concerns active interest in the culture and the people of the target language
(Gardner, 1983; Gardner, 2001). Gardner’s (1985, 2010) socio-educational model
became a widespread conceptualization of FL motivation and numerous studies
have dealt with the instrumentality of motivated learning behavior of young
learners as well as adult students (Dordi-nezhad, 2015; Kormos & Csizér, 2008;
Molaee et al., 2014; Taie & Afshari, 2015). Later, a revised model was created in
order to serve the international nature of English as a lingua franca including read-
iness of communicating with other people of different cultures rather than with a
specific L2 group (Yashima, 2009; Yashima et al., 2004). Older adults’ language
learning motivation is characterized by a diversity of existing motivational factors,
that is, numerous practical and cultural reasons explain why they learn a foreign
language, which also plays an important role in the learning process (Eguz, 2019;
Klimczak-Pawlak & Kossakowska-Pisarek, 2018; Schiller & Dorner, 2021).
2.4. The relationship among learning motivation, self-regulated learning, and
learner autonomy
Most studies discuss the link between learner motivation and perceived ability
in autonomous learning and highlight the importance of intrinsic interest and
invested effort (e.g., Jianfeng et al., 2018; Lam & Gurland, 2008; Prigmore et al.,
2016). For instance, Jianfeng and his associates (2018) investigated the correla-
tion between learner autonomy and motivation and their impact on adult EFL
learners’ language proficiency. It was found that there was a positive and significant
relationship between the two constructs, both of which considerably affected par-
ticipants’ language abilities. Results also showed that certain motivational variables,
Learner autonomy, motivation, and self-regulated learning. How do these factors interrelate when…
341
such as intrinsic interest, had a major impact on participants’ language learning
behavior. Lam and Gurland (2008), who researched the possible predictors of
motivational behavior in the context of work-based learning, found a strong link
between participants’ perceived autonomy and their work-related invested ef-
fort. Based on exploratory qualitative data, Prigmore and his colleagues (2016)
also argued that learner motivation plays a decisive role in students’ abilities to
take responsibility for their own learning.
Further, Cubucku (2009) found that adult learners with high self-regula-
tion habits show a greater degree of learner autonomy and use more cognitive
and metacognitive strategies in learning. Similarly, Dawson and his colleagues
(2015) investigated the possible ways of enhancing autonomous learning and
found that promoting effective methods of formulating learning goals can posi-
tively affect adult learners’ development in learner autonomy. Notwithstanding
these important results about learner autonomy in general (Benson, 2001,
2006; Hardeland, 2013; Little, 1999; Mynard & Carson, 2012), research address-
ing factors which influence senior adults’ autonomy in learning is scarce. There-
fore, the aim of the present paper is to examine how motivational and self-reg-
ulatory strategies affect autonomous learning behavior of senior adult learners.
To investigate this, we formulated the following research questions:
1. What are the motivational factors and self-regulatory strategies that have
a direct effect on autonomous learning behavior of senior FL learners?
2. What motivational factors and self-regulatory strategies have an indirect
effect on autonomous learning behavior of senior FL learners?
3. The study
3.1. Participants
The research was conducted in an instructional setting that is specialized in
teaching FL to senior adult language learners in Hungary. Altogether 106 senior
adults (with the average age of 65.81) participated in the quantitative study in
October 2019. Their level of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) was elementary
or pre-intermediate.
3.2. Research instrument
The questionnaire measured senior adult learners’ motivation, self-regulatory behav-
ior, and autonomous learning skills of EFL. It is based on the comprehensive model on
learner autonomy validated in a large-scale empirical study (Csizér & Kormos, 2012;
Emese Schiller, Helga Dorner
342
Kormos & Csizér, 2014). It consists of three main parts: language learning moti-
vation, self-regulatory strategies, and autonomous learning behavior (cf. Schiller
& Dorner, 2020). As for the motivational scales, this study relies on Gardner’s
(1985) motivational component regarding the intended desire and effort to in-
vest in learning the language (Gardner, 2004). Survey items on language learning
goals encompass instrumentality (Gardner, 1985) and integrativity by emphasiz-
ing the significance of English as a global language (cf. Csizér & Kormos, 2012).
The scale instrumental orientation was altered to include the notion of experi-
enced independence while travelling (Schiller& Dorner, 2021). In addition, Dö-
rnyei’s (2005) self-regulatory strategies of independent learning such as main-
taining emotional control (e.g., managing emotions that can hinder effectual
learning) or commitment control concerning specific goal setting, as well as
strategies of controlling boredom (satiation control) and metacognitive control
(over confining focused attention) were also included (Tseng et al., 2006). Self-
regulatory scales were extended by items from Tseng et al.’s (2006) original sur-
vey. Finally, items on the cognitive and metacognitive aspects of learning as well
as the independent use of study resources were also included (cf. Benson, 2001;
Kormos & Csizér, 2014). The scales of cognitive strategies were extended with
the four main skills (listening, reading, speaking, writing) of learning a FL (Schil-
ler & Dorner, 2020). Items that were originally written in English were translated
into Hungarian by using the technique of forward and backward translation (cf.
Tsang et al., 2017). The scales of the questionnaire are presented below:
Scales regarding learning motivation:
·Motivational intensity (4 items): refers to the intended effort of learning
a FL (Gardner, 2006);
·Integrative orientation (international posture) (4 items): concerns stu-
dents’ personal interest in different cultures (Kormos & Csizér, 2014);
·Instrumental orientation (4 items): deals with the pragmatic gains of
learning SL. Scales constructed for assessing instrumental orientation of
the elderly (Schiller & Dorner, 2021).
Scales regarding self-regulated learning:
·Commitment control (4 items): concerns the goal commitment of FL
learners (Csizér & Kormos, 2012);
·Satiation control (4 items): deals with control over boredom (Csizér &
Kormos, 2012);
·Emotional control (4 items): concerns self-regulation of emotional self-
management (Csizér & Kormos, 2012);
Learner autonomy, motivation, and self-regulated learning. How do these factors interrelate when…
343
·Metacognitive control (4 items): deals with self-regulatory control over atten-
tive performance while learning (Csizér & Kormos, 2012; Tseng et al., 2006);
Scales regarding autonomous learning behavior:
·Independent use of cognitive and metacognitive strategies (24 items):
learner’s independent use of cognitive and metacognitive strategies in-
cluding the ones concerning the four main skills of language learning
(listening, reading, writing, speaking) (Csizér & Kormos, 2012). The scale
was extended by items specially developed for the study;
·Independent use of learning resources (5 items): independent use of dig-
ital learning resources (Csizér & Kormos, 2012).
3.3. Procedure
Participants filled out the questionnaire on a voluntary basis. It consisted of 63
items including 57 5-point Likert scale items (5 = strongly agree, 1 = strongly
disagree) as well as open-ended questions regarding their age, gender, educa-
tional background, and the level of their EFL knowledge. The study received eth-
ical clearance (No. of Ethical Permission: 2019/299).
3.4. Data analysis
First, we conducted descriptive statistics in order to estimate the reliability of the
applied instrument. Cronbach’s Alpha values were computed to measure the relia-
bility of the investigated constructs. Subsequently, multiple regression analysis was
conducted by applying a step-by-step approach (i.e., stepwise regression). Our aim
was to find out more about the variables affecting participating older adults’ auton-
omous learning behavior. We used SPSS to compute regressions (Version 26).
4. Results
4.1. Descriptive statistics and reliability measurements
First, we will present the descriptive statistics and reliability measures of the
instrument. In order to measure the internal consistency of each scale,
Cronbach’s alpha was used. The minimum acceptable value of the internal con-
sistency was set for 0.6 ≤ α (DeVellis, 2012). As for the internal consistency co-
efficients and the descriptive statistics, all the scales were acceptable in terms
of their reliability (Murphy & Davidshofer, 1988) with integrative orientation ob-
taining the lowest Cronbach’s alpha (.671) and cognitive strategies of reading the
Emese Schiller, Helga Dorner
344
highest coefficient alpha (.894) values (cf. Schiller & Dorner, 2020). With regards
to the descriptive statistics, motivational intensity (M= 3.86), integrative orien-
tation (M= 3.56), and metacognitive control (M= 3.43) showed the highest
mean values. It was also found that there was a significant difference between
integrative (M= 3.56, SE = 0.74) and instrumental motivation (M= 3.14, SE =
0.79), the difference of which is statistically significant (t(105) = 5, 45, p= .00).
Further, participants appeared to have scored higher on motivational intensity
(M= 3.86, SE = 0.57) than on satiation control (M= 3.36, SE = 0.80). This differ-
ence is also statistically significant (t(105) = -6, 72 p= .00). These results may
imply a great diversity among senior adult learners’ motivational behavior. Ad-
ditionally, cognitive strategies concerning oral production (.93) and metacogni-
tive strategies (.87) of autonomous learning behavior showed the largest varia-
tion. The result can indicate a degree of heterogeneity between senior adult
learners’ ability to provide a structure for strategic learning.
4.2. Predictors of senior adult learners’ autonomous learning behavior
The aim of this study was to detect which motivational and self-regulatory scales
have a direct and indirect impact on senior adults’ learner autonomy; therefore,
we conducted multiple regression analyses with a stepwise approach. Similarly to
Kormos and Csizér (2014), we compounded the scales from Benson’s (2001)
model of autonomy by calculating the mean of the scores of scales. We named it
autonomous learning behavior, which was also set as the criterion variable of our
analyses. In the initial model, the independent variables were all the presented
self-regulatory and motivational scales of the research instrument. The stepwise
approach resulted in a regression model with three independent variables. The
results show (Table 1) that commitment control and satiation control were the
predictor variables that had a direct effect on autonomous learning behavior as
they had statistically significant positive relationship with the dependent variable.
Out of these, satiation control had the strongest relationship with autonomous
learning behavior followed by commitment control. Based on theβ values, all the
significant relations were indicated as positive, which implies that the investigated
criterion and independent variables increased in relation to one another. Alt-
hough this positive relationship among the criterion and predictive variables does
not mean an inevitable causation, it can be inferred that a possible increasement
in these values may have a positive effect on autonomous learning behavior. This
means that the better older learners can manage boredom during their self-study
practice, the greater responsibility they will be able to accept for their own learn-
ing. Further, firmer commitment over maintaining study goals can also be resulted
in learner autonomy-development in the case of old-aged EFL learners.
Learner autonomy, motivation, and self-regulated learning. How do these factors interrelate when…
345
Table 1 Results of the regression analysis of the motivational and self-regulatory
scales with autonomous learning behavior as the criterion variable
Variable B SE βSig
Satiation control
.33
.07
.43
.00*
Commitment control .26 .08 .31 .002*
Integrative orientation .12 .05 .15 .029
R Square .60
Subsequently, we conducted further regression analyses in order to iden-
tify those variables affecting autonomous learning behavior in an indirect way.
Therefore, we set those predictive variables presented in Table 1 as criterion
ones to see what other scales have an impact on them. All the independent var-
iables were the remaining self-regulatory and motivational ones.
In the case of commitment control as a dependent variable (Table 2), it was
found that metacognitive control, satiation control, and integrative orientation
were the significant predictive variables having the strength of the relationship in
descending order. This means that older adults’ goal-directed learning behavior
was greatly affected by their attentive performance, in particular. Further, old-
aged learners’ capability to control over boredom and their cultural purposes of
language learning also had a significant impact on their dedication to FL learning.
Table 2 Results of the regression analysis of the motivational and self-regulatory
scales having indirect impact on autonomous learning behavior
Commitment control as the criterion variable
Variable B SE βSig
Metacognitive control .49 .09 .46 .00*
Satiation control
.31
.07
.35
.00*
Integrative orientation .21 .05 .22 .00*
R Square .68
Satiation control as the criterion variable
Variable B SE βSig
Metacognitive control .45 .11 .38 .00*
Commitment control
.36
.10
.32
.001
Motivational intensity .29 .10 .20 0.05
R Square .38
Integrative orientation as the criterion variable
Variable B SE βSig
Instrumental orientation
.40
.07
.43
.00*
Commitment control .26 .08 .25 .003
R Square .30
When establishing satiation control as a criterion variable, it is perceived that
the strongest predictor variable was metacognitive control, followed by commitment
Emese Schiller, Helga Dorner
346
control and motivational intensity. This implies that the more careful attention
old-aged learners are able to pay to maintain their own learning, the higher
older adults’ self-regulatory control over managing their lack of interest is. Fur-
ther, senior learners’ ability to control over boredom is also significantly influ-
enced by their general motivational behavior.
Integrative orientation was predicted by commitment control and instru-
mental orientation, having the latter as a stronger predictor variable. This indi-
cates that older adults’ intensive cultural interest in FL learning is significantly
affected by goal-directedness and instrumentality specifically, by the latter re-
ferring to the en route-experienced independence in their case.
We also used path analysis (Figure 1) to gain a better understanding of the
complex relations of the predictive variables. It was found that satiation control,
commitment control and integrative orientation have both direct and indirect
effect on autonomous learning behavior. Commitment control has the most
complex relation to learner autonomy by having an indirect impact on it too
through the two other most significant predictive variables.
Figure 1 Path model of the hypothesized relationships between autonomous
learning behavior and the predictive motivational and self-regulatory scales
β =0.43
autonomous
learning
behaviour
commitment
control
satiation
control
metacognitive
control
motivational
intensity
R
2
= 0.56
R
2
= 0.68
β= 0.15
R
2
= 0.
30
β=
0.31
0.31
β= 0.46
β= 0.25
β= 0.35
β = 0.43
β = 0.22
β= 0.38
β= 0.20
R2= 0.64
instrumental
orientation
integrative
orientation
β= 0.3
2
Learner autonomy, motivation, and self-regulated learning. How do these factors interrelate when…
347
5. Discussion
In this study, we investigated the main characteristics of older adults’ learner
autonomy by exploring which self-regulatory and motivational factors and self-
regulatory strategies have a direct and indirect effect on senior FL learners’ au-
tonomous learning behavior. We found that older adults’ learner autonomy is
significantly directly affected by commitment and satiation control. This means
that goal-directed learning behavior and the ability to control over boredom
play a vital role in older adult learners’ autonomy-development. This is in line
with previous research according to which adult learners’ self-regulation is key
when enhancing autonomy in learning (Cubucku, 2009; Stefanou et al., 2013).
Integrative orientation was found to have an indirect effect on old-aged
learners’ autonomy. Notably, however, according to our final model, positive at-
titude towards FL communities had higher impact on the autonomous learning
process than instrumentality on the whole. This is different than found earlier
in the case of adult learners (cf. Wong, 2011).
Furthermore, autonomous learning behavior was inter alia indirectly af-
fected by motivational intensity. In other words, the desire to learn the language
has a relatively significant effect on learner autonomy. Our findings share a num-
ber of similarities with those of Liu (2015), according to whom, invested effort
and persistence in learning could most likely predict learner autonomy in the
case of adult learners. However, we detected that senior adult learners’ motiva-
tional intensity has only an indirect impact on autonomous learning behavior,
predicting satiation control in the first place.
Moreover, we also found that those variables having a direct impact on auton-
omous learning behavior also affect it in an indirect way. Interestingly, commitment
control showed the most definite link with learner autonomy. This is consistent with
previous studies that also underline the importance of effective goal setting regarding
learner autonomy-development (Coterall, 2000; Yang, 1998; Ushioda, 2014).
These findings have implications for developing senior adult learners’ FL
learning autonomy. Our data indicate that enhancing different facets of learner
motivation is crucial when promoting senior adults’ learner autonomy. The in-
structor should pay special attention to the different individual needs and pref-
erences of senior adult learners in the first instance (Chang & Lin, 2011). Further,
promoting motivation through positive reinforcement (Beisgen & Kraitchman,
2003) should also be used as an overarching instructional strategy throughout
the entire learning process. It is further recommended to raise senior adult
learners’ awareness about the possible benefits of constant personal develop-
ment, such as experienced increased independence (Chaffin & Harlow, 2005)
and perceived enhancement of cognitive abilities (Weinstein 2004).
Emese Schiller, Helga Dorner
348
As motivation is closely related to goal-directedness (Gómez-Miñambres, 2012;
Lunenburg, 2011; Sullivan & Strode, 2010) it is essential to encourage older adult learn-
ers to realize their concrete learning aims which they wish to achieve in the first place
(Eguz, 2019). In so doing, as Magid (2013) points out, learners’ goal specification can
be best promoted by stimulating the vision of the qualities of their ideal L2 selves. The
ideal L2 self refers to a set of attributes that one intends to achieve when acquiring the
given foreign language (Dörnyei, 2009). Subsequently, the instructor should help them
become aware of those competences which are needed to attain to the specific learn-
ing objectives (Emmons, 1999, cited in Chaffin & Harlow, 2005 p. 316).
A possible way to promote and support learner autonomy is through ad-
vising in language learning in a one-to-one setting. This approach is a form of
humanistic counselling (Mynard & Carson, 2012). It develops learner autonomy
by focusing on promoting certain (meta)cognitive and affective aspects of learn-
ing, such as effective planning, monitoring and reflecting upon the entire learn-
ing process and the constant sustaining of learner motivation (Karlsson et al.,
2007; Mehlhorn, 2006; Mozzon-McPherson, 2001; Siebert, 2000).
6. Conclusion
The results of the study indicate that senior adults’ learner autonomy is mainly in-
fluenced by how effe ctively they s et their own learni ng goals a nd how i nvested they
are in learning a foreign language because of their interest in the culture and people
of that target language. Apart from that, the ability of controlling boredom and
maintaining attentive performance also play a crucial role in their learner autonomy
development. These findings suggest that these aspects need to be taken into con-
sideration when senior adults’ independent learning processes are promoted.
The current study was limited by the invented sampling method in particu-
lar. That is, participating learners of our research belonged to one institution
solely, suggesting that participants coming from more heterogenous locations
would indicate more generalizable results to the Hungarian elderly population.
Another limitation refers to our research instrument that focused on motivational
factors, self-regulatory strategies and autonomy in learning being self-reported by
the participants which hinders the objectivity of the outcome. Finally, future re-
search that investigates the separate scales of learner autonomy will need to be
performed in order to find further information about its influencing factors.
Despite the fact that there are some limitations of the study, we believe that
this study serves as the first step towards understa nding the affecting factors of sen-
ior adult learners’ learner autonomy. In so doing, it also enables us to refine our
understanding of the large ‘category’ of adult learners by drawing our attention to
the specifics and needs of senior adult learners within the larger population.
Learner autonomy, motivation, and self-regulated learning. How do these factors interrelate when…
349
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