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Carbon Plate Shoes Improve Metabolic Power and Performance in Recreational Runners
Abstract
This study compared metabolic power (MP) and time trial (TT) running performance between Adidas Adizero Adios (AAA) and Nike VaporFly 4% (NVP). Thirty-seven runners completed three laboratory sessions and two field sessions (n=30). After familiarization (visit 1), participants completed eight 6-min treadmill running bouts (four with each shoe, counterbalanced) at their preferred pace, and MP was assessed using indirect calorimetry (visits 2 and 3). During visits 4 and 5, participants completed two outdoor TTs (~3.5 km) in NVP and AAA (counterbalanced). Compared with AAA, NVP exhibited superior MP (NVP: median=13.88 (Q1–Q3=12.90–15.08 W/kg; AAA: median=14.08 (Q1–Q3=13.12–15.44 W/kg; z=−4.81, p<.001, effect size=.56) and TT (NVP=793±98 s; AAA=802±100 s, p=.001; effect size=.09). However, there was no relationship between changes in MP and changes in TT between shoes (r=.151 p=.425, 95% confidence interval=[−.22; .48]). Our results demonstrate that NVP, compared with AAA, improves MP and TT in recreational runners. The lack of correlation between changes in MP and TT indicates that factors other than improved MP contribute to faster short-distance TT with NVP.
... Along with the performance improvement, the running economy using Nike Vaporfly 4%, led to an enhancement of ∼4% compared to their habitual training shoes and a non-significant ∼1.5% improvement in running economy compared to the light running shoe. Similarly, Nielsen et al. (2022) demonstrated that the AFT model Nike Vaporfly 4% improved running economy around 2% and a 3,500 m time trial (TT) around 2.5% in a group of recreational runners, compared to traditional light running shoes. ...
... These results suggest that other factors than running economy (usually measured at constant speed in the laboratory) could contribute to faster times in 3,500 m TT performance. One of the factors that could be affected is pacing during the test (Nielsen et al., 2022). Endurance performance is influenced by pacing behaviour according to the mode of exercise, duration of the event, and training status (St Clair Gibson et al., 2006). ...
... However, it is unknown the influence of the different AFT characteristics on pacing strategy, i.e. the effect of performance could be related only by the absolute increase of speed or be able to produce a faster start and final of the race. Moreover, previous studies (Hébert-Losier et al., 2020;Nielsen et al., 2022) compared different footwear models, with different designs and characteristics (e.g. foam materials, mass, stiffness, geometry, and stack height), providing information on the influence of a particular model of running shoe. ...
This study aimed to analyse the effects of shoes with increased longitudinal bending stiffness
(LBS) on 3,000m performance, pacing strategy, heart rate, and biomechanics in trained runners.
Twelve male trained runners performed a 3,000m time trial test in an experimental shoe with a
carbon fibre plate to increase the LBS (LBS-increased) and a Control shoe (without carbon fibre
plate). Running performance (total time), pacing, heart rate, and biomechanical variables were
registered and analysed for each 1000m split. An individual analysis of the responders was
performed based on the smallest worthwhile change. The 3,000m time trial performance
improved by 0.74% (585.83±33.39 vs. 590.17±34.35s, p<0.001, large d=0.829) in the LBS-increased
condition compared to the Control condition with a high inter-individual variability. There were
no significant differences for the split effect (p=0.898, small ηp2
= 0.021). The performance
improvement was accompanied by an increase in step length (p<0.001, large ηp2
= 0.717)
throughout the time trial test and an increase of flight time in the split 1 and 2 (p<0.05, moderate
d=0.793, 0.686, respectively) and vertical oscillation in the split 2 and 3 (p<0.05, moderate
d=0.727, 0.652). However, the heart rate remained unchanged between conditions. The increase
of LBS in footwear can improve 3,000m performance without causing changes in the pacing
strategy. Small modifications in running kinematics accompanied the improvements in running
performance but without changes in heart rate. Moreover, LBS-increased did not affect all runners
equally highlighting the need for further understanding of individual responses.
... For AFT shoes, previous studies have reported more RE improvements in highly trained/ national runners (sub-32:00 men and 35:30 women for 10 km) (2)(3)(4) than in recreational/ trained runners (~45:00 for 10 km) (5,(18)(19)(20). A recent meta-analysis showed a RE improvement in world-class and amateur runners with the greatest variability of results in the world-class runners Copyright © 2023 by the American College of Sports Medicine. ...
... The interaction of the mechanisms explained above could explain the different results reported previously. Previous studies have reported an average improvement between 2. 8 -4.2% in RE, with a wide variability ranging from -8.6 to 13.3% in national runners (2)(3)(4) while running at absolute velocities from 14 to 18 km‧hr -1 , and slightly lower improvements (less than 2%) in recreational /trained runners while running from 10 to 14 km‧hr -1 (5,18) in groups of a slightly lower level than the one used in our study . However, all the studies mentioned above, used an AFT shoe as the experimental condition and a different traditional shoe as the control condition. ...
... higher than those measured in the RE tests. Notably, the difference in the 3,000 m TT test between experimental (increased LBS) and control was small (5 s in both groups) which is smaller than previous results for 5,000 m and 3,500 m test in trained runners in studies using AFT vs. control (5,18). Hébert-Losier et al., (5) found a performance improvement ranged from 3.8% to 8.2% when trained runners ran in an AFT shoe compared to their own traditional footwear. ...
Introduction/purpose:
Previous results about longitudinal bending stiffness (LBS) and running economy (RE) show high variability. This study aimed to assess the effects of shoes with increased LBS on RE and performance in trained and national runners.
Methods:
Twenty-eight male runners were divided into two groups according to their 10-km performance times (trained: 38-45 min and national runners: <34 min). Subjects ran 2 x 3 min (at 9 and 13 km‧hr-1 for trained, and 13 and 17 km‧hr-1 for national runners) with an experimental shoe with carbon fiber plate to increase the LBS (Increased LBS) and a control shoe (without carbon fiber plate). We measured energy cost of running (W/kg) and spatiotemporal parameters in visit one and participants performed a 3,000 m time trial (TT) in two successive visits.
Results:
Increased LBS improved RE in the trained group at slow (11.41 ± 0.93 vs 11.86 ± 0.93 W·kg-1) and fast velocity (15.89 ± 1.24 vs 16.39 ± 1.24 W·kg-1) and only at the fast velocity in the national group (20.35 ± 1.45 vs 20.78 ± 1.18 W·kg-1). The improvements in RE were accompanied by different changes in biomechanical variables between groups. There was a similar improvement in the 3,000 m TT test in Increased LBS for trained (639 ± 59 vs 644 ± 61 s in control shoes) and national runners (569 ± 21 vs 574 ± 21 s in control shoes) with more constant pace in increased LBS compared to control shoes in both groups.
Conclusions:
Increasing shoe LBS improved RE at slow and fast velocities in trained and only at fast velocity in national runners. However, the 3,000 m TT test improved similarly in both levels of runners with increased LBS. The improvements in RE are accompanied by small modifications in running kinematics that could explain the difference between the different levels of runners.
... Several laboratory experiments examining AFT models from either Nike, Adidas, or Saucony in recreational runners at slower running speeds of 9-15 km/h reported similar RE benefits of 1.6-5.0%, indicating that runners can benefit from AFT independent of running speed [25][26][27][28][29]. Notably, when comparing the same AFT model at different running speeds, RE benefits appear to increase with greater running speed [28][29][30]. ...
... Although some variability may be due to the inherent measurement error of single-trial RE data [33] and gas exchange data [46], this lack of correlation between %RE at different running speeds highlights the importance of measuring RE across multiple running speeds. Variability across velocities may also partly explain why previous research was unable to link RE benefits to performance benefits, as RE measurements are typically undertaken at running speeds slower than during performance testing [25,27]. ...
Carbon plate running shoes (CPRSs) have gained widespread popularity among elite and amateur runners, representing one of the most substantial changes in running gear over the past decade. Compared to elite runners, however, amateurs run at lower speeds and show more diverse running styles. This is a meaningful difference as many previous studies on CPRSs focus either on highly trained male runners and higher speeds or only on a single CPRSs manufacturer. The present study aims at bridging this gap by investigating how CPRSs from four different manufacturers affect running economy in amateurs of both sexes at their individual running speeds. For this purpose, 21 trained amateur triathletes (12 men; 9 women) completed an incremental treadmill test until volitional exhaustion, yielding running speeds at ventilatory thresholds 1 (vVT1) and 2 (vVT2). In a second session, subjects ran five trials of 3 × 3 min (speeds of 90% vVT1, ½ (vVT1 + vVT2), and 100% vVT2), wearing one out of four different pairs of CPRSs or their own preferred non-CPRS shoes in each trial. Our results show that tested CPRS models resulted in a significant reduction in the mean energy cost of transport, compared to the non-CPRS control condition, with Cohen’s d amounting to −1.52 (p = 0.016), 2.31 (p < 0.001), 2.57 (p < 0.001), and 2.80 (p < 0.001), respectively, although effect sizes varied substantially between subjects and running speeds. In conclusion, this study provides evidence that amateur athletes may benefit from various manufacturers’ CPRS models at their typical running speeds to a similar degree as highly trained runners. It is recommended that amateur athletes evaluate a range of CPRSs and select the shoe that elicits the least subjective sensation of fatigue over a testing distance of at least 400–1000 m.
... The experiment was carried out according to the ethical guidelines of the North Denmark Region Committee on Health Research Ethics. Data from these participants and the experimental protocol are presented in a previous paper with a different aim (Nielsen, Franch, et al., 2022). ...
... For safety precautions, a harness was secured to the participants through a chest belt going over the shoulder and attached to a slide rail at the ceiling. Energy cost of running was determined using indirect calorimetry (Vyntus CPX, Vyaire Medical, Mettawa, IL, USA), as described previously (Nielsen, Franch, et al., 2022). ...
... Debe remarcarse que, aunque la mejora atlética proporcionada por las ZPC es clara en los atletas de élite o, al menos, avanzados, dicha cuestión es más discutible en la mayoría de los atletas aficionados. Mientras que algunos estudios observan mejoras en el rendimiento de los corredores recreativos con ritmos "lentos" (Nielsen et al., 2022;Joubert et al., 2023), Héber-Losier et al. (2022) señalan que en este tipo de deportistas las respuestas presentan una gran variabilidad. Incluso, según Flores et al. (2023), los efectos de esta tecnología pueden ser contraproducentes. ...
... En cuanto a las ZPC, es evidente que en los atletas avanzados y profesionales contribuyen a la mejorara de la performance atlética (Guinness et al., 2020;Bermon et al., 2021;Senefeld et al., 2021). También hay reportes que sugieren que las ZPC pudieran mejorar el rendimiento los atletas más lentos (Nielsen et al., 2022;Joubert et al., 2023). De hecho, muchos corredores amateurs tienen objetivos que implican competir tanto con los demás como ellos mismos; es decir, "correr más rápido" y, por tanto, también buscan la maximización de la performance atlética (Ogles et al., 1995). ...
Purpose: The rise of running shoes with carbon fibre plates (CFP) has caused a disruptive shift in long-distance road running footwear by significantly enhancing athletic performance. However, these shoes are more expensive and less durable than conventional ones. This paper examines how factors associated with a hedonic model of technology acceptance influence the adoption of this equipment among amateur athletes. Design/methodology/approach: We used a sample of 252 amateur athletes to explain the intention to use CFP shoes based on three factors: perceived usefulness, hedonic motivation, and subjective norm. The relationships between variables were modelled using structural equation modelling adjusted with partial least squares (PLS-SEM). Findings: The descriptive analysis of the items related to shoe acceptance suggests a general trend towards accepting CFP shoes. The PLS-SEM analysis results indicate that while the direct impact of perceived usefulness and hedonic motivation is significant on the intention to use CFP shoes, the influence of the subjective norm is not. However, when considering all effects (direct and indirect) on the intention to use CFP shoes, the total effect of the normative variable is the most significant. We have also verified that the model has predictive capacity. Research limitations/implications: This study was conducted after World Athletics had already published new regulations on running shoes. In a context other than long-distance running, it would be interesting to conduct a similar study on a technology that could improve athletic performance before being regulated and then compare the results with those obtained after the regulations have been implemented. Practical implications: The results of this paper suggest that the proposed technology acceptance model can provide a valuable approach for evaluating the acceptance of innovative advancements in sports equipment by amateur athletes when their primary motivation for practicing a particular sport is hedonic.
... MCr is influenced by multiple variables, such as environment and training, as well as morphological, biomechanical, and physiological characteristics. 3 Recent advances in running shoe design, including the integration of carbon plates and other novel technologies, have been associated with a reduction in MCr, [5][6][7][8] resulting in an improvement of performance in elite runners. 9,10 These results highlight the importance of the lower limb's capacity to store and recoil elastic energy for optimal MCr. ...
Purpose:
To examine the association between reactive strength index (RSI) and metabolic cost of running (MCr) in master athletes. We hypothesized that individuals with a higher RSI would exhibit a lower MCr, that both variables would be associated, and that age would moderate this relationship.
Methods:
Forty-five male master athletes participated to this study. A median split was performed to constitute 2 age groups (group 1, 47.7 [1.7] y old; group 2, 56.3 [4.6] y old). Participants underwent a single 45-minute session during which RSI was assessed with drop jumps, and MCr, during a continuous exercise of submaximal intensity performed on a treadmill.
Results:
A small negative association was found between net MCr and RSI in the overall sample (RSI mean r = -.38, P < .05; RSI max r = -.38, P < .05). Group 1 exhibited a lower net MCr (P < .01, d = -0.84) and higher RSI (P < .01, d > 0.82) than group 2. However, the association between the 2 measures was verified specifically in group 2 (RSI from a 20-cm drop jump, r = -.53, P < .01; RSI mean, r = -.50, P < .05; RSI maximum, r = -.57, P < .01).
Conclusions:
RSI is associated with net MCR in master athletes, particularly in older participants. Additional intervention studies are now required to further explore this association.
... A decade ago, there were 1,298,725 marathon finishers worldwide (0.17% of the global human population), with an average finish time of 4:29:53 (4:21 for men and 4:49 for women). But despite the popularity of big city marathons, which have a limited number of entries and are massively oversubscribed, the average finish time is now some 40 min slower than it was in 1986 despite a plethora of technological breakthroughs [104,105]. Indeed, the average time for a "Six Star Finisher" (i.e., someone who has successfully completed all six World Major Marathons) is 4:02:53 at an average age of 51 [106,107]. For contextthe current minimum qualifying time for the Boston Marathon in this age bracket is 3:25:00 for men, and 3:55:00 for women [108]. ...
... The advent of road racing shoes with advanced footwear technology (AFT) in 2016 was met with controversy and ethical concerns [1][2][3][4]. However, the research found a positive performance benefit when using AFTs on running economy and training performance for mid-and long-distance [5][6][7][8], so much so that several records have been set from the 5-km to the marathon [9]. AFT shoes combine "lightweight, resilient midsole foams with rigid moderators and pronounced rocker profiles in the sole" [10] and AFT spikes (also named "Super Spikes" [11]) made their debut at the Tokyo 2020 Olympics in the track disciplines, with these spikes now available to the general population. ...
Background In contrast with Advanced Footwear Technology-AFT running shoes for long-distance, little is known about AFT sprint spikes on performance and acceleration parameters. However, their use has become widespread since the Tokyo 2020 Olympics, and knowledge of their effects would seem to be an essential starting point before any clinical or socioeconomic considerations. Objectives Our objectives were to determine intra-and inter-subject sprinting performance modifications with Nike® AFT spikes (NAS) compared to standard spiked-shoes (SS). Methods Healthy regional to national sprint athletes (n = 21, ≥ 750 pts World Athletics) performed 16 repetitions of 30-m sprints with either the NAS or SS condition during a single session, based on the multiple N-of-1 method, with pairwise randomisation and double-blind procedure. Time on 30-m sprints (Stalker radar), force-velocity profile (F 0 , V 0 , V max , P max , RF, D RF and FVP slope), and confounding factors (wind and shoe mass) were measured. Statistical analyses included a mixed linear regression model for group analyses, and randomisation test inversion and non-overlap-of-all-pair (NAP) methods for intra-individual analysis. Results NAS improved 30-m time by a mean of − 0.02 s (SMD = 0.4, p = 0.014), with no interaction with any confounding factors. Significant changes were seen in velocity (V max : SMD = 0.9, p < 0.001; V 0 : SMD = 0.7, p < 0.001) and the horizontal ratio of force (RF max : SMD = 0.5, p = 0.043), with no changes observed in force production. Whatever the footwear, one unit of positive wind (+ 1 m.s − 1) improved performance by − 0.03 s (p < 0.001). At an individual level, four athletes improved (NAP ≥ 0.69), and one had a statistical decrease in performance. Changes in F-V profiles were largely individual. Conclusions A positive effect on sprint acceleration characteristics was observed when using Nike® AFT spikes, due to an increase in velocity and the horizontal ratio of force. A major variability in inter-individual response justifies single-case experimental designs for research on the topic.
... The advent of road racing shoes with advanced footwear technology (AFT) in 2016 was met with controversy and ethical concerns [1][2][3][4]. However, the research found a positive performance benefit when using AFTs on running economy and training performance for mid-and long-distance [5][6][7][8], so much so that several records have been set from the 5-km to the marathon [9]. AFT shoes combine "lightweight, resilient midsole foams with rigid moderators and pronounced rocker profiles in the sole" [10] and AFT spikes (also named "Super Spikes" [11]) made their debut at the Tokyo 2020 Olympics in the track disciplines, with these spikes now available to the general population. ...
Background
In contrast with Advanced Footwear Technology-AFT running shoes for long-distance, little is known about AFT sprint spikes on performance and acceleration parameters. However, their use has become widespread since the Tokyo 2020 Olympics, and knowledge of their effects would seem to be an essential starting point before any clinical or socio-economic considerations.
Objectives
Our objectives were to determine intra- and inter-subject sprinting performance modifications with Nike® AFT spikes (NAS) compared to standard spiked-shoes (SS).
Methods
Healthy regional to national sprint athletes (n = 21, ≥ 750 pts World Athletics) performed 16 repetitions of 30-m sprints with either the NAS or SS condition during a single session, based on the multiple N-of-1 method, with pairwise randomisation and double-blind procedure. Time on 30-m sprints (Stalker radar), force-velocity profile (F0, V0, Vmax, Pmax, RF, DRF and FVP slope), and confounding factors (wind and shoe mass) were measured. Statistical analyses included a mixed linear regression model for group analyses, and randomisation test inversion and non-overlap-of-all-pair (NAP) methods for intra-individual analysis.
Results
NAS improved 30-m time by a mean of − 0.02 s (SMD = 0.4, p = 0.014), with no interaction with any confounding factors. Significant changes were seen in velocity (Vmax : SMD = 0.9, p < 0.001; V0: SMD = 0.7, p < 0.001) and the horizontal ratio of force (RFmax: SMD = 0.5, p = 0.043), with no changes observed in force production. Whatever the footwear, one unit of positive wind (+ 1 m.s− 1 ) improved performance by − 0.03 s (p < 0.001). At an individual level, four athletes improved (NAP ≥ 0.69), and one had a statistical decrease in performance. Changes in F-V profiles were largely individual.
Conclusions
A positive effect on sprint acceleration characteristics was observed when using Nike® AFT spikes, due to an increase in velocity and the horizontal ratio of force. A major variability in inter-individual response justifies single-case experimental designs for research on the topic.
Trial Registration Number
NCT05881148.
... Efficient execution of the AJRS demands optimal interplay among the lower extremity joints and the integration of the lower extremity as a functional entity [14]. As a medium of the foot and ground, footwear has been shown to have the potential to enhance athletic performance [15][16][17]. Footwear designed with a higher stiffness has been observed to alter the transmission ratio of the ankle joint during running, which in turn can enhance running performance [18,19]. Similarly, Yu et al. [1,7] found that jump rope shoes with a low degree of toe uplift and a thin sole could significantly affect jump rope performance. ...
Purpose:
To explore the difference in the biomechanics of the lower extremity during alternating jump rope skipping (AJRS) under barefoot and shod conditions.
Methods:
Fourteen experienced AJRS participants were randomly assigned to wear jump rope shoes or be barefoot (BF) during the AJRS at a self-selected speed. The Qualisys motion capture system and Kistler force platform were used to synchronously collect the ground reaction forces and trajectory data of the hip, knee, ankle, and metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joints. One-dimensional statistical parameter mapping was used to analyze the kinematics and kinetics of the lower extremity under both conditions using paired t-tests.
Results:
Wearing shoes resulted in a significant decrease in the ROM (p < 0.001) and peak angular velocity (p < 0.001) of the MTP joint during the landing phase. In addition, the MTP joint power (p < 0.001) was significantly larger under shod condition at 92-100% of the landing phase. Moreover, wearing shoes reduced the peak loading rate (p = 0.002).
Conclusion:
The findings suggest that wearing shoes during AJRS could provide better propulsion during push-off by increasing the MTP plantarflexion joint power. In addition, our results emphasize the significance of the ankle and MTP joint by controlling the ankle and MTP joint angle.
... However, 3 km TT was significantly better wearing VP4 compared to SE and traditional RS. In this line, Nielsen et al. [40] also showed greater metabolic power and better 3.5 km TT performance in VP4 vs. Adidas Adizero Adios, while Healey and Hoogkamer [41] demonstrated that cutting the VP4's carbon-fiber plate for reducing the longitudinal bending stiffness do not affect RE, thus energy cost optimization seems to be a combination and interaction of the foam, geometry, and plate [41]. On the other hand, previous studies have suggested that RS with increased thickness and cushioning on the posterior part of the sole could lead to a limited proprioception and predispose runners to comfortably strike on their heels [3,17]. ...
... However, 3 km TT was significantly better wearing VP4 compared to SE and traditional RS. In this line, Nielsen et al. [40] also showed greater metabolic power and better 3.5 km TT performance in VP4 vs. Adidas Adizero Adios, while Healey and Hoogkamer [41] demonstrated that cutting the VP4's carbon-fiber plate for reducing the longitudinal bending stiffness do not affect RE, thus energy cost optimization seems to be a combination and interaction of the foam, geometry, and plate [41]. On the other hand, previous studies have suggested that RS with increased thickness and cushioning on the posterior part of the sole could lead to a limited proprioception and predispose runners to comfortably strike on their heels [3,17]. ...
We aimed to investigate the initial foot contact and contact time in experienced endurance runners at individualized speeds, in running shoes and barefoot. Forty-eight participants (33.71±7.49 y, 70.94±8.65 kg, 175.07±7.03 cm, maximum aerobic speed 18.41±1.54 km.h-1) were distributed into three groups according to athletic performance: highly-trained runners, middle-trained runners, and control group. An incremental running test until exhaustion was performed for assessing maximum aerobic speed. After≥24 h of recovery participants randomly walked and ran, barefoot and in running shoes, over a pressure plate at ~4.7 km.h-1 and 85% of the maximum aerobic speed, respectively. They wore the same model of running shoes with homogeneous lacing pattern. A rearfoot strike was performed by 68.8% and 77.1% of participants when running barefoot and in running shoes, respectively. Considering the tendency to develop a rearfoot strike was lower in the barefoot condition, runners with higher performance may benefit from training in minimalist running shoes because their foot contact pattern could tend towards a non-rearfoot strike. Our results suggest that initial foot contact and contact time are related to running performance and may also be influenced by running shoes.
This study aimed to investigate how different longitudinal bending stiffness (LBS) in jump rope shoes affect the coordination variability of lower extremity segments and athletic performance during alternating jump rope skipping (AJRS). Thirty-two elite male athletes performed 30-s AJRS tasks wearing shoes with LBS measured at 3.1 Nm/rad (no-carbon-fibre-plate jump rope shoes, NS), 5.1 Nm/rad (low-stiffness-carbon-fibre-plate jump rope shoes, LS) and 7.6 Nm/rad (high-stiffness-carbon-fibre-plate jump rope shoes, HS). Motion capture tracked lower extremity kinematics. The HS shoes exhibited a more ground contacts in the first stage (p < 0.05) and a shorter average ground contact time (p < 0.05). The HS exhibited a smaller metatarsophalangeal joint (MTPJ) extension angle during 30–44% of the stance phase (p < 0.05), smaller MARP (mean absolute relative phase) of the MTPJ-ankle segments (p < 0.001) and smaller CRP (continuous relative phase) during 24–45% of the stance phase (p < 0.05). Coordination variability of the MTPJ-ankle segments was negatively correlated with the number of ground contacts during AJRS (p < 0.01, adjust R2 = 0.192). HS could provide enhanced stability by reducing coordination variability and enhance performance during the first stage in ARJS. These findings could provide insights for guiding future research and development in jump rope shoe design.
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Training, footwear, nutrition, and racing strategies (i.e., drafting) have all been shown to reduce the metabolic cost of distance running (i.e., improve running economy). However, how these improvements in running economy (RE) quantitatively translate into faster running performance is less established. Here, we quantify how metabolic savings translate into faster running performance, considering both the inherent rate of oxygen uptake-velocity relation and the additional cost of overcoming air resistance when running overground. We collate and compare five existing equations for oxygen uptake-velocity relations across wide velocity ranges. Because the oxygen uptake vs. velocity relation is non-linear, for velocities slower than ∼3 m/s, the predicted percent improvement in velocity is slightly greater than the percent improvement in RE. For velocities faster than ∼3 m/s, the predicted percent improvement in velocity is less than the percent improvements in RE. At 5.5 m/s, i.e., world-class marathon pace, the predicted percent improvement in velocity is ∼2/3rds of the percent improvement in RE. For example, at 2:04 marathon pace, a 3% improvement in RE translates to a 1.97% faster velocity or 2:01:36, almost exactly equal to the recently set world record.
We compared 10 published equations for calculating energy expenditure from oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production using data for 10 high-caliber male distance runners over a wide range of running velocities. We found up to a 5.2% difference in calculated metabolic rate between 2 widely used equations. We urge our fellow researchers abandon out-of-date equations with published acknowledgments of errors or inappropriate biochemical/physical assumptions.
Background
Reducing the energetic cost of running seems the most feasible path to a sub-2-hour marathon. Footwear mass, cushioning, and bending stiffness each affect the energetic cost of running. Recently, prototype running shoes were developed that combine a new highly compliant and resilient midsole material with a stiff embedded plate. Objective
The aim of this study was to determine if, and to what extent, these newly developed running shoes reduce the energetic cost of running compared with established marathon racing shoes. Methods18 high-caliber athletes ran six 5-min trials (three shoes × two replicates) in prototype shoes (NP), and two established marathon shoes (NS and AB) during three separate sessions: 14, 16, and 18 km/h. We measured submaximal oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide production during minutes 3–5 and averaged energetic cost (W/kg) for the two trials in each shoe model. ResultsCompared with the established racing shoes, the new shoes reduced the energetic cost of running in all 18 subjects tested. Averaged across all three velocities, the energetic cost for running in the NP shoes (16.45 ± 0.89 W/kg; mean ± SD) was 4.16 and 4.01% lower than in the NS and AB shoes, when shoe mass was matched (17.16 ± 0.92 and 17.14 ± 0.97 W/kg, respectively, both p < 0.001). The observed percent changes were independent of running velocity (14–18 km/h). Conclusion
The prototype shoes lowered the energetic cost of running by 4% on average. We predict that with these shoes, top athletes could run substantially faster and achieve the first sub-2-hour marathon.
The aim of this study was to examine the reliability of a 5-km time-trial during a competitive outdoor running event. Fifteen endurance runners (age = 29.5 ± 4.3 years, height = 1.75 ± 0.08 m, body mass = 71.0 ± 7.1 kg, 5-km lifetime personal best = 19:13 ± 1:13 minutes) completed two competitive 5-km time-trials over 2 weeks. No systematic differences in run time between Trial 1 and Trial 2 were reported (Trial 1: 1,217 ± 85 sec, 95% CI [1,170, 1,264]; and Trial 2: 1,216 ± 79 sec, [1,172 to 1,260], p = .855). Absolute reliability, expressed as the typical error (TE; 14.7 sec, 95% CI = 11.3–21.4 sec) and coefficient of variation (CV; 0.95 ± 0.65%, [0.59–1.31]) confirms the reliability of 5-km running performance in a competitive time trial.
Purpose:
Our goal was to quantify if small (1 - 3%) changes in running economy quantitatively affect distance-running performance. Based on the linear relationship between metabolic rate and running velocity and on earlier observations that added shoe mass increases metabolic rate by ~1% per 100 grams per shoe, we hypothesized that adding 100 and 300 grams per shoe would slow 3,000m time-trial performance by 1% and 3%, respectively.
Methods:
18 male, sub-20 minute 5km runners completed treadmill testing, and three 3,000m time-trials wearing control shoes and identical shoes with 100 and 300 grams of discreetly added mass. We measured rates of oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production and calculated metabolic rates for the treadmill tests and we recorded overall running time for the time-trials.
Results:
Adding mass to the shoes significantly increased metabolicrate at 3.5 m·s by 1.11% per 100grams per shoe (95% CI: 0.88-1.35%). While wearing the control shoes, participants ran the 3,000m time-trial in 626.1 ± 55.6s. Times averaged 0.65 ± 1.36% and 2.37 ± 2.09% slower for the +100g and +300g shoes respectively (p<0.001). Based on a linear fit of all the data, 3,000m time increased 0.78% per added 100 grams per shoe (95% CI: 0.52-1.04%).
Conclusion:
Adding shoe mass predictably degrades running economy and slows 3,000m time-trial performance proportionally. Our data demonstrate that laboratory-based running economy measurements can accurately predict changes in distance running race performance due to shoe modifications.
Background:
The effect of footwear on running economy has been investigated in numerous studies. However, no systematic review and meta-analysis has synthesised the available literature and the effect of footwear on running performance is not known.
Objective:
The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to investigate the effect of footwear on running performance and running economy in distance runners, by reviewing controlled trials that compare different footwear conditions or compare footwear with barefoot.
Methods:
The Web of Science, Scopus, MEDLINE, CENTRAL (Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials), EMBASE, AMED (Allied and Complementary Medicine), CINAHL and SPORTDiscus databases were searched from inception up until April 2014. Included articles reported on controlled trials that examined the effects of footwear or footwear characteristics (including shoe mass, cushioning, motion control, longitudinal bending stiffness, midsole viscoelasticity, drop height and comfort) on running performance or running economy and were published in a peer-reviewed journal.
Results:
Of the 1,044 records retrieved, 19 studies were included in the systematic review and 14 studies were included in the meta-analysis. No studies were identified that reported effects on running performance. Individual studies reported significant, but trivial, beneficial effects on running economy for comfortable and stiff-soled shoes [standardised mean difference (SMD) <0.12; P < 0.05), a significant small beneficial effect on running economy for cushioned shoes (SMD = 0.37; P < 0.05) and a significant moderate beneficial effect on running economy for training in minimalist shoes (SMD = 0.79; P < 0.05). Meta-analysis found significant small beneficial effects on running economy for light shoes and barefoot compared with heavy shoes (SMD < 0.34; P < 0.01) and for minimalist shoes compared with conventional shoes (SMD = 0.29; P < 0.01). A significant positive association between shoe mass and metabolic cost of running was identified (P < 0.01). Footwear with a combined shoe mass less than 440 g per pair had no detrimental effect on running economy.
Conclusions:
Certain models of footwear and footwear characteristics can improve running economy. Future research in footwear performance should include measures of running performance.
Purpose: Several studies have investigated whether shoe cushioning properties have an effect on running economy. However, the findings have not been unanimous. Studies have shown both increases and decreases in running economy with soft shoes, while other studies have shown participant specific differences. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to add to the body of knowledge describing the effects of shoe cushioning properties on running economy.Methods: This study was comprised of two experiments; one using a stationary metabolic analysis system to measure oxygen consumption during treadmill running, and one using a portable metabolic analysis system to measure oxygen consumption during over-ground running. Twelve aerobically fit athletes participated in each experiment. Two professionally constructed pairs of prototype running shoes were provided by adidas AG for this experiment (Soft shoe and Control shoe). The shoes were identical in construction with the only differences being the midsole material and corresponding stiffness and energy return.Results: For both the treadmill and over-ground experiments, the Soft shoe condition was associated with statistically significantly decreased oxygen consumption compared to the Control shoe condition (Treadmill p = 0.044, Over-ground p = 0.028). In the treadmill experiment, 10 of the 12 subjects consumed less oxygen while wearing the more compliant/resilient condition, with an average decrease for all subjects of 1.0%. In the over-ground experiment 9 of the 12 subjects consumed less oxygen while running in the more compliant/resilient condition, with an average decrease for all subjects of 1.2%.Conclusion: Running shoes with softer and more resilient midsoles were found to influence running economy by 1.0% on average during treadmill and over-ground experiments.
Running economy (RE) represents a complex interplay of physiological and biomechanical factors that is typically defined as the energy demand for a given velocity of submaximal running and expressed as the submaximal oxygen uptake (VO2) at a given running velocity. This review considered a wide range of acute and chronic interventions that have been investigated with respect to improving economy by augmenting one or more components of the metabolic, cardiorespiratory, biomechanical or neuromuscular systems. Improvements in RE have traditionally been achieved through endurance training. Endurance training in runners leads to a wide range of physiological responses, and it is very likely that these characteristics of running training will influence RE. Training history and training volume have been suggested to be important factors in improving RE, while uphill and level-ground high-intensity interval training represent frequently prescribed forms of training that may elicit further enhancements in economy. More recently, research has demonstrated short-term resistance and plyometric training has resulted in enhanced RE. This improvement in RE has been hypothesized to be a result of enhanced neuromuscular characteristics. Altitude acclimatization results in both central and peripheral adaptations that improve oxygen delivery and utilization, mechanisms that potentially could improve RE. Other strategies, such as stretching should not be discounted as a training modality in order to prevent injuries; however, it appears that there is an optimal degree of flexibility and stiffness required to maximize RE. Several nutritional interventions have also received attention for their effects on reducing oxygen demand during exercise, most notably dietary nitrates and caffeine. It is clear that a range of training and passive interventions may improve RE, and researchers should concentrate their investigative efforts on more fully understanding the types and mechanisms that affect RE and the practicality and extent to which RE can be improved outside the laboratory.
The purpose of this study was to compare running economy across three submaximal speeds expressed as both oxygen cost (mlxkg(-1)xkm(-1)) and the energy required to cover a given distance (kcalxkg(-1)xkm(-1)) in a group of trained male distance runners. It was hypothesized that expressing running economy in terms of caloric unit cost would be more sensitive to changes in speed than oxygen cost by accounting for differences associated with substrate utilization. Sixteen highly trained male distance runners [maximal oxygen uptake (Vo(2max)) 66.5 +/- 5.6 mlxkg(-1)xmin(-1), body mass 67.9 +/- 7.3 kg, height 177.6 +/- 7.0 cm, age 24.6 +/- 5.0 yr] ran on a motorized treadmill for 5 min with a gradient of 0% at speeds corresponding to 75%, 85%, and 95% of speed at lactate threshold with 5-min rest between stages. Oxygen uptake was measured via open-circuit calorimetry. Average oxygen cost was 221 +/- 19, 217 +/- 15, and 221 +/- 13 mlxkg(-1)xkm(-1), respectively. Caloric unit cost was 1.05 +/- 0.09, 1.07 +/- 0.08, and 1.11 +/- 0.07 kcalxkg(-1)xkm(-1) at the three trial speeds, respectively. There was no difference in oxygen cost with respect to speed (P = 0.657); however, caloric unit cost significantly increased with speed (P < 0.001). It was concluded that expression of running economy in terms of caloric unit cost is more sensitive to changes in speed and is a more valuable expression of running economy than oxygen uptake, even when normalized per distance traveled.
The purpose of the study was to determine the relationship between running economy and distance running performance in highly trained and experienced distance runners of comparable ability. Oxygen uptake (Vo2) during steady-state and maximal aerobic power (Vo2max) were measured during treadmill running using the open-circuit method. Distance running performance was determined in a nationally prominent 10 km race; all subjects (12 males) placed among the top 19 finishers. The subjects averaged 32.1 min on the 10 km run, 71.7 ml.kg-1.min-1 for Vo2max, and 44.7, 50.3, and 55.9 ml.kg-1.min-1 for steady-state Vo2 at three running paces (241, 268, and 295 m.min-1). The relationship between Vo2max and distance running performance was r = -0.12 (p = 0.35). The relationship between steady-state Vo2 at 241, 268 and 295 m.min-1 and 10 km time were r = 0.83, 0.82, and 0.79 (p < 0.01), respectively. Within this elite cluster of finishers, 65.4% of the variation observed in race performance time on the 10 km run could be explained by variation in running economy. It was concluded that among highly trained and experienced runners of comparable ability and similar Vo2max, running economy accounts for a large and significant amount of the variation observed in performance on a 10 km race.
Running shoes are designed to accommodate various arch types to reduce the risk of lower extremity injuries sustained during running. Yet little is known about the biomechanical changes of running in the recommended footwear that may allow for a reduction in injuries.
To evaluate the effects of motion control and cushion trainer shoes on running mechanics in low- and high-arched runners.
Controlled laboratory study.
Twenty high-arched and 20 low-arched recreational runners (>10 miles per week) were recruited for the study. Three-dimensional kinematic and kinetics were collected as subjects ran at 3.5 ms(-1) +/- 5% along a 25-m runway. The motion control shoe evaluated was the New Balance 1122, and the cushioning shoe evaluated was the New Balance 1022. Repeated-measures analyses of variance were used to determine if low- and high-arched runners responded differently to motion control and cushion trainer shoes.
A significant interaction was observed in the instantaneous loading rate such that the low-arched runners had a lower instantaneous loading rate in the motion control condition, and the high-arched runners had a lower instantaneous loading rate in the cushion trainer condition. Significant main effects for shoe were observed for peak positive tibial acceleration, peak-to-peak tibial acceleration, mean loading rate, peak eversion, and eversion excursion.
These results suggest that motion control shoes control rearfoot motion better than do cushion trainer shoes. In addition, cushion trainer shoes attenuate shock better than motion control shoes do. However, with the exception of instantaneous loading rate, these benefits do not differ between arch type.
Running footwear recommendations should be based on an individual's running mechanics. If a mechanical analysis is not available, footwear recommendations can be based empirically on the individual's arch type.
The choice of marathon racing shoes can greatly affect performance. The purpose of this study is to metabolically and mechanically compare the consumer version of the Nike Vaporfly 4% shoe to two other popular marathon shoes, and determine differences in running economy. Nineteen subjects performed two 5-minute trials at 4.44m/s wearing the Adidas Adios Boost (AB), Nike Zoom Streak (ZS), and Nike Vaporfly 4% (VP) in random order. Oxygen uptake was recorded during minutes 3–5 and averaged across both shoe trials. On a second day, subjects wore reflective markers, and performed a 3-minute trial in each shoe. Motion and force data were collected over the final 30 seconds of each trial. VP oxygen uptake was 2.8% and 1.9% lower than the AB and ZS. Stride length, plantar flexion velocity, and center of mass vertical oscillation were significantly different in the VP. The percent benefit of the VP over AB shoe was predicted by subject ground time. These results indicate that use of the VP shoe results in improved running economy, partially due to differences in running mechanics. Subject variation in running economy improvement is only partially explained by variation in ground time.
Objectives:
This study investigated if gradually introducing runners to minimalist shoes during training improved running economy and time-trial performance compared to training in conventional shoes. Changes in stride rate, stride length, footfall pattern and ankle plantar-flexor strength were also investigated.
Design:
Randomised parallel intervention trial.
Methods:
61 trained runners gradually increased the amount of running performed in either minimalist (n=31) or conventional (n=30) shoes during a six-week standardised training program. 5-km time-trial performance, running economy, ankle plantar-flexor strength, footfall pattern, stride rate and length were assessed in the allocated shoes at baseline and after training. Footfall pattern was determined from the time differential between rearfoot and forefoot (TDR-F) pressure sensors.
Results:
The minimalist shoe group improved time-trial performance (effect size (ES): 0.24; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.01, 0.48; p=0.046) and running economy (ES 0.48; 95%CI: 0.22, 0.74; p<0.001) more than the conventional shoe group. There were no minimalist shoe training effects on ankle plantar-flexor concentric (ES: 0.11; 95%CI: -0.18, 0.41; p=0.45), isometric (ES: 0.23; 95%CI: -0.17, 0.64; p=0.25), or eccentric strength (ES: 0.24; 95%CI: -0.17, 0.65; p=0.24). Minimalist shoes caused large reductions in TDR-F (ES: 1.03; 95%CI: 0.65, 1.40; p<0.001) but only two runners changed to a forefoot footfall. Minimalist shoes had no effect on stride rate (ES: 0.04; 95%CI: -0.08, 0.16; p=0.53) or length (ES: 0.06; 95%CI: -0.06, 0.18; p=0.35).
Conclusions:
Gradually introducing minimalist shoes over a six-week training block is an effective method for improving running economy and performance in trained runners.
Previous research has shown that altering forefoot (FF) bending stiffness can enhance running economy; however, the mechanism behind the changes in running economy remains unknown. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between forefoot bending stiffness, running economy, and lower limb kinematics during overground running. Eighteen aerobically fit recreational male athletes performed overground running using a portable metabolic analysis system to measure oxygen consumption in two footwear conditions with different forefoot bending stiffness. Sagittal plane kinematic data of the metatarsophalangeal, ankle, and knee joints were recorded using a high-speed camera. On average, there was no difference in running economy when running in the Stiff shoe (O2 = 38.1 ± 5.4 mL/kg/min) compared to the Control shoe (O2 = 37.7 ± 5.8 mL/kg/min, p = 0.11). On an individual basis, 10 athletes (Responders) improved their running economy with increased FF bending stiffness (∆O2 = −2.9%), while eight athletes (Non-Responders) worsened or did not improve their running economy in a stiff shoe (∆O2 = +1.0%). In stiff footwear, Responders experienced kinematic changes at the ankle joint (decreased angular velocity) that likely resulted in decreased energy requirement for muscular contractions due to a presumed shift on their individual force–velocity relationship. The lack of improvement in running economy by the Non-Responders may be attributed to a presumed lack of a shift in the force–velocity relationship of the calf musculature. Instead, Non-Responders experienced kinematic changes (increased ankle plantarflexion during push phase with stiff footwear) that likely hindered their moment-generating capability potentially due to a shift on their individual force–length relationship. These findings represent important progress towards explaining inter-individual changes in running economy with different footwear bending stiffness.
The purpose of this study was to determine if minimalist shoes improve time trial performance oftrained distance runners and if changes in running economy, shoe mass, stride length, stride rate andfootfall pattern were related to any difference in performance. Twenty-six trained runners performedthree 6-min sub-maximal treadmill runs at 11, 13 and 15 km·h−1in minimalist and conventional shoeswhile running economy, stride length, stride rate and footfall pattern were assessed. They thenperformed a 5-km time trial. In the minimalist shoe, runners completed the trial in less time (effectsize 0.20 ± 0.12), were more economical during sub-maximal running (effect size 0.33 ± 0.14) anddecreased stride length (effect size 0.22 ± 0.10) and increased stride rate (effect size 0.22 ± 0.11). All butone runner ran with a rearfoot footfall in the minimalist shoe. Improvements in time trial performancewere associated with improvements in running economy at 15 km·h−1(r= 0.58), with 79% of theimproved economy accounted for by reduced shoe mass (P< 0.05). The results suggest that running inminimalist shoes improves running economy and 5-km running performance.
Running economy is a reflection of the amount of inspired oxygen required to maintain a given velocity and is considered a determining factor for running performance. Athletic footwear has been advocated as a mechanism by which running economy can be enhanced. New commercially available footwear has been developed in order to increase energy return, although their efficacy has not been investigated. This study aimed to examine the effects of energy return footwear on running economy in relation to conventional running shoes. Twelve male runners completed 6-min steady-state runs in conventional and energy return footwear. Overall, oxygen consumption (VO2), heart rate, respiratory exchange ratio, shoe comfort and rating of perceived exertion were assessed. Moreover, participants subjectively indicated which shoe condition they preferred for running. Differences in shoe comfort and physiological parameters were examined using Wilcoxon signed-rank tests, whilst shoe preferences were tested using a chi-square analysis. The results showed that VO2 and respiratory exchange ratio were significantly lower, and shoe comfort was significantly greater, in the energy return footwear. Given the relationship between running economy and running performance, these observations indicate that the energy return footwear may be associated with enhanced running performance in comparison to conventional shoes.
Maximal O2 consumption ( and energy cost of running per unit distance (C) were determined on the treadmill in 36 male amateur runners (17 to 52 years) who had taken part in a marathon (42.195 km) or semi-marathon (21 km), their performance times varying from 149 to 226 and from 84 to 131 min, respectively. was significantly (2p<0.001) greater in the marathon runners (60.6 vs 52.1 ml · kg−1 · min−1) whileC was the same in both groups (0.179±0.017, S.D., mlO2 · kg−1 · m−1 above resting), and independent of treadmill speed. It can be shown that the maximal theoretical speed in endurance running (vEND) is set by, its maximal sustainable fraction (F), andC, as described by:vEND=F · ·C
−1. SinceF was estimated from the individual time of performance,vEND could be calculated. The average speed of performance (vMIG) andvEND (m · s−1) were found to be linearly correlated:vMIG=1.12+0.64vEND (r
2=0.72;n=36). The variability ofvMIG explained byvEND, as measured byr
2, is greater than that calculated from any one regression betweenvMIG and (r
2=0.51),F · (r
2=0.58), or ·C
−1 (r
2=0.63). The mean ratio of observed (vMIG) to theoretical (vEND) speeds amounted to 0.947±0.076 and increased to 0.978±0.079 (±S.D.;n=36) when the effects of air resistance were taken into account. It is concluded thatvEND=F · ·C
−1 is a satisfactory quantitative description of the energetics of endurance running.
The purpose of the study was to determine the relationship between the percentage of maximal heart rate (HR max) at submaximal running paces and distance running performance in highly trained and experienced distance runners of comparable ability. Heart rates during steady-state submaximal work and maximal work on a treadmill were monitored with the Narco-Bio Systems physioscope and bio-tachometer with digital read-out and recorded with a Park-Davis EKG machine. Distance running performance was determined in a nationally prominent 10 km race. The 12 male subjects placed among the top 19 finishers with over 4000 entries. The subjects averaged 32.1 min on the 10 km run, 71.7 ml/kg/min for V̇O2 max, and 79.3, 85.0, 90.4 percentage of HR max at the three running paces (241, 268, 295 m/min). The relationship between the percentage of HR max and distance running performance at 241, 268 and 295 m/min and 10 km race time were r = 0.90, 0.89, and 0.73 (p < 0.01), respectively. It was concluded that among highly trained and experienced distance runners of comparable ability, the percentage of HR max accounts for a large and significant amount of the variation observed in performance on a 10 km race.
Indirect calorimetric measurements were made on two athletes running at different speeds up to 22 km/hr at grades from -20 to +15%; the function was found to be linearly related to speed. Within these limits, the net kilocalories per kilogram per kilometer values seem to be independent of speed and related only to the incline. These values are about 5–7% lower than those found in nonathletic subjects, which shows that training in atheletes does not lead to great improvement. A nomogram is given for easily calculating the energy expenditure in running when the speed and the incline are known. The energy cost per kilometer in horizontal run (1 kcal/kg) is about double that for walking at the most economical speed (4 km/ hr).
Submitted on July 31, 1962
It has been shown that mechanical energy is dissipated at the metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joint during running and jumping. Furthermore, increasing the longitudinal bending stiffness of the midsole significantly reduced the energy dissipated at the MTP joint and increased jump performance. It was hypothesized that increasing midsole longitudinal bending stiffness would also lead to improvements in running economy. This study investigated the influence of midsole longitudinal bending stiffness on running economy (performance variable) and evaluated the local effects on joint energetics and muscular activity.
Carbon fiber plates were inserted into running shoe midsoles and running economy, joint energy, and electromyographic (EMG) data were collected on 13 subjects.
Approximately a 1% metabolic energy savings was observed when subjects ran in a stiff midsole relative to the control midsole. Subjects with a greater body mass had a greater decrease in oxygen consumption rates in the stiff midsole relative to the control midsole condition. The stiffer midsoles showed no significant differences in energy absorption at the MTP joint compared with the control shoe. Finally, no significant changes were observed in muscular activation.
Increasing midsole longitudinal bending stiffness led to improvements in running economy, yet the underlying mechanisms that can be attributed to this improvement are still not fully understood.
The purposes of this study were: (a) to determine whether subjects are able to distinguish between differences in footwear with respect to footwear comfort; and (b) to determine how reliably footwear comfort can be assessed using a visual analogue scale (VAS) and a protocol including a control condition during running. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) between comfort ratings for repeated conditions were high (ICC = 0.799). Differences in comfort ratings between the insert conditions were significant. A paired t-test revealed a significant difference in overall comfort ratings for the control insert when tested after the soft insert compared to when tested after the hard insert (P = 0.008). The results of this study showed that VASs provide a reliable measure to assess footwear comfort during running under the conditions that: (a) a control condition is included; and (b) the average comfort rating of sessions 4-6 is used.
It is generally appreciated that warm weather negatively affects marathon running performance. This brief review summarises the historical literature on this topic and recent work that our laboratory has performed to quantify the impact of weather on marathon running performance. Using 140 race-years of data, we have demonstrated that marathon performance times slow progressively as weather warms above 5-10 degrees C wet bulb globe temperature, that men and women are affected similarly, but slower runners suffer a greater performance penalty than elite runners. The recent generation of a nomogram that predicts changes in finishing time consequent to changes in weather conditions offers runners and coaches a tool for use in developing marathon race strategy.
Table of nonprotein respiratory quotient: an update
- F Peronnet
Peronnet F, Massicotte D. Table of nonprotein respiratory quotient: an
update. Can J Sport Sci 1991; 16: 23-29
The effect of footwear on running performance and running economy in distance runners
- J T Fuller
- C R Bellenger
- D Thewlis
Fuller JT, Bellenger CR, Thewlis D et al. The effect of footwear on
running performance and running economy in distance runners.
Sports Med 2015; 45: 411-422
Shoe midsole longitudinal bending stiffness and running economy, joint energy, and EMG
- Jpr Roy
- D J Stefanyshyn
Roy JPR, Stefanyshyn DJ. Shoe midsole longitudinal bending stiffness
and running economy, joint energy, and EMG. Med Sci Sports Exerc
2006; 38: 562-569