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International Journal of Pedagogy and Teacher Education
Journal Homepage: jurnal.uns.ac.id/ijpte
PAPER | 751 p-ISSN: 2597-7792 / e-ISSN: 2549-8525
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.20961/ijpte.v6i1.57377
International Journal of Pedagogy and Teacher Education – 6(1) – 2022, pp24-pp36
Integrating Brain-based Learning in the Science Classroom: A Systematic
Review
Abiodun A. Bada1*, Loyiso C. Jita2
1,2 University of the Free State (RSA), South Africa
ARTICLE INFO
ABSTRACT
Article History
Received : Des 14, 2021
1st Revision : Des 15, 2021
Accepted : Apr 16, 2022
Available Online : -
Brain-based learning (BBL) has been described as an important pedagogy that can be
effectively used to enhance different teaching methods or strategies. It uses essential
principles from brain-based theory to alleviate the disadvantages inherent in traditional
teaching methods to achieve classroom goals and objectives. The use of such learning
has significant implications for the teaching and learning of science (biology, chemistry,
mathematics, and physics) subjects at elementary and secondary school levels. In this
review, we scrutinise and discuss the results from 25 peer-reviewed studies and
underline the methodology and strategies used to advance the integration of brain-
based learning within science classrooms. We make a meta-analysis systematic review
of how such learning has been used in the science classroom, the success achieved, and
the different constructs used to integrate it into elementary and secondary schools. The
findings reveal that quasi-experimental studies have dominated the methods used in
integrating brain-based learning in science classrooms. In addition, this type of learning
topped the different constructs used in science classrooms, with its integration mainly
in relation to mathematics. It is concluded that the principles of brain-based learning
pedagogy can be adequately used in science classroom instruction because they
consider the uniqueness of each student’s brain. This paper therefore recommends
appropriate and continuous integration of such learning in the science classroom,
especially in subjects where integration is currently low.
Keywords:
brain-based learning
science classroom
secondary schools
*Corresponding Author
Email address:
kunle_biodun@yahoo.com
How to cite: Bada, A. A., & Jita, L. C. (2022). Integrating Brain-based Learning in the Science Classroom: A Systematic
Review. International Journal of Pedagogy and Teacher Education, 6(1), 25-37. https://dx.doi.org/10.20961/ijpte.v6i1.57377
1. INTRODUCTION
The search for the best teaching methods or strategies for use in the science classroom in primary and
secondary schools is ongoing and yet to be resolved. This is because all the teaching methods already identified
have both advantages and disadvantages, meaning they are not perfect for classroom instruction. This is obvious
because the teaching methods and resources used by teachers can contribute significantly to meaningful learning
(Varghese & Pandya, 2016). Inappropriate teaching methods can therefore pose a significant obstacle to effective
teaching and learning because the approach used remains a crucial factor in determining students’ achievement
in schools. This argument is more prominent in the teaching of science subjects, in which adequate teaching
relies on the use of suitable methods. This teaching method is used in delivering curriculum content to students
in the classroom. The adoption of the most relevant teaching method rests on a number of factors, which include,
but are not limited to, the content to be taught, the age of the students, the availability of instructional materials,
student characteristics, and the time available for teaching. While the importance of using suitable teaching
methods or strategies for the realisation of classroom objectives has been emphasised, to date there seems to
be a lack of agreement on the best ones for use in the classroom. Researchers are constantly faced with the
problem of recognising and identifying the best method to use for instruction in the science classroom as none
of the available methods alone is perfect for instruction. However, studies have indicated that one approach to
overcoming the disadvantages of the different teaching methods is to use the principles of brain-based learning
(Caine & Caine, 2001; Jensen, 2008).
Such learning is an approach to classroom instruction that complies with teaching in the 21st century, in
which students are given more opportunity to be responsible for their learning. Contemporary teaching methods
emphasise the use of student-centred learning, with the role of the teacher becoming more of a facilitator. Brain-
based learning emerged from brain-based theory, which is based on findings from neuroscience. According to
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DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.20961/ijpte.v6i1.57377
Varghese and Pandya (2016, p.104), “brain-based learning is a comprehensive approach to instruction using
current research from neuroscience to determine how human actually learns”. Brain-based education involves
engagement with methods and techniques developed from tcomprehension of the brain (Jensen, 2008). Ozden
and Gultekin (2008) state that brain-based learning is a comprehensive approach to instruction based on
neuroscience, which explains how the brain learns naturally and answers the question concerning the most
effective way for the brain to learn.
Brain-based learning (BBL) originally derived from brain-based learning theory, which originated from
findings in the field of neuroscience. Neuroscience is the scientific study of the brain and deals with its structure
and functions (Arun & Singaravelu, 2018; Connell (2009, p.29) defines brain-based learning as “techniques
gleaned from research in neurology and cognitive science which is used to enhance instruction”. Neuroscience
places great value on the brain as a basic factor in learning. This is because students come into the classroom
with different backgrounds, so it can be said that the brain of each one is unique. Brain-based learning is
therefore based on the arguement that understanding how the brain learns helps students and teachers to
appreciate when and why learning occurs from a psychological perspective. Connell (2009) identified the factors
that can affect learning, including environmental factors, psychological qualities, the chemical structure of
individuals, and their interactions.
BBL became widely accepted following Jensen’s (2008) definition of it as a way of thinking about the
learning process, which provides a set of principles and a base for knowledge and skills upon which better
decisions about the learning process can be made. Although it was not originally meant to be a teaching method
or strategy, its principles can be effectively used to alleviate the shortcomings prevalent in other teaching
methods (Duman, 2010). Kahveci and Ay (2008) state that Caine and Caine (1994) identified twelve principles
that serve as the theoretical framework of implementing this approach in classroom situations: the brain as a
parallel processor; learning which engages the entire philosophy; the search for meaning is innate; the search
for meaning occurs through patterning; emotions are critical to patterning; every brain simultaneously perceives
and creates parts and wholes; learning involves both focused attention and peripheral perception; learning
always involves conscious and unconscious processes; we have two types of memory: a spatial memory system
and a set of systems for rote learning; the brain understands and remembers best when facts and skills are
embedded in natural spatial memory; learning is enhanced by challenge and inhibited by threat; and each brain
is unique.
Brain-based learning considers how the brain is designed for meaningful learning to take place. According
to the pioneers of the approach, the brain is like other organs and one of its most important jobs is to learn
(Caine & Caine, 1994). Since the goal of all teaching is for learning to take place, effective implementation of BBL
is important because it emphasises meaningful learning in the classroom (Caine & Caine, 1994). Its approach is
closely related to that of constructivism because they both share common principles. Kahveci and Ay (2008)
identified a number of approaches that are common to both brain-based learning and constructivism. These
include meaningful learning, individual differences in learning, multiple representations in learning, personal and
environmental factors in learning, and affective components in learning. BBL is a student-focused and instructor-
encouraged methodology that uses students’ intellectual gifts and emphasises the importance of learning (Sani,
A., Rochintaniawati, D., & Winarno, N., 2019). In this way, students are encouraged to be more responsible for
their learning, thereby making them active in the teaching-learning process. This is a different case from the
more traditional teaching methods, which render the students in the classroom passive while the teacher is
active.
A number of studies on the use of brain-based learning in the classroom show that its use impacts students’
achievement positively. Al-Tarawneh, A., Altarawneh, A. F., & Karaki, W. K. (2021), Alanazi (2020), Al-Balushi and
Al-Balushi (2018), Saleh and Subramaniam (2019), Sani (2019), Wijayanti, K., Khasanah, A. F., Rizkiana, T.,
Mashuri, Dewi, N. R., & Budhiati, R. (2021) and Riskiningtyas and Wangid (2019) demonstrate that such learning
improved students’ achievement in primary and secondary school science, in subjects including the major core
ones of biology, chemistry, physics, and mathematics. Few studies have not found a significant positive effect of
the use of brain-based learning on students’ achievement. Despite this, a wholesome number of studies attest
that the use of brain-based learning impacted students’ achievement positively. Reviews of previous related
studies have attempted to settle the debate on whether brain-based learning has the capacity to positively
impact students’ achievements in the classroom. For example, in Jordan At-Taraweh et al. (2021) found that the
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PAPER | 751 p-ISSN: 2597-7792 / e-ISSN: 2549-8525
DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.20961/ijpte.v6i1.57377
use of such an approach improved students’ achievement in mathematics. This finding was repeated in Indonesia
and other countries (Wijayanti et al., 2021; Riskiningtyas & Wangid, 2019; Priatna, 2017; Kartikaningtyas, V.,
Kusmayadi, T.A., & Riyadi, R., 2018; Noureen, G., Awan, R. N., & Fatima, H., 2017; Mastoni, E., Sumantri, M. S., &
Ibrahim, N., 2019). This situation is similar to studies on the effectiveness of brain-based learning in physics; Saleh
and Subramaniam (2019), Saleh (2012a, 2012b, 2012c) and Sani et al. (2019a) all found a positive effect of using
BBL to improve students’ performance in the subject.
A review of the literature reveals that there has been a shift from the use of traditional teaching methods
to more innovative ones such as BBL because these prepare students according to global demands (Varghese &
Pandya, 2016). According to Ali and his associates (2019), the shift from traditional methods to modern ones
inspires not only the students but also the teachers because conventional methods simply promote the rote
learning of facts. The BBL strategy is learner centred and teacher facilitated and utilises learners’ cognitive
development (Jack et al., 2018). In order to effectively implement brain-based learning in the classroom, its
proponents have identified three major techniques that can be employed: relaxed alertness, orchestrated
immersion, and active processing (Caine & Caine, 1997; Jensen, 2008; Sousa, 2011). These represent a summary
of the twelve principles identified and developed by other researchers (Caine & Caine, 1994; Jensen, 2008, Kagan,
2001; Lackney, 2007; Sousa, 1995). Evidence from the literature also reveals that these twelve principles are
closely related to one another.
Relaxed alertness involves ensuring a low threat and high challenge to allow the brain to achieve optimal
learning. Varghese and Pandya (2016) define an environment of relaxed alertness as one in which children have
no fear of repercussions, even if they are wrong. It deals with a state of the brain which is free from threat or
negative stress but highly challenged, enabling the learner to internalise information optimally (Saleh &
Subramaniam, 2019). According to the principle of brain-based learning, meaningful learning can only take place
in a serene environment devoid of threat and fear. This is in contrast with traditional teaching methods which
involve fear and threats as a result of the constant competition that arises in the classroom. Orchestrated
immersion involves immersing students in the learning environment, which will help them to absorb the material
more fully than simply through a lecture or book (Varghese and Pandya, 2016). It aims for the elimination of fear
in learners while maintaining a highly challenging environment. Saleh and Subramaniam (2019) argue that
orchestrated immersion is an instruction phase that includes a variety of teaching and learning activities related
to real life situations and generates a conducive learning environment. Finally, active processing involves
analysing situations in a variety of ways in order to gain knowledge (Varghese & Pandya, 2016). Saleh and
Subramaniam (2019) define it as a continuous strengthening process for further understanding.
These three brain-based learning techniques are the major principles used in integrating BBL in the
classroom. Their effective use can counter the disadvantages found in other teaching methods such an approach
has been found to provide an encompassing methodology for students learning (Sani et al., 2019a). The method
relates learning to the brain on the basis that improved performance of the brain and its features have a positive
impact on learning (Noureen et al., 2017). Brain-based learning combines different concepts which are well
suited to existing teaching methods in the various fields of science, language and social sciences. This indicates
the fact that BBL can be effectively used in any field of study.
Only a few review studies have been conducted on brain-based learning, specifically its integration into
classrooms. One such study investigated BBL strategies for improving students’ memory, learning and test-talking
success (Willis, 2007). Our review is therefore considered apt as it provides scholastic evidence for the previous
literature on brain-based learning. The systematic review has four objectives: (i) to investigate the research
methods and subject areas that influence studies on brain-based learning in science classrooms; (ii) to investigate
the extent to which brain-based learning has been integrated into science classrooms; (iii) to investigate the
constructs used to integrate brain-based learning in the science classroom; and (iv) to investigate the analysis
techniques used to integrate brain-based learning in the science classroom. In order to successfully achieve
these, the paper is arranged as follows: research questions, method, results, discussion and conclusion.
Research Question
1. What research methods and subject areas influence studies on brain-based learning in the science
classroom context?
2. To what extent has brain-based learning been integrated into science classrooms?
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DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.20961/ijpte.v6i1.57377
3. What constructs have been used to integrate brain-based learning in science classrooms?
4. What analysis techniques dominate studies on brain-based learning in science classroom?
2. MATERIALS AND METHOD
LITERATURE SEARCH
The study is a meta-analysis systematic review of brain-based learning in elementary and secondary
schools. Such reviews are considered to be scientific investigations because they are rigorously, informatively,
exhaustively, and explicitly conducted (Gisbert & Bonfill, 2004). This type of approach was used by Mikolajewicz
and Komarova (2019), Mogas-Recalde et al. (2021) and Ogegbo and Ramnarain (2021) and was found to be very
effective. For this systematic review, we conducted a literature search to identify relevant studies on BBL in
science education classrooms. The search was guided by keywords which included ‘brain-based teaching method
(BBTM)’, ‘brain-based instructional method (BBIM)’, ‘brain-based instructional strategy (BBIS)’ and ‘science
classrooms’. Three major reputable databases, Eric, Google Scholar and Scopus, were searched using the
keywords above. 1511 articles were identified in the initial search without data parameters. However, this was
reduced to 574 after using the keywords. Only peer-reviewed journal articles in English and published between
January 2000 and September 2021 were considered.
SELECTION CRITERIA AND SELECTION PROCESS
Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines was used as
selection criteria ( Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D. G., & Group, P., 2009). Such criteria were used
by Ogegbo and Ramnarain (2021) in their systematic review as they provide a clear statement of the selection of
articles for a systematic review study. The PRISMA statement consist of a 27 item evidence-based checklist that
can be used for appraising published articles. Ogegbo and Ramnarain (2021) argue that the PRISMA guidelines
are not intended to be used as a quality assessment tool but instead to ensure consistency and accountability
when conducting a systematic review. Our search focused mainly of studies on brain-based learning in the field
of science in the context of elementary and secondary schools. Selection and exclusion criteria were adopted to
objectively select or exclude articles for review. The reviewed papers in this study were selected based on the
following inclusion criteria:
1. They related to the use of BBL in the teaching and learning of science subjects (biology, chemistry, physics,
mathematics, and science) in elementary and secondary schools.
2. They described the evaluation of BBT methods and strategies in the science education framework.
3. They were published in peer-reviewed journals and written in English.
4. They were published between January 2000 and September 2021.
The following exclusion criteria were used.
1. Studies not published in peer-reviewed journals.
2. Studies not published in English.
3. Studies not focused on primary/elementary and/or secondary school education.
4. Studies not focused on science subjects (biology, chemistry, physics, mathematics, and science).
5. Studies in books, synopses, theses, dissertations, blogs, technical reports, conferences and other grey
areas in literature.
6. Studies that claimed to be on BBL but did not cover its actual use.
A summary of the selected studies on brain-based learning in the science classroom reviewed is provided in
Table 1. The PRISMA framework was also used to ensure the quality of the review. In order to carefully conduct
the review, the following steps were observed to maintain the quality of the assessment.
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1. The removal of duplicate records found from the three databases. A total of 128 articles were removed
from the 574 identified in the data search. This left a balance of 446 articles for possible inclusion in the
review.
2. The removal of 324 articles due to irrelevant titles. The study was then left with 122 articles which were
assessed for eligibility.
3. The removal of 97 of these due to the following eligibility considerations: articles focused on the university
context (28); articles focused on primary/elementary or secondary schools but not on science (24); articles
not peer-reviewed, including dissertations/thesis and synopses (37); and articles not written in English
(8). In all, a total of 25 peer-reviewed articles were considered. A summary of the quality assessment
process adopted using the PRISMA framework is shown in Fig 1.
Fig 1. Flow of the systematic review (Adapted from Moher et al.’s 2009 PRISMA Framework)
Table 1. List of the selected reviewed articles
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DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.20961/ijpte.v6i1.57377
S/N
Author(s)
Year of
Publication
Title
Educational Level
Subject Area
1
Alanazi
2020
Brain-based learning as
perceived by Saudi teachers
and its effect on the chemistry
achievement of 7th graders
7th Grade Students
Chemistry
2
Akyürek and Afacan
2013
Effects of the brain-based
learning approach on students’
motivation and attitude levels
in science classes
Primary School
Students
Biology
3
Al-Balushi and Al-Balushi
2018
Effectiveness of brain-based
learning on grade eight
students’ direct and
postponed retention in science
8th Grade Students
Science
4
Al-Tarawneh et al.
2021
Effect of brain-based learning
on developing the spatial
ability of ninth grade students
with low achievement in
mathematics
9th Grade Students
Mathematics
(Spartial Ability
5
Aydin and Yel
2011
Effect of brain-based learning
in biology education on
academic success and attitude
9th Grade High
School Students
Biology
(Substance
Transportation Cell)
6
Aziz et al.
2012
Effectiveness of brain-based
learning theory on secondary
level students in urban areas
9th Grade High
School Students
Mathematics
7
Kartikaningtyas et al.
2018
Effect of brain-based learning
with a contextual approach
viewed from the adversity
quotient
8th Grade Junior
High School
Students
Mathematics
8
Kusumaningrum et al.
2021
Development of textbook-
based brain-based learning
(BBL) in the material
organization system of life in
junior high school science
Junior High School
Students
Science
9
Mastoni et al.
2019
Preliminary study of brain-
based learning (BBL) and
intrapersonal intelligence in
junior high school
mathematics learning
Junior High School
Students
Mathematics
10
Mekarina and Ningsih
2017
Effects of the brain-based
learning approach on students’
motivation and achievement in
mathematics learning
11 th Grade High
School Students
Mathematics
11
Noureen et al.
2017
Effect of brain-based learning
on the academic achievement
of th graders in mathematics
7th Grade students
Mathematic
12
Priatna
2017
Application of brain-based
learning principles aided by
GeoGebra to improve
mathematical representation
ability
8th Grade Junior
School Students
Mathematics
13
Riskiningtyas and
Wangid
2019
Students’ self-efficacy in
mathematics through brain-
based learning
4th Grade Students
Mathematics
14
Saleh
2012a
Dealing with the problems of
the differences in students’
learning styles in physics
education via the brain-based
teaching approach
Form 4 students
Physics
15
Saleh
2012b
Effectiveness of the brain-
based teaching approach in
dealing with the problems of
students’ conceptual
understanding and learning
motivation towards physics
Form 4 secondary
students
Physics
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S/N
Author(s)
Year of
Publication
Title
Educational Level
Subject Area
16
Saleh
2012c
Effectiveness of the brain-
based teaching approach in
enhancing scientific
understanding of Newtonian
physics among Form 4
students
Form 4 students
Physics
17
Saleh and Subramaniam
2019
Effects of the brain-based
teaching method on physics
achievement among ordinary
school students
Ordinary schools
Physics
18
Sani et al.
2019a
Enhancing students’
motivation through brain-
based learning
8th Grade Students
Physics
(Electric circuits and
parallel circuits)
19
Sani et al.
2019b
Using brain-based learning to
promote students’ concept
mastery in learning about
electric circuits
8th Grade Students
Physics
20
Shabatat and Al-
Tarawneh
2016
Impact of a teaching-learning
program based on brain-based
learning on the achievement of
female 9th grade chemistry
students
9th Grade Students
Chemistry
21
Triana et al.
2019
Students’ mathematical
communication ability through
the brain-based learning
approach using autograph
Grade Students
Mathematics
22
Varghese and Pandya
2016
Study of the effectiveness of
the brain-based learning of
secondary level students on
their academic achievement in
biology, their study habits and
stress
8th -10th Grade
Students
Biology
23
Wijayanti et al.
2021
Mathematical creative
thinking ability of students in
treffinger and brain-based
learning at junior high school
8th Grade Junior
Students
Mathematics
24
Willis
2007
Review of research: brain-
based teaching strategies for
improving students’ memory,
learning and test-taking
success
Review
Science
25
Yaşar
2017
Brain-based learning in science
education in Turkey:
descriptive content and meta
analysis of dissertations
4-6 primary school
students
Science
DATA ANALYSIS
The selected peer-reviewed articles were carefully analysed following the criteria defined for inclusion and
exclusion. The necessary information was extracted in line with the research questions posed to guide the study.
The guidelines also cover how the research method should be considered. For this systematic review, educational
research conducted between January 2000 and September 2021 on the integration of brain-based learning in
science classes in elementary and secondary schools was analysed. Only 24 empirical studies and one review
paper were found and analysed to provide answers to the four research questions. The study adopted the
quantitative approach to analyse the data obtained. The research questions were analysed using frequency
counts, charts and simple percentages.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Research Question 1: What research methods and subject areas influence studies on brain-based learning in
the science classroom context?
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Method refers to the range of approaches used in educational research to gather data which are to be used
as a basis for inference and interpretation, and for explanation and prediction (Cohen et al., 2000). Fig 2 shows
the research methods that have influenced studies on brain-based learning in science classroom. It can be seen
that the most common method used was the quantitative, in 21 (84% ) of the studies. Quantitative methods
emphasise objective measurements and the statistical, mathematical or numerical analysis of data collected
through polls, questionnaires, and surveys, or by manipulating pre-existing statistical data using computational
techniques (Babbie, 2010; Muijs, 2010). This shows that most of the studies on brain-based learning in the
science classroom focused on obtaining numerical data and making inferences based on the data obtained. Fig
2 also shows that three (12%) of the studies used the qualitative method. Qualitative methods emphasis the
qualities of entities and processes and meaning that are not experimentally measured (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005).
The approach provides answers to questions to emphasise how social experience is constructed and given
meaning. Only one of the studies (4%) used a systematic review. The results of our study further underline the
fact that only a few systematic studies have been completed on brain-based learning, and specifically its use in
science classrooms.
Fig 2. Research methods used in BBL
Regarding the subject areas covered by the studies on BBL science classrooms, Fig 3 shows that 40% were
conducted in the mathematics context (10 studies). These included the study conducted by Al-Tarawneh et al.
(2021) on the effectiveness of brain-based learning in developing the spatial ability of students with low
achievement in mathematics. In Indonesia, Wijayanti et al. (2021) investigated the mathematical creative
thinking ability of students in treffinger and brain-based learning in schools. Riskiningtyas and Wangid (2019)
investigated student’s self-efficacy in mathematics through BBL. Other studies on brain-based learning in
mathematics include those by Priatna (2017), Kartikaningtyas et al. (2018), Noureen et al. (2017), Mastoni et al.
(2019), Mekarina and Ningsih (2017), Triana et al. (2019) and Aziz et al. (2012). Those focusing on the physics
classroom accounted for 24% of the studies reviewed (six studies). These included studies by Saleh and
Subramaniam (2019), who investigated the effects of brain-based teaching methods on physics students’
achievement in ordinary schools. Other studies on physics include those by Sani et al. (2019a), Saleh (2012a;
2012b; 2012c) and Sani et al. (2019b). All these demonstrated the positive effects of the use of brain-based
learning on students’ achievement. Fig 3 also shows that 16% of the studies on BBL centred on science (four
studies). These included those of Al-Balushi and Al-Balushi (2018), which was conducted in Muscat, and of
Kusumaningrum et al. (2021), Willis (2007), and Yasar (2017). 12% of the studies focused on biology classrooms
(three studies), namely those by Varghese and Pandya (2016), Akyürek and Afacan (2013) and Aydin and Yel
(2011). Only 8% of the studies related to chemistry (two studies), those of Alanazi (2020) and Shabatat and Al-
Tarawneh (2021). The findings from our study show that BBL was mostly integrated in mathematics classrooms
compared to the other major science subjects.
0
5
10
15
20
25
Quantitative Qualitative
Systematic Review
84%
12%
4%
Number of Studies
Research methods
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Fig 3. Subjects areas Influenced by BBL
Research Question 2: To what extent has brain-based learning been integrated into the teaching and learning
of school science?
Fig 4 shows the extent to which brain-based learning has been integrated into elementary and secondary
school science classrooms. It can be seen that the highest integration of BBL is among 4th to 9th grade schools
(16 studies), accounting for 64% of the studies. This was followed by the integration of BBL in secondary schools,
which accounted for 16% of the studies. These include those by Al-Tarawneh et al. (2021), Alanazi (2020) and
Wijayanti et al. (2021). 12% of the studies conducted on the integration of BBL in science classrooms focused on
form school students (3 studies), namely those of Saleh (2012a; 2012b; 2012c), while only 8% of the studies were
conducted on primary schools. The findings from the studies reveal that BBL has been mostly integrated for the
teaching and learning of school science in grade schools.
Fig 4. Integration of BBL into school science classes
Research Question 3: What are the constructs used in integrating brain-based learning in science classrooms?
The integration of BBL into science classroom is gaining more importance, especially as a result of the
innovations from the field of neuroscience. As this is still evolving, this is also the case for BBL and its integration
into the classroom using the carefully identified principles of brain-based learning. Fig 5 shows the different
0
2
4
6
8
10
Biology Chemistry Mathematics Physics Science
12%
8%
40%
24%
16%
Number of studies
Subject Areas
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Grade School Form School Primary School Secondary School
64%
12% 8%
16%
Number of studies
Schools
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DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.20961/ijpte.v6i1.57377
constructs that have been used in integrating BBL into science classrooms. It can be seen that most of the studies
(68%) used brain-based learning (BBL) as a construct for integration in the classroom; for example, those of Al-
Tarawneh et al. (2021), Alanazi (2020), Al-Balushi and Al-Balushi (2018), Sani et al. (2019), Wijayanti et al. (2019),
and Riskiningtyas and Wangid (2019). About 12% each, of the studies used the brain-based learning approach
(BBLA) and brain-based teaching approach (BBTA) to integrate BBL into science classrooms. Fig 5 also shows that
4% each, of the studies used the brain-based teaching method (BBTM) (Saleh & Subramaniam, 2019) and brain-
based teaching (BBT) (Willis, 2007) as constructs for integrating brain-based learning into science classrooms.
Fig 5. BBL- Brain-based learning, BBLA- Brain-based learning approach, BBT-Brain-based teaching, BBTA- Brain-
based teaching approach, BBTM- Brain-based teaching method
Research Question 4: What analysis techniques dominate studies on brain-based learning in the science
classroom?
A number of techniques have been used in analysing studies involving the integration of BBL in science
classrooms. Table 2 shows that t-tests, analysis of variance, analysis of covariance, mean, standard deviation
Mann Whitney, the Sheffe test, multiple analysis of covariance and z-tests are some of the techniques employed.
Table 2 shows that t-test analysis technique was the most used (14 studies), either alone or in conjunction with
other techniques, when analysing BBL integration in the classroom. This is followed by the use of analysis of
variance (ANOVA), again alone or with other techniques (7 peer-reviewed studies). Analysis of covariance
(ANCOVA) was also used alone or with other techniques to analyse the integration. Mean, standard deviation
and Mann Whitney were used twice individually of together in each of the peer-reviewed articles, while
MANCOVA and thge Z-test were used once.
Table 2: Summary of Analysis Techniques Used in the Integration
S/N
Technique Used
Frequency
1
t-test
14
2
ANOVA
7
3
ANCOVA
5
4
Mean
2
5
Standard Deviation
2
6
Mann Whitney
2
7
MANCOBA
1
8
Z-test
1
Note: Some of the studies used more than one analysis technique
4. CONCLUSION
This systematic review has analysed empirical evidence on the use of brain-based learning in elementary/
secondary science classrooms. The results reveal that such learning can be carefully used for instruction in
0
5
10
15
20
BBL BBLA BBT BBTA BBTM
68%
12%
4% 12%
4%
Number of Studies
Construct
Bada & Jita Integrating Brain-based Learning in Science Classroom - 34 -
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DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.20961/ijpte.v6i1.57377
science subjects in schools. The quantitative method was the most popular in integrating brain-based learning
(BBL) in the science classroom. The reason for this is because this method provides greater objectivity and more
accurate results. It also encourages the participation of a greater number of subjects who can be used in the
generalisation of the results. The qualitative methods was the next most popular method used. Its strength is in
providing very rich data on the participants, even though its findings cannot be generalised. The systematic
review was the least common method used in the studies. The findings from the study suggest that brain-based
learning positively impacts students’ achievement in the science classroom because of the evidence recorded in
the quantitative studies. The results also reveal that BBL was mostly integrated in grade schools, followed by the
secondary schools, although this does not suggest that BBL cannot be used effectively in other levels of
education. Another finding was that BBL is the most common construct used to integrate brain-based learning
in science classrooms. It is concluded that most of the reviewed articles used the main concept of brain-based
learning during integration in science classroom. The findings from this systematic review show that inferential
statistics is the most common analysis technique used when integrating BBL in science classrooms. This is
because inferential statistics can be effectively used for generalisation. The following recommendations are
made:
1. Brain-based learning should be further used for instruction because its effectiveness has been objectively
ascertained in the literature through the use of appropriate research methods.
2. The integration of brain-based learning should be further encouraged in other science subjects such as
chemistry and physics, where integration is currently low.
3. Efforts should be made to improve the integration of brain-based learning across all levels of education.
4. Different constructs of brain-based learning should be encouraged to improve its integration in the
science classroom.
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