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The experience of luxury craftsmanship -
A strategic asset for luxury experience management
Annalisa Tarquini*, International University of Monaco
Hans Mühlbacher, International University of Monaco – Omnes Education
Maria Kreuzer, International University of Monaco
*Annalisa Tarquini (corresponding author), International University of Monaco, IUM-
Omnes Education, 14, rue Hubert Clérissi, MC-98000 Monaco, phone: +377 97 986 986,
email: atarquini@monaco.edu; Hans Mühlbacher, International University of Monaco, IUM-
Omnes Education, 14, rue Hubert Clérissi, MC-98000 Monaco; Maria Kreuzer, International
University of Monaco, 14, rue Hubert Clérissi, MC-98000 Monaco
Please cite as:
Tarquini, A., Mühlbacher, H., & Kreuzer, M. (2022). The experience of luxury
craftsmanship–a strategic asset for luxury experience management. Journal of Marketing
Management, 1-32.
https://doi.org/10.1080/0267257X.2022.2064899
0
The experience of luxury craftsmanship -
A strategic asset for luxury experience management
Abstract
Craftspeople represent essential touchpoints in the creation process of luxury experience. The
industry faces increasing difficulties in attracting new craftspeople. Narrative interviews with
craftspeople and expert interviews with executives and stakeholders reveal that managers
recognize the importance of craftsmanship for consumers´ luxury experience. They use
craftsmanship as abstract communication content instead of recognizing craftspeople as
human beings that contribute to brand experience. Low regard for craftsmanship and a lack
of knowledge about the work of luxury craftspeople are the main barriers for selecting this
occupation. Direct experience of craftspeople at work and passion for creative activities are
major drivers. Luxury marketing and human resource managers should cooperate in aligning
customer experience management with employer branding to inspire consumers and potential
craftspeople.
Key words: luxury management, customer experience management, luxury craftsmanship,
luxury experience, passion
Summary Statement of Contribution
1
(1) Extension of luxury experience management from an exclusive customer focus to an
inclusion of craftspeople who are influential touchpoints for co-creating luxury customer
experience;
(2) Luxury companies should provide more diverse direct experiences with craftsmanship to
consumers and potential future craftspeople to stimulate their interest and passion.
The experience of luxury craftsmanship -
A strategic asset for luxury experience management
Introduction
Consumer experiences (CXs) are at the heart of luxury brand management (Williams,
Atwal, & Bryson, 2019; Klaus, 2021). Consumers experience the luxury of goods and
services at touchpoints with representations and representatives of luxury brands [CITATION
Lem16 \l 2057 ] during all stages of the customer journey (Klaus, 2015; Homburg, Jozić &
Kuehnl, 2017; Kumar & Anjaly, 2017; De Keyser, Verleye, Lemon, Keiningham, & Klaus,
2020). When consumers encounter physical, sensorial, social, and spiritual elements of the
brand at such touchpoints, they develop value judgements (De Keyser et al., 2020) and satisfy
their needs by engaging in purchasing behaviour (Amatulli, De Angelis, Pichierri, & Guido,
2018). Luxury products represent tangible touchpoints and important antecedents of a luxury
experience (Fatma, 2014). Their handcrafted nature increases consumers´ experience of
luxury (Fionda & Moore, 2009; Roberts & Armitage, 2015; Ricca & Robins, 2012) and can
generate emotional reactions[ CITATION Fat14 \l 2057 ]. Consumers who highly appreciate
brand heritage, company history, tradition, values, creativity, and product quality maintained
2
over time (Mainolfi, 2020) enjoy the experience of buying, possessing, and using a unique
piece of handcrafted art (Kapferer, 2012b) made exclusively for them. Craftspeople embody
those characteristics of luxury products to customers. Thus, craftspeople are highly important
human touchpoints between luxury companies and consumers (De Keyser et al., 2020)
controlled by luxury managers (Verhoef, Lemon, Parasuraman, Roggeveen, Tsiros &
Schlesinger, 2009). Direct or vicarious exposure of consumers to craftspeople at work has
turned out to be highly effective in creating a luxury experience. The consumers´ experience
of the rare and sometimes unique skills of craftspeople promotes the know-how, history, and
tradition of quality craftsmanship (Israel, Jiang, & Ross, 2017; Vigneron & Johnson, 2004)
and justifies the high price of luxury products (Amatulli & Guido, 2011; Som & Blanckaert,
2015). Thus, consumers´ experience of craftsmanship is a critical success factor for many
luxury products (Caniato, Caridi, Castelli, & Golini, 2009) such as fashion, shoes, jewellery,
watches, or leather goods.
Luxury managers know about the high importance of skilled craftspeople for the
creation of value-in-exchange and of value-in-use (Grönroos & Voima, 2013). Craftspeople
contribute to the creation of value-in-exchange through the translation of a two-dimensional
artistic drawing of a designer into a producible and usable three-dimensional prototype
(Bettiol & Micelli, 2013; Hawley & Frater, 2017). They enhance value-in-use through
consumers´ experience of excellence, rarity, exclusivity, and individuality. At the same time,
luxury companies are facing increasing difficulties in attracting new craftspeople. The
evolution of the industrial economy, technological advancement, and an increasing focus on
the knowledge economy have contributed to the marginalization of crafts and manual labour.
The educational systems of developed economies exalt intellectual intelligence and demean
manual skills (Klamer, 2012). As a result, adolescents tend to perceive manual professions as
distant and inappropriate (Micelli, 2011).
3
Before the Covid-19 pandemic, sales of Made in Italy labels steadily expanded by 5%
worldwide based on skilful talent (Fondazione Altagamma, 2019). However, according to
Altagamma, the basis for this growth is in danger: the foundation forecast a need for 46,000
product technicians for Italian companies in the fashion, shoes, leather goods, and jewellery
sectors until 2021 (Fondazione Altagamma, 2019). Even though artisanship accounts for
9.5% of GDP in Italy and represents 21.2% of companies, the craft profession is likely to
attract fewer and fewer young people. In the last ten years, 28 thousand companies with less
than 30 employees have closed up shop. Their number is down 41.9% compared to
2011[ CITATION LaR21 \l 2057 ].
This problem does not concern Italy only. In France, the luxury industry faces similar
issues. The Managing Director of Hermès predicted a shortage of over 10,000 craftspeople
until 2024, and highlighted the need to encourage young people to become craftspeople
(Garnier, 2019). The Heritage Craft Association in the UK published a Red List of more than
200 critically endangered handicrafts [CITATION The \l 2057 ]. Luxury companies such as
Bottega Veneta, Brunello Cucinelli or the LVMH group see the risk of losing a strategic asset
and have attempted to lure a new generation into becoming traditional artisans by offering
their own schools of craftsmanship with the scope to pass on unique skills to young
generations and to preserve their invaluable heritage (Pastore, 2017; Povoledo, 2018).
Lemon and Verhoef (2016) strongly recommend an increased focus on different types
of touchpoints between customers and brands in different phases of the customer journey.
Becker and Jaakkola (2020) invite researchers to split the process of CX into small
components that can be analysed more closely and better understood by linking the
touchpoints, context, qualities (TCQ) nomenclature (De Keyser et al., 2020) with other fields.
Roberts and Armitage (2016) underline the importance of conveying the extent and amount
of physical and mental effort that goes into high luxury items to create emotional bonds
4
between consumers and luxury brands. Eastman, Shin and Ruhland (2020) show that direct
and vicarious experiences of young consumers with luxury items can create the first
emotional bonds with luxury brands; and Lee and Youn (2020) report that vicarious
experiences of consumers with luxury craftsmanship contribute to such bonds.
Research on how to preserve that invaluable touchpoint is missing. Despite the
acknowledged important role of craftspeople as providers of one of the major antecedents of
customers´ luxury experience (De Keyser et al., 2020; Fatma, 2014), and despite the
increasing gap between demand and supply of craftspeople in the industry, there is no
evidence of academic research aiming to investigate how to assure a steady stream of
candidates interested in that kind of occupation. An important component of consumers´
luxury experience – the touchpoints with craftspeople – is potentially weakening because of a
lack of regard by luxury managers and academic researchers. Thus, the goal of the research
presented in this paper is to answer the following questions:
(1) How do current high-level managers of luxury companies see the role of craftsmanship in
providing consumers with the experience of luxury?
(2) Which experiences positively or negatively influence the interest of adolescents and adults in
selecting a career as a craftsperson within the luxury industry?
(3) What needs to be done to assure the impact of consumers´ touchpoints with
craftsmanship on luxury experience.
The researchers conducted expert interviews with high-level luxury marketing
managers to gather the most recent information on their view of the role and importance of
craftsmanship for consumers´ luxury experience. The vocational interest model of Social
Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 1994) served as a guiding
framework for additional expert interviews with relevant stakeholders including human
resource managers and factory directors of luxury companies and directors of professional
5
institutions all working within Italian luxury clusters. Narrative interviews with luxury
craftspeople generated empirical evidence on experiences which either aroused or dampened
the interest of adolescents and adults with regard to taking up a career in luxury
craftsmanship.
The findings contribute to extent knowledge on customer experience management
(CXM) by highlighting the lack of attention given by luxury managers to the human aspects
of craftsmanship. Luxury marketing managers must broaden their focus on consumer
experiences to include the experiences of all relevant stakeholders that are needed to co-
create a luxury experience along the customer journey. In close cooperation with human
resources managers, marketing managers should increase the number of opportunities for
direct experiences for consumers, adolescents, and young adults to watch craftspeople at
work. Lively, vicarious exposure to luxury craftsmanship on social media should stimulate
luxury experiences for consumers and arouse interest and passion in potential future
craftspeople at the same time.
The paper continues by first presenting an overview of the current state of literature
on luxury craftsmanship, followed by the method section that addresses the way data have
been gathered and analysed. The results section presents the findings on luxury managers´
views concerning the importance of craftsmanship and the experiences that have influenced
current luxury craftspeople in their vocational decisions. The discussion highlights theoretical
and managerial implications for luxury experience management, and future research
opportunities.
Literature review
The following review of literature first focuses on the treatment of craftsmanship in
luxury management literature. This literature takes either a company-centric or a consumer-
6
centric perspective (Seo & Buchanan-Oliver, 2015). Authors examining both perspectives
agree on the high importance of craftsmanship for luxury brands and consumer experiences
of luxury. Craftsmanship can exert its important influence on the consumer luxury experience
only if a sufficient number of highly skilled creative individuals are interested in pursuing a
career in luxury craftsmanship. Thus, in a second step, the literature review turns to the
development of vocational interest, that provides the theoretical basis for analysing which
experiences of adolescents and adults positively or negatively influence their interest in
becoming a craftsperson in the luxury industry.
Importance of craftsmanship to luxury brands
Literature taking a company-centric perspective (Table 1) on luxury craftsmanship sees
craftmanship as a key element of luxury brands (Ko, Costello, & Taylor, 2019; Riley, Lomax,
& Blunden, 2004; Caniato, et al., 2009) that allows a luxury product to be distinguishable
from a non-luxury product (Brun & Castelli, 2013; Amatulli, De Angelis, Costabile, &
Guido, 2017).
7
Table 1: Company-centric perspective on the importance of craftsmanship to luxury brand
management
Finding
Craftsmanship is one of the key characteristics that qualify a product as a luxury product and
contributes to an aesthetic beauty that is difficult to find elsewhere. Luxury brands leverage the
know-how of elite craftspeople who have preserved unique manufacturing traditions to produce
handmade products that allow luxury companies to consistently deliver excellence.
Craftsmanship is one of the critical success factors that allows brands to be defined as luxury brandsand to differentiate themselves from other brands.
Luxury brands focus on the ‘artification of luxury’, turning products first perceived as non-art into
art, which increases their value and further enhances their luxury status. Luxury brands are capable
of combining art, creativity, craftsmanship and heritage, thanks to the ideological storytelling based
on craftsmanship, recalling rarity, uniqueness, one-to-one personalization, exclusivity.
Luxury brands possess characteristics such as premium quality, a heritage of craftsmanship,
recognizable style, limited production run, limited distribution, a mix of emotional appeal and
product excellence, uniqueness, and global reputation.
Craftsmanship is one of the four pillars of luxury alongside focus, rarity, and history. Craftsmanship
enables individual expression, talent, and determination that embodies knowledge, purpose,
timeliness. Each item crafted is unique, as it is created by a craftsperson who has a certain level of
skill as well as knowledge, which produces a distinctive piece of work.
Craftsmanship is a fundamental characteristic of luxury fashion brands. An intricate process that requires precision and time to meet the customer’s expectations justifies the exclusivity of a luxury
Among top luxury brands, many consider a high level of craftsmanship to be a key element of
luxury.
Excellent craftsmanship is an essential component for an exceptionally well-produced product. The
mix of timeless and timely products made by skilled craftspeople using the best materials creates
status for the brands that sells to customers.
Source
Amatulli, De
Angelis,
Costabile &
Guido, 2017.
Brun, & Castelli,2013.
Kapferer, 2014.
Nueno &
Quelch, 1998.
Ricca & Robins,
2012.
Roncha & Montecchi,
Seo &
Buchanan-
Oliver, 2015.
Simpson, 2018.
Company-Centric
8
FINDING
Craftsmanship and craft skills are necessary resources to produce certain luxury goods that cannot be fully
automatized. Craftsmanship increases the quality and the uniqueness of those non-standardized products.
The critical success factors that brands need to compete in the luxury market are premium quality,
craftsmanship, exclusivity, brand building, style and design, emotional appeal, country of origin, uniqueness,
performance, innovation, and lifestyle creation.
Craftsmanship, product quality, and attention to detail are needed to achieve product integrity of a luxury
fashion brand. Tradition of craftsmanship and high performance of luxury items are what is mostly
associated with a strong brand that justifies the high price.
Craftsmanship is one of the five essential key elements of luxury brand strategy. Luxury brands have to build
a prestigious image based on craftsmanship and high-quality services.
Craftsmanship is a treasure to be valued. History and tradition of craftsmanship are the crucial elements to
increase the competitiveness of Italian companies.
Craftsmanship and quality together with durability, authenticity, and unique design aesthetic remain
important aspects of luxury fashion because they promote sustainability.
Craftsmanship is an essential component of luxury brand equity ‘Craftsmanship and the tradition and
heritage deriving from the company founder are essential components of the equity of a luxury brand and
form the pillars of any strategic and marketing decision’(p.43).
SOURCE
Campana, Cimatti &
Melosi, 2016.
Caniato, Caridi, Castelli &
Golini, 2009.
Fionda & Moore, 2009.
Ko, Costello & Taylor 2019.
Micelli, 2011.
Ozdamar-Ertekin, 2019.
Riley, Lomax & Blunden
2004
9
Strategic importance to luxury brands
FINDING
Craftsmanship is about high-quality standards and a heritage aura. Handmade products are
‘rooted in the savoir faire of an artisan elite who have long been able to preserve a unique
manufacturing tradition that allows luxury companies to constantly deliver excellence’ (p.
Craftsmanship is an extension of heritage that guarantees customers high quality. Luxury
items have tangible characteristics of product excellence linked to a heritage of
Craftspeople are the guarantors for quality and mediators between the past and present,
and play a key role in the preservation of authenticity.
Craftsmanship guarantees the uniqueness, premium quality, and longevity of luxury
Craftsmanship conjures the image of time-honoured tradition, heritage, human touch, and
The beauty of craftsmanship lies in the production process. Designers work in close
contact with craftspeople which increases their creativity. There is a direct link between
designer, craftsperson, and the final product.
10
72).
craftsmanship, rarity of raw materials, original design, country of origin, and excellent
expert execution.
products and represents expertise shaped by centuries of history and cultural heritage.
provenance, all of which consumers identify with high-quality, uniqueness, and luxury.
SOURCE
Amatulli & Guido
2011.
Brun & Castelli,
2013.
Hitzler & Müller-
Stewens, 2017.
Israel, Jiang & Ross, 2017.
Renoir & Ranga, 2017.
Björklund, Keipi &
Maula, 2020.
COMPANY-CENTRIC
Representation
of a variety of
luxury
characteristics
Re-enforcement
of creativity
Craftsmanship as one of a number of characteristics of luxury goods (Chandon,
Laurent, & Valette-Florence, 2016), has become an element of important differentiation in
11
times of democratization of luxury (Seo & Buchanan-Oliver, 2015). Craftspeople’s skills and
know-how, and the quality that comes with it (Fionda & Moore, 2009), represent a way for
luxury companies to stand out from newly emerging brands (Roncha & Montecchi, 2017)
which can offer similar looking products at lower prices (Ricca, & Robins, 2012; Campana,
Cimatti, & Melosia, 2016). Through their creativity, craftspeople turn the ideas of designers
into usable products (Björklund, Keipi, & Maula, 2020), and turn products first perceived as
non-art into art at the same time (Kapferer, 2014).
Craftsmanship is a synonym of quality (Amatulli & Guido, 2011), authenticity (Hitzler
& Müller-Stewens, 2017), attention to detail (Brun & Castelli, 2013), longevity (Israel, Jung,
& Ross, 2017), tradition (Renoir & Ranga, 2017), and heritage (Nueno & Quelch, 1998).
Thus, it represents a unique selling proposition for luxury brands that compete on the ability
to evoke exclusivity, rarity, uniqueness, identity, and reputation (Groth & McDaniel, 1993;
Phau & Prendergast, 2000).
Importance of luxury craftsmanship to consumers´ luxury experience
The consumer-centric perspective (Table 2) on luxury craftsmanship refers to
consumers’ luxury experience (Han & Kim, 2020) and value perception (Halwani, 2020) as
co-created by luxury companies and their customers (Tynan, McKechnie & Chhuon, 2010).
The individual consumer is at the centre of the experience (Kapferer, 2012a).
12
Table 2: Consumer-centric perspective on the importance of craftsmanship to luxury
experience management
FINDING
Heritage is one of the main factors having a great influence on consumers’ perception: focusing
on their craft and functional values influences a consumer’s behaviour, purchasing motivation,
and perception of the brand.
People´s experience of craftsmanship is strongly related to human values outlasting time and
space across cultures.
Uniqueness linked with craftsmanship is moving a product from its functional or practical usage
into the realm of art. Consumers buy a piece of hand-crafted art, made exclusively for them. The
individual consumer is at the centre of the experience.
Consumers respect the amount of time, effort and attention to detail that a craftsperson spends in
making a luxury item. By conveying the extent and amount of physical and mental effort that
goes into one item, a brand creates an emotional connection with the customer; a human is
buying a product carefully and uniquely hand-made by another human.
For luxury brands, craftsmanship represents not only the opportunity to deliver an excellent
product to the customers. Craftsmanship highlights creativity and individualism, which are
strongly related to the emotional value customers build with a particular brand.
Consumers consider craftsmanship as synonymous to quality providing high value. By incorporating craftsmanship into their storytelling brands can create an emotional connection
An important reason for communicating craftsmanship is to increase the luxury experience of
customers. Luxury brands can grow through improving brand experience, creating different
values for consumer groups, and increasing the value of the customer luxury experience.
Craftsmanship is a tool for luxury brand communication. The visual, multi-sensory experience and auditory stimuli generate an emotional connection with consumers.
SOURCE
Halwani,
2020.
Hawley &
Frater, 2017.
Kapferer,
2012a.
Roberts &
Armitage,
2016.
Yeccaluri,
2020.
Dallabona, 2014.
Han & Kim,
2020.
Lee & Youn, 2020.
CONSUMER-CENTRIC
Influence on
brand perception
and consumer
behaviour
13
FINDING
The cultural characteristics of craftsmanship can be central to the establishment of a dialogue with customers
and engaging them in experiential luxury consumption.
Quality, exquisite and excellent craftsmanship are key components of a luxury brand. These characteristics are
taken for granted by luxury consumers but are still recognized as highly valuable.
Luxury customers perceive luxury crafts as authentic and prestigious. True craftsmanship is defined and valued
by the additional time it requires in comparison to mass production techniques. This time represents rarity and
justifies high margins.
Craftsmanship fulfils the increasing need of consumers for meaningfulness. Creative crafting culture expresses
the appreciation for creative work, quality, and craftsmanship.
The use of simple visuals on social media with a small number of products creates consumer perceptions of
expensiveness, uniqueness, and high quality attributable to craftsmanship which is a hallmark of luxury brands.
Perceived craftsmanship influences the meaning of luxury brands and the consumption behaviour of consumers.
Excellent product quality, craftsmanship, and performance are elements that allow customers to perceive higher
value in a luxury product and increase purchasing intensions.
Chinese luxury consumers expect luxury products to provide functional value. Thus, quality signalled and
14
Consumers develop a positive attitude concerning luxury products.
assured by craftsmanship is a crucial factor.
SOURCE
Sennett, 2008.
Tynan, McKechnie &
Chhuon, 2010.
Amatulli, De Angelis,
Pichierri & Guido, 2018.
Klamer, 2012.
Lee, Hur & Watkins, 2018.
Seo & Buchanan-Oliver, 2019.
Vigneron & Johnson, 2004.
Zhang & Zhao, 2019.
Emotional value (cont.)
15
Positive influence on
consumers´ product attitude
Consumers who highly respect the amount of time, effort, and attention to detail that a
craftsperson spends in making a luxury item (Amatulli, De Angelis, Pichierri, & Guido,
2018; Roberts & Armitage, 2015) enjoy the experience of buying and using a piece of hand-
crafted art made exclusively for them. The experience of craftsmanship highlights creativity
and individualism, which strongly contribute to the emotional value that customers
experience with a particular brand (Yeccaluri, 2020). Consumers who expect functionality
and excellent quality as the ´sine qua non´ of a luxury product (Roux, 1994; Zhang & Zhao,
2019) still recognize outstanding quality related to craftsmanship as being highly valuable
(Tynan, McKechnie, & Chhuon, 2010). According to Mathwick, Malhotra, and Rigdon
(2001, p. 42), the perceived excellence value ‘reflects the generalised consumer appreciation
of a service provider to deliver on its promises through demonstrated expertise and task-
related performance’.
The consumer-centric stream of literature sees craftsmanship as an asset to be used in
market communication (Ko, Phau, & Aiello, 2016) to influence the meaning of luxury brands
(Seo & Buchanan-Oliver, 2019) and the resulting purchasing and consumption behaviour of
consumers (Vigneron & Johnson, 2004). Strongly related to human values across cultures
outlasting time and space (Hawley & Frater, 2017), the experience of craftsmanship is an
essential reason for consumers to own a luxury product (Kapferer, 2012a). The use of cultural
16
characteristics of craftsmanship in brand communication (Sennett, 2008) can establish a
dialogue with luxury customers who feel an increasing need for meaningfulness (Klamer,
2012), and can engage the customers in experiential luxury consumption. The use of simple
visuals of craftmanship on social media creates consumer perceptions of expensiveness,
uniqueness, and high quality (Lee, Hur, & Watkins, 2018). Multisensory stimuli (Lee &
Youn, 2020) of luxury craftspeople at work create emotional connections (Dallabona, 2014)
between consumers and the brand. Such connections are of particular importance for building
early relationships with young potential customers (Eastman, Shin, & Ruhland, 2020), but
also with potential craftspeople who can experience a highly engaging creative occupation.
Development of vocational interest
Craftsmanship can exert its important influence on the consumer luxury experience
only if a sufficient number of highly skilled creative individuals are interested in pursuing a
career in luxury craftsmanship. Censis and Confartigianato (2013) find that the shortage of
skilled craftspeople is due to the social model that leads families and students to look at this
career path with distrust based on preconceptions and stereotypes. Flores and O’Brien (2002)
show perceived parental support and encouragement for a chosen career path to be predictive
for career aspirations. Hallinan (2008) and Eccles (2009) find that teachers, parents, peers,
and media play a key role in influencing students’ vocational expectations.
In contrast, Schoon and Parson (2002) find that educational aspirations and the
achievement of young adults have a stronger influence on their vocational aspirations than
their family background. Vocational interest, defined as “patterns of likes, dislikes, and
indifferences regarding career-relevant activities and occupations” (Lent et al., 1994, p. 88),
has been shown to have stronger predictive power for the choice of occupation (Su, 2020)
than personal attributes like gender, age, cognitive or scholastic abilities (Volodina, Nagy &
17
Köller, 2015). Building on Bandura´s (1986) social cognitive theory, Lent et al. (1994)
propose a theoretical model of factors driving the development of vocational interest (Figure
1).
18
Figure 1: The vocational interest model of SCCT
Individual
Attributes
Contextual
Factors
Experiential
Factors
Self-
Efficacy
Occupational
Outcomes
Vocational
Interest
Personal
Goals
Career Path
Decision
19
Many different occupational areas validate Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) as
a feasible concept: for example, science, technology, engineering, mathematics (Lent, Brown,
Sheu, Schmidt, Brenner, Gloster, & Treistman, 2005; Lent, Lopez, Lopez, & Sheu, 2008),
management, or career counsellors’ training (O'Brien & Heppner, 1996). It has also been
applied in several countries, cultural contexts, and sub-populations (Dutta, Kang, Kaya,
Benton, Sharp, Chan, da Silva Cardoso, & Kundu, 2015). Thus, the model represents a solid
starting point for researching personal experiences as drivers or barriers of interest in luxury
craftsmanship.
Individual attributes such as gender, ethnicity, race, personality, values, beliefs, and life
stages (Brown & Associates, 2002; Hackett, Lent, & Greenhaus, 1991; Patton & McMahon,
2014), and experiential and contextual factors (Volodina & Nagy, 2016) lead to self-efficacy
in the vocational interest model. Self-efficacy refers to an occupation, i.e., perceptions and
judgments of individuals about their abilities and skills to perform certain activities, and
outcome expectations, i.e., anticipated consequences of performing in a certain domain. Self-
efficacy influences outcome expectations (Thompson, Dahling, Chin, & Melloy, 2017),
which can be physical (e.g., income, money), social (e.g., status), and self-evaluative (e.g.,
self-achievement) (Bandura, 1993). The individual conjunction of self-efficacy and outcome
expectations results in vocational interest. Self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and
vocational interest dynamically interact in the formation of personal goals (Lent et al., 1994),
i.e., behavioural intentions to act in certain ways to achieve a desired outcome (e.g., ‘In five
years from now I want to work as a craftsperson for Prada. Therefore, I have to enhance my
manual skills and my technical knowledge’) (Gollwitzer, 1999). Lent et al. (1994)
differentiate between choice and performance goals. Choice goals relate to the selection of a
certain career path. Performance goals describe the level of performance, knowledge, or skills
a person wants to achieve. The interaction of personal goals with the other factors of
20
influence results in a stable pattern of interest and the choice of career path (Lent et al.,
2016).
Self-efficacy perceptions vary depending on social or physical settings. Repeated
activity engagement, modelling, and feedback from important others help adolescents to
evaluate efficacy in particular tasks, refine skills, develop personal performance standards,
and acquire expectations about the outcome of performance (Lent, Brown, Talleyrand,
McPartland, Davis, Chopra, Alexander, Suthakaran, and Chia-May, 2002). Lack of
familiarity or exposure are the most important barriers to the choice of occupation (Lent,
Brown, & Hackett, 2000). Direct or vicarious experiences with an occupation allows adults
(Thompson et al., 2017) to judge their level of skills.
Following Bourdieu’s ideas about the distinction of classes, preferences for career
paths and occupational decisions are not as much the result of individual cognitive choices
than socially conditioned (Bourdieu, 1984). What is socially relevant determines the rejection
of certain career paths which enforces the distinction from other classes in working society
(Hodkinson & Sparkes, 1997). According to Ashby and Schoon (2010), Eccles (2009) and
Howard, Carlstrom, Katz, Chew, Ray, Laine, and Caulum (2011), during adolescence future
craftspeople evaluate their educational and career options based on beliefs and expectations
about the hierarchical ramifications of these options for their future socio-economic status,
and income (Johnson & Mortimer, 2002). With increasing age, vocational aspirations become
more consistent with individual values, interests, capabilities, and achieving self-realization.
Desirable extrinsic outcomes and self-evaluative outcomes vary in their relative importance
to adolescents and adults. Lent, Ezeofor, Morrison, Penn, and Ireland (2016) report an
increasing influence of conscientiousness on self-efficacy and exploratory goals, i.e., a desire
to perform well and accept related obligations (to others).
21
Method
Research Context
The empirical study focuses on five Italian industrial districts that are widely known
for their fashion and accessories clusters (Unicredit & Federazione dei Distretti Industriali,
2010): Emilia Romagna, Lombardy, the Marche, Tuscany, and Veneto. Italy is world-famous
for its luxury brands and the related skills of craftspeople locally clustered in industrial
districts. An industrial district is a socio-territorial entity defined by ‘the active presence of
both a community of people and a population of firms in one naturally and historically
bounded area’ (Becattini, 1990, p.38). A major strength of industrial districts is the free
access to a localized social and human capital generating new ideas (Bettiol & Micelli, 2013).
In this context, luxury craftspeople form communities of practice replicating and
transforming a body of knowledge that formal training offered by universities and local
colleges cannot provide. Thus, Italian luxury craftspeople are guardians of specific locally
rooted skills and knowledge that have been established and passed on from generation to
generation. ‘Made in Italy’, therefore, does not represent a mere label indicating the
geographical origin of a luxury product but stands for certification of impeccable quality and
a strong sense of tradition which is tightly connected with the production of prolific design
and skilled craftsmanship, mixing aesthetics and functionality, elegance, and practicality
(Paciolla & Mai, 2011).
Sample
Following the statement of Lemon and Verhoef (2016) that a variety of business
functions need to cooperate in the creation of consumer luxury experiences, the researchers
conducted interviews with 14 high-level managers, purposefully sampled to represent various
strategic responsibilities in different functions in luxury fashion and accessories companies,
22
and with 2 industry experts to represent the views of important stakeholders concerning
craftsmanship. The sample includes a CEO, a global strategic merchandising director, 2
marketing directors, 2 CRM directors, a retail director, a president of a region, a worldwide
visual merchandising director, a brand communication, heritage, and archive manager, 4
human resource managers, and 2 directors of important institutions related to luxury
craftsmanship in Italy (Table 3). Prior to the interviews all informants received a formal
invitation to participate in the study. The invitation presented the aim of the interview, the
way provided information would be used, and how confidentiality and anonymity will be
assured. Once respondents accepted the invite, the interviewer made sure to repeat the
conditions of their participation and to ask for explicit consent to participate in the study
before any recording of the interview.
23
Table 3: Sample Description
Respondent Gender Age Profession Field of
expertise
Years of
Working
Experience
District
#1 Male 50 Consultant Bags 30 Tuscany
#2 Male 45 Pattern Maker Bags 30 Tuscany
#3 Male 38 Pattern Maker Bags 10 Veneto
#4 Male 30 Quality Control and
Pattern Maker
Bags 10 Tuscany
#5 Female 34 Pattern and Sample
Maker
Bags 12 Lombardy
#6 Male 36 Pattern Maker Shoes 20 Marche
#7 Male 29 Pattern Maker Bags 14 Tuscany
#8 Male 23 Pattern Maker and
Prototyping
Bags 3,5 Tuscany
#9 Female 24 Pattern Maker Shoes 1,5 Tuscany
#10 Female 30 Pattern Maker Bags 5 Marche
#11 Female 25 Tailor Shoes 4,5 Lombardy
#12 Male 23 Pattern Maker Bags 2,5 Tuscany
#13 Female 30 Pattern Maker Bags 5 Tuscany
#14 Female 33 Pattern Maker Bags 5 Veneto
#15 Female 43 Product Development
and Production Director
Bags 17 Lombardy
#16 Male 55 CEO Brand strategy 30 Milan
#17 Male 32 Retail Manager France
Italian fashion brand
Distribution
strategies
7 Paris
#18 Male 48 President EMEA Region
Italian Fashion brand
Distribution
strategies
19 Milan
#19 Male 44 Worldwide Visual
Merchandising Director
fashion brand
Visual strategies 18 Paris
#20 Male 36 Marketing Manager Brand awareness
brand visibility
11 Milan
#21 Male 40 Marketing Manager Marketing and
communication
strategies
6 Milan
#22 Male 43 Worldwide Director of
CRM
Customer
relationship and
client acquisition
15 Milan
24
#23 Female 47 Worldwide Client
Relations Manager
Customer
relationship and
client acquisition
18 Milan
#24 Female 46 Merchandising director Product strategy 16 London
#25 Female 50 HR Director factory
plant Bags and shoes
HR management
in luxury
22 Tuscany
Veneto
#26 Male 37 HR Director Factory
plant Bags
HR management
in luxury
12 Veneto
#27 Female 41 Recruitment Manager HR management
in luxury
operations
14 Marche /
Tuscany
#28 Female 37 HR Director Factory
plant Shoes
HR management
in luxury
9 Veneto
#29 Male 57 Head of Professional
School
Luxury
Craftsmanship
31 Veneto
#30 Male 42 Head of private non-
profit institution
Arts and crafts
industry
18 Lombardy
25
To understand craftspeople’s career path decisions from multiple perspectives the
researchers interviewed 20 informants from different stakeholder groups. The sample
includes 7 experienced craftspeople who are between 29 and 50 years of age and have at least
10 years of experience in their field and 7 young craftspeople between 23 and 30 years in an
early stage of their career who have worked as artisans from 1.5 to a maximum of 5 years
(Table 3). Six of the interviewed craftspeople are female, 8 are male. An equal number of
craftspeople work for a specific luxury company or for a supplier to various luxury
companies. One junior and one senior craftsperson are owners of small companies. Hiring
young colleagues for their companies, these respondents provide additional experience.
Another senior craftsperson is in direct contact with students. He is a teacher in one of the
main professional schools and a craftsman at the same time. All craftspeople were snowball
sampled (Quinn-Patton, 2015). One of the authors relied on her professional network to start
interviews with experienced craftspeople. The researcher asked these interviewees to
introduce her to junior craftspeople. Junior craftspeople are difficult to reach as they do not
use online career platforms to promote themselves. Having just entered the industry these
young craftspeople are not looking for a new job. Determination of the final sample size
followed the principles of theoretical saturation (Charmaz, 2006). Data collection finished
when no more new information emerged from interviewing additional informants (Quinn-
Patton, 2015).
Data Collection
The authors conducted semi-structured expert interviews with the sampled managers in
diverse functions of luxury management, and the directors of important institutions related to
luxury craftsmanship. Following an interview guideline adapted to the different roles of the
informants, the interviewers asked the informants to report their view of the role of
26
craftsmanship for consumers´ luxury experience, their insights into the current job market
situation, and their views on potential drivers of and existing barriers to the choice of a career
as a luxury craftsperson. The researchers conducted preliminary interviews to assess the
interview guidelines developed for each stakeholder group and refined the guidelines through
discussion.
The researchers relied on a qualitative approach similar to Lent et al. (2002) to identify
factors that had influenced the vocational choice of craftspeople, drivers and barriers to the
desired occupational choices, and how informants overcame choice barriers. Data collection
used narrative biographical interviews (Rosenthal, 1993). The interviewer invited the
informants to remember the time when they first considered becoming a craftsperson and to
describe what happened. Through the narrative biographical interviews, craftspeople were
able to reconstruct their background to becoming a craftsperson in the luxury industry,
recounting the driving forces as well as the barriers that they had to face on this career path.
The average interview took 45 minutes. All interviews were conducted in Italian, audio-
recorded, transcribed, and translated into English.
In analysing the data material, the researchers applied a deductive-inductive procedure
for category development. First, each interview was coded deductively, according to the
constructs of the vocational interest model of SCCT, as analytical categories. In the following
inductive coding procedure, the researchers searched for new emerging patterns in the data
material that were then added to the existing category scheme (Srnka & Koeszegi, 2007). The
researchers compared the findings for each individual informant and discussed diverging
interpretations until a common understanding of the data material was reached. A final cross-
case analysis detected the patterns of meaning that emerge across interviewees (Quinn-
Patton, 2015).
27
Results
The perspective of luxury managers
Importance of craftsmanship to luxury CX
All informants recognize that luxury cannot exist without craftsmanship. Respondent
#24, for example, describes luxury brands without craftsmanship using a metaphor:
‘If the designer is the leader of the orchestra, the artisan is the person who can play a very
difficult instrument. A director of an orchestra without the musicians is nobody! Designers
and marketing managers without craftspeople don’t make any sense, there would not be any
reason for us to exist.’
She qualifies craftsmanship as an important asset for communication that increases the value
of the product perceived by consumers:
‘Clients are fascinated about handmade products. The more we tell people that the product
is made by hand the better we will sell the product. Craftsmanship justifies the price because
you give to the product a different value that is not necessarily the price. What gives value to
the product is the artisan touch because if it is made by a machine why do you have to pay
thousands of euros?’
Respondent #21 mentions:
‘Craftsmanship and Made in Italy are the trademark of our brand. We communicate about
these important values via our media.’
Power of direct consumer exposure to craftsmanship
Luxury managers are aware of the power of consumers´ direct exposure to
craftsmanship. Respondent #18 explains how his brand creates a strong bond with clients
through craftsmanship:
‘We bring our VIP clients to our workshop. This is the central experience we organize for
28
them as part of a program designed for them. The visits of our manifattura generate human
feelings, memories, and a lifetime relationship with our brand.’ (48, male, regional president
Europe)
Respondent #19 describes experiences he creates with his team:
‘We create dedicated events where prospects and clients can meet our craftspeople….
During these events there is an interaction, a dialogue between the client and the artisan.
Clients ask lot of questions; they have lots of curiosity about how the product is made.
Clients are fascinated by the skills, seeing somebody using hands to finish a product.’
Respondent #20 describes the high impact of craftspeople during in-store events:
‘Sometimes we invite craftspeople in our stores. It is an old concept, but it still works
because it is pure magic. You can have the best DJ, the best atmosphere but if there is an
artisan at the event all the attentions of our clients go to him.’
He recalls having observed the reaction of one of his colleagues who watched a craftsman
making a product:
‘I recall when I saw one of my colleagues who works in the customer service
department watching a craftsman making the product for the first time. He looked like a child
in a candy shop. I really felt his emotions in the air, love was in the air.’
Misalignment between marketing communication and human resource management
A misalignment appears to exist between marketing communication strategies and
strategies of human resource management to assure a steady supply of craftspeople.
Respondent #16, the CEO of an Italian luxury fashion brand explains being aware of
difficulties to find and hire craftspeople:
29
‘Craftspeople are very important for us. Our HR are developing employer branding
activities with technical schools and universities to identify the best talents who may
integrate our atelier, but I know it is not always easy to find highly talented people.’
And he adds:
‘I have the impression that this is a short- to medium-term recruitment strategy.’
Despite the importance of craftspeople as touchpoints and their influence on customers´
luxury experience, none of the informants ever mention the need to create motivating
experiences for potential future craftspeople that make them interested in a career in luxury
craftsmanship. The managers recognize craftsmanship as a strong communication content
that contributes to customers’ experience and to business success, but do not communicate
about the human dimension of craftsmanship nor about their employees endowed with
highly skilled hands. When asked what they would like to change in their companies´
communication strategies about craftspeople, interview partners mention more emotional
human aspects. Respondent #20 says, for example:
‘Craftsmanship is about passion. A craftsperson is much closer to an artist than to an
employee. Brands have to speak more about the real people behind the products. I think that
the next step in marketing will be showing the story of craftspeople. It is not anymore the
story of the brand, clients already know that, but talking about how many years it takes to
become a highly-skilled craftsperson.’
Respondent #17 adds on the same subject:
‘I would highlight more the human aspects of craftsmanship and the feelings you have with
those people.’
The perspective of luxury craftspeople
30
The narratives of craftspeople about the process that lead to their decision to become a
craftsperson show that experiences with creative work predominantly raised their interest in a
career in luxury craftsmanship. Two diverging paths emerge for how interest in
craftsmanship in the luxury industry develops: a career path envisioned from childhood, and
an opportunity discovered later after having pursued another vocational interest or vocation.
Inductive coding leads to the identification of passion as a major driver of decision-making
on both paths. The following presents the two paths of vocational decision-making, and the
drivers and barriers that informants encountered on those paths.
Envisioned career path
A rather linear progression characterizes the envisioned career path (Figure 2) in
which passion for craftwork and being creative are central drivers during the entire process of
becoming a luxury craftsperson. Informants who took that path had a love for creative work
since early childhood and have been able to follow their vision despite some obstacles
encountered during their career decision process. Very early on in life, informants found that
they had creative skills and abilities which stimulated their vocational interest and led to the
formation of personal goals that formed their career path decisions.
31
Figure 2: Envisioned career path
32
The envisioned career path covers all major constructs of SCCT but adds the passion
for an occupation as an additional element that influences career choice. A general passion
for handicraft can develop in early childhood. Respondent #11, a junior craftsperson with 4.5
years of working experience, describes her case:
‘I became a craftsperson because of my passion for everything that is related to
creativity. Since I was little, I loved to create objects and I went to art school to follow my
passion.’
For some informants like respondent #6, who grew up in a family with a long tradition
in luxury shoe making, the passion is rooted in family tradition:
‘At the beginning of every season an external designer came to visit my father. I joined
them to listen. This is how I started to love this world: thanks to the designer, I realized that I
was able to do this job. He pulled out the skills that were inside me. I owe him a lot.’
Passion for the kind of occupation and the perception of a rather high level of self-
efficacy raises and enhances vocational interest. Craftspeople who followed this path, learned
very early on that they had pronounced motor skills and the required imagination for creating
physical crafts like bags, jewellery, or fashion. Working creatively was their vocation.
Respondent #11 describes:
‘Since childhood I have loved creating things. I have always crafted objects and
realized that I was capable. I adjusted my own clothes, and I became increasingly confident.’
Parents or other creative adults furthered the informants´ self-efficacy perceptions and
increased confidence in their own abilities and skills. Respondent #6, an experienced shoe
pattern maker who is now working for a luxury fashion brand, remembers:
‘He [the designer] pulled out my hidden talent that I did not even know I had. Then
with so much determination and a great will, I could achieve great results.’
33
Even though informants were convinced about their predefined way, only the passion
for their future occupation gave informants the required energy to overcome barriers and stay
on their envisioned career track. Passion helped to eventually overcome the barriers and to
form personal goals towards the career path of a craftsperson. Some of these goals included
attending schools and courses that provide training in creativity and technical skills.
Respondent #9, a junior craftsperson with 1.5 years of experience narrates:
‘When I finished high school, I started asking for information. I am originally from San
Mauro; thus, I knew so many people who worked in shoe factories. I started developing a
passion for shoes and decided to do a course in a professional school to achieve my goal.’
Discovered career path
The discovered career path to becoming a luxury craftsperson (Figure 3) is less linear
compared to the envisioned career path. This path starts with a strong initial vocational
interest in other domains like becoming a movie actor, a football player, an architect, a pilot,
or a physiotherapist. All informants on this career path were confident in having the required
skills and resources for their original vision of a future career. All of them faced barriers that
hampered their career path (Figure 3). More or less by chance, these informants discovered
their creative talent and the potential occupation as a luxury craftsperson. With increasing
exposure to this occupation through direct experience and training, their passion for creative
work increased too. None of the informants would even consider doing anything else today.
34
Figure 3: Discovered Career Path
35
Informants encountered various barriers to the fulfilment of their original vocational
vision. Some were injured, some lacked the financial resources to afford the intended studies,
and others had difficulties in finding an appropriate employment after the end of their studies.
Employment conditions, market structures, and supply and demand represent the major
barriers encountered and the reasons why informants needed to reconsider their original
vocational interest. In these dark moments of their life, informants discovered their interest in
creative work and the potential occupation as a luxury craftsperson when being directly or
vicariously exposed to artisans. Respondent #14, a 33-year-old craftsperson with 5 years of
experience, remembers:
‘After traveling around the world, I needed to find a job. I started working in a
haberdashery where they were selling signed fabrics. I found myself in touch with the fashion
world and I was fascinated by the fact that you could create an object from a material, it was
interesting.’
From the first direct experience of luxury craftsmanship, a fire was lit in these future
craftspeople even if the fire was small in the beginning. Respondent #4, a 30-year-old senior
craftsman with 10 years of experience, says:
‘I have discovered the passion for this world slowly. It is not that one day I woke up
and I said to myself that I want to become a craftsperson.’
Continuous experience and daily training gradually increased their confidence in and
passion for working creatively and eventually formed strong self-efficacy perceptions.
Increased self-efficacy allowed them to set personal goals for the future such as creating their
own bags, working for a luxury brand, or continuing the family tradition. When informants
realized that they possessed the required skills to make a design come alive, their passion for
luxury craftsmanship got gradually stronger. Respondent #4 remembers that process:
36
‘I slowly became passionate for what I was doing without realizing it. In the end I
developed a passion for the whole product. I want to see it, evaluate the quality and the
craft.’
Contextual factors influencing career path decision-making of luxury craftspeople
Various contextual factors influenced interviewees’ career decision-making in a
positive or negative manner. Direct and vicarious exposures to the creative work of
craftspeople were the most important positive drivers. Lacking awareness of a potential
career in luxury craftsmanship and the generally low socio-economic status of craftsmanship
were the main barriers.
Direct and vicarious experiences of craftsmanship as positive drivers
Opportunities for direct and vicarious experiences of creative craftsmanship are
important positive drivers for choosing that kind of occupation. For informants whose
families have been strongly rooted within the tradition of manufacturing objects over
generations, the desire to continue the family tradition and heritage substantially influenced
their career decision-making. Respondent #6, a highly experienced craftsperson and artisan,
talks about this family tradition:
‘I started with my father. He had a small footwear factory. I started there when I was
thirteen, fourteen years old.’
Ending up in the luxury industry was not a goal a priori. Informants became luxury
craftspeople either driven by the role model of family members or by direct and vicarious
exposure to the industry. Respondent #7 remembers his personal goal setting:
‘Somewhen it was clear to me to continue my parents’ heritage. I always liked the
smell of the leather, the workmanship and the manual skills of the artisan.’
37
Low awareness of careers in luxury craftsmanship
Low awareness of a potential career as a luxury craftsperson represented a major
barrier especially for informants who discovered that career path later on. Many interviewees
were not aware of such an occupation before they encountered the job by chance. They could
hardly develop any personal expectations on status, income, or performance during
adolescence because they had no family members who worked in the industry. Little
employer branding activities in the industry and even less job orientation in schools leads to
no or only a nebulous picture of the actual occupation of craftspeople in the luxury industry.
Respondent #12, a 23-years-old junior in luxury craft business states:
‘You enter the luxury industry only by chance. I think for many it is rather a
coincidence that they are working here, except for those who have parents or relatives
already working in the industry.’
Related to support by the school environment, respondent #7 comments:
‘How may you discover your ability to do something if nobody gave you the
opportunity to test your skills?’
Low awareness of the craftspeople behind luxury products represents a dangerous
because unrecognized barrier for choosing a career as luxury craftsperson. Despite their
crucial role in the industry, craftspeople in the luxury industry always take second place.
Respondent #30, General Director of a private non-profit organization for the arts and
crafts stresses this point:
‘In the spotlight, there are always designers, stylists, and creative figures. People who
turn a project into a product are often forgotten.’
Obviously, luxury companies and media hide the role of craftspeople as masters behind
the luxury objects. And respondent #30 continues:
38
‘Promoting the culture of the craft of art is not only working on possible future clients.
The client must be aware of the value of an object made by a master, but also to encourage
new authentic vocations, and to make young people understand that from knowing how to do
something well not only results the happiness of possessing a skill but very often also great
career opportunities.’
Low socio-economic status associated with craftsmanship
The generally low socio-economic status associated with craftsmanship perceived by
families, peers, and society at large turned out to be another major barrier. Prejudices are
strongly anchored within society and lead to social stigmatization of the profession.
Respondent #3, who has gained a lot of experience both as an artisan and as a craftsman,
explains:
‘Jobs classify people. If you do a desk job you are well respected compared to a person
who gets dirty hands when working in the lab. (..) So many people compare a leather good
craftsperson with a blacksmith or a carpenter. People think it is a bad job for poor people.’
While for some informants social persuasion through family tradition was positive, for
others family pressure represented a major contextual barrier, as respondent #11 explains:
‘My parents wanted a more traditional career course for me like joining a classical
high school and then university to become a journalist finally. They think that craftsmanship
is a poor, humble job, but they do not know that the market value of the artisans who have,
for example, 40 years of experience is very high, because there is a total lack of them in the
market.’
Respondent #5, a 34-year-old female craftsperson, remembers the negative attitude of
her parents regarding her dream job:
39
‘My parents did not like the art school, they wanted a more classical or scientific
education for me, something more serious as they said. They told me it was better to do
something serious first, then I could do whatever I wanted.’
Respondent #29, the director of one of the leading professional schools in Italy
confirms:
‘It is a cultural matter that for years has in some way influenced the world of work in
Italy, and of course also in other countries, where a desk job has always been valued more
than professional work as a craftsman. (…) Let us say that the attention of young people is
very much oriented towards the roles and functions most represented in the professional
world, such as the designer and roles related to fashion shows.’
In sum, the informants clearly emphasize that the lack of awareness, and the low social
status associated with craftmanship as a profession are major barriers for pursuing a career in
luxury craftsmanship. Nonetheless, currently active craftspeople had passionately followed
their career paths.
The following discussion highlights the importance of this emotional element in the
decision to become a craftsperson and provides ideas on how managers can counteract the
lack of awareness and the social stigmatization by creating experiences that raise interest and
passion for a career as a luxury craftsperson.
Discussion
Theoretical implications
This research focuses on an elementary touchpoint for the co-creation of the consumer
luxury experience. It aims at understanding to what extent current high-level luxury managers
´ perception of the role of craftsmanship in providing consumers with the experience of
40
luxury is in line with the management of the experiences of adolescents and adults that
influence their interest in selecting a career in luxury craftsmanship. The research findings
contribute to existing academic knowledge on luxury experience management by:
(1) demonstrating that it is not enough to break down CX into small components that any
academic or practitioner may understand and use to discuss and manage CX (Becker &
Jaakkola, 2020); and
(2) showing that vocational interest for luxury craftsmanship develops either in an envisioned
way or through discovery, but direct and vicarious experiences with craftspeople and their
passion for creative work have a substantial impact on both kinds of career decision-making
processes of future luxury craftspeople.
Customers and stakeholders co-create CXs at many different touchpoints and
occasions which can be individually analysed and further split into smaller chunks to reduce
complexity. To fully understand co-creative processes, however, all partners in the process
need to be closely considered. Craftspeople are one of the most important groups of
stakeholders in luxury CXM. The literature on luxury craftsmanship strongly underlines the
importance of craftsmanship to the meaning of luxury brands. Most of this literature treats
craftsmanship as a resource to be strategically used in brand communication or as a cognition
of consumers resulting from such communication. In both cases, craftsmanship is essential
for consumers´ perceptions of excellent quality, individuality, exclusivity, and high value that
are the basis for a CX of luxury. The craftspeople and potential future craftspeople, their
interests, experiences, and passion for creative work remain largely unconsidered. However,
craftsmanship can only exert its positive influence on consumers´ luxury experience to the
full extent if marketing and human resources managers understand the human side of it and
put craftspeople at the forefront of their communication activities. This does not only impact
CX by expressing congruence between the personalities of brands and their craftspeople
41
(Donvito, Aiello, Grazzini, Godey, et al., 2020), but increases the attractiveness of a career in
luxury craftsmanship to current and potential future craftspeople.
Luxury craftsmanship cannot be reliably used to its full potential when craftspeople are
increasingly scarce. The study determined the main contextual drivers and obstacles to a
career path in luxury craftsmanship. Lack of familiarity with and exposure to luxury
craftspeople, and a lack of available career information are the most important barriers to
choosing an occupation as a luxury craftsperson. If neither family, nor school, nor companies
operating in the luxury industry provide opportunities for directly or vicariously experiencing
luxury craftspeople at work, knowledge about this occupation will be very limited or
inexistent. Self-efficacy perceptions cannot develop and translate into vocational interest in
the career of a luxury craftsperson.
Craftspeople frequently refer to passion instead of interest to explain their strong
feeling of love for their job, and to express one of the most important drivers for becoming a
craftsperson in the luxury industry. Whereas interest is ‘the feeling of wanting to give your
attention to something or wanting to be involved with and to discover more about something’
(Cambridge Dictionary, https://dictionary.cambridge.org/it/dizionario/inglese/interest ) ,
passion is ‘a strong inclination toward an activity that people like, that they find important,
and in which one invests time and energy’ (Vallerand et al., 2003, p.757). Craftspeople say
that they give birth to new handcrafted objects that were only imagined by a designer. The act
of creation is highly emotional to craftspeople and can become addictive (Biraglia & Kadile,
2017; Vallerand & Houlfort, 2003). Craftspeople need years of training and endowed hands
to create the crafts. Thus, passion is more important than a rational vocational interest for
selecting a career as luxury craftsperson. Alike the suggestion of Boden and Williams (2002)
for consumption experiences, this finding underlines the importance of integrating
embodiment and emotions in the analysis of experiences that attract adolescents and adults to
42
luxury craftsmanship. If young adults discover craftsmanship after having aimed for another
occupation, passion becomes the strongest motivation to start and continue with this career.
Passion for luxury craftsmanship can be an antecedent and a consequence of the
decision to become a luxury craftsperson. The passion originates from applied creativity that
individuals have dreamed about since childhood or is a feeling that was drawn out of them
and has increased since they had direct exposure to luxury craftsmanship. Similar to the
findings of Biraglia and Kadile (2017), who explore the role of entrepreneurial passion and
creativity as antecedents of intentions to become an entrepreneur, the passion of luxury
craftspeople for their work is a ‘consciously accessible intense positive feeling experienced
by engagement in creative skilful activities associated with a role that constitutes an essential
part of the individual identity of the craftsperson’ (Cardon, Wincent, Singh, & Drnovsek,
2009, p. 515). In contrast to the findings of Milanesi (2018), who reports that entrepreneurs
start up a business out of a passion, cultivated in hobbies and leisure time, none of the
craftspeople who discovered luxury craftsmanship after having followed another career path
initially reported having created objects as a leisure activity. Craftspeople who loved creative
work from childhood and created objects did not call this activity a hobby. Rather they felt
driven by the pleasure of possessing the skills to create objects with their hands.
High-performing professional musicians declare that having a passion for their art is
what drives their efforts in achieving excellence, practicing for long hours over many years
with a high commitment without complaining about sacrifices, tiredness, or lack of courage
(Bonneville-Roussy, Lavigne, & Vallerand, (2011). Similarly, the passion for luxury
craftsmanship builds through direct experience that nurtures self-efficacy perceptions.
Passion plays a primary role as a driver for excellence mediated by performance goals, and
deliberate practice. Adolescents and young adults need passion as an energizer to overcome
barriers along the way to fulfil their vocational interest. Goal achievement becomes more
43
important than an immediate fulfilment of professional choices (Chen, Ellsworth, & Schwarz,
2015).
The results of the current research underline the importance of a process perspective
(Lent, et al., 2016) on luxury craftspeoples´ career decision-making. There is not just the one
path to the career of luxury craftsperson, but two quite different paths appear from the data.
The first path starts from childhood experiences and personal values that generate a passion
for creative handwork. The second path begins with different vocational interests and
personal goals. Barriers in educational and work environments force adults to change their
interests, increase self-efficacy, and to adapt their personal goals. Adults who are not able to
find a perfect match with what they would love to do or face a job market that does not allow
nor support their primary vocational choice, discover luxury craftsmanship more or less by
chance. Passion grows over time through the progressive acquisition of the required skills
rather than from an initial interest in the job. This finding is in line with Chen et al. (2015),
who suggest that vocational passion can emerge through the discovery of a career opportunity
that was previously unknown, and its cultivation over time. To allow such a discovery, direct
or at least vicarious exposure to luxury craftsmanship is highly important. If individuals get
the opportunity to experience the creativity of craftspeople directly or vicariously at work or
if they can experience their level of performance in practicing craftsmanship during
childhood, adolescence, or when they search for a new occupation, they develop self-efficacy
perceptions and some vocational interest in craftsmanship. Without exposure to luxury
craftmanship, if any outcome expectations emerge at all, they tend to be negative due to the
rather low regard for craftsmanship in general and the resulting social persuasion from
parents and peers. Familiarity with the work of craftspeople is more important for the
development of a strong interest in the career of a luxury craftsperson than outcome
expectations related to the job.
44
Managerial implications
Following the suggestion of Becker and Jaakkola (2020), the authors have focused
their analysis on a small component of CX to better understand the relationship of TCQ
nomenclature (De Keyser et al., 2020) with the field of luxury fashion and accessories. The
research contributes to the creation of CLX by providing insights into the perspectives and
behaviour of two major actors: (1) luxury managers´ perception of the role of craftsmanship
and their current use of luxury craftspeople in creating CLX; and (2) craftspeople’s career
selection and the main drivers and barriers in their decision process. A combination of this
information will help improve the ways of promoting a career in luxury craftsmanship to
secure the future supply of craftspeople which is essential for one of the most important
touchpoints for CLX.
Touchpoints for consumers with luxury craftspeople are firm-controlled. Consciously
managing these touchpoints, luxury managers can strongly influence consumers´ perceptions
of quality, authenticity, individuality, and exclusivity. Direct and indirect, real and virtual
contacts between consumers and craftspeople occur especially in the pre-purchase and post-
purchase stages of the customer journey. In the pre-purchase stage, luxury companies
currently communicate about craftsmanship through sales assistants´ storytelling, media
advertising and social media messages. Some luxury companies showcase craftspeople at
events. In flagship stores, luxury companies create a permanent workshop inside the store
where customers and prospects - while browsing the store - can see craftspeople producing
personalized products. This experiential retailing activity creates a stronger emotional bond
between the customers and the brand (Nobbs, et al., 2012), and makes customers spend more
time in the store, and generates more business (Nobbs, Moore & Sheridan, 2012). In the post-
purchase stage, luxury managers use craftspeople as human touchpoints to engage with
45
selected customers during invited visits to the prototyping centre or the factory plant. At such
occasions, loyal customers can interact with craftspeople, ask specific questions, and see how
the unique expertise and passion of these people goes into creating the luxury products.
The results of this study show that market-oriented luxury company managers´ focus
on consumer experiences, and human resources managers´ traditional short-term-oriented
employer-branding activities, such as media communication or events, are not sufficient to
fill the increasing gap in the supply of craftspeople. Potential craftspeople’s experiences at
touchpoints with the world of luxury craftsmanship do not receive the deserved attention. For
any luxury company, CXM must become multi-functional and take a broader stakeholder
perspective. As Lemon and Verhoef (2016, p.84) point out, multiple departments such as ‘IT,
marketing, operations, customer service, human resources’, must work together to make sure
all of the resources needed to deliver a positive customer experience are in place. Luxury
companies must align with marketing and human resource strategies that cover the entire
ecosystem of stakeholders who influence the career decisions of adolescents and young adults
to make the career of a luxury craftsperson appear more attractive (Figure 4).
46
Figure 4: Opportunities of managerial influence on perceived luxury craftsmanship
attractiveness
47
As the interviews with current luxury craftspeople show, luxury managers need to
provide as many opportunities for direct, or at least vicarious, experiences with luxury
craftsmanship as possible to substantially increase the level of awareness, to awake an
interest in this occupation, and to ignite a passion for creative craftwork. Current
communication by companies, schools, and local institutions about the work of luxury
craftspeople does not provide sufficient opportunities for lively experiences of potential
craftspeople to ignite a passion for this very special occupation. Adolescents and young
adults are unable to develop an interest for a particular career path if they do not know
enough about it (Crites, 1978; Taylor & Betz, 1983).
The organization of corporate events like Family Days - as they exist – is mainly
aiming at increasing the motivation and productivity of employees. Families are invited to
visit the working environment of one of the family members with the aim to create a stronger
sense of belonging to the company. Luxury craftspeople report that familiarity with the work
of craftspeople through direct experience generated their early interest during childhood.
Consequently, the creation of workshops for children and adolescents during corporate events
such as Family Days could engage them in the creation of handcrafted objects, let them
experience the joy of creating something, ignite an interest and passion in this kind of
activity, and can reinforce familiarity with the job.
The stories of luxury craftspeople who found their current occupation by chance
highlight the importance of organizing opportunities for middle-school students and young
adults in search of a new occupation to be directly exposed to luxury craftspeople at work.
Direct exposure helps to verify self-efficacy through career exploration activities, starting
from site visits, providing job shadowing, internships, and realistic job previews that enable
potential future craftspeople to clarify their interests, values, and skills in relation to their
occupation and work tasks (Lent et al., 2000).
48
Employer branding activities in elementary schools and not just in high schools can add
to these actions through vicarious exposure to luxury craftsmanship. Lowering the age and
educational level of the audience would allow luxury companies to directly communicate
with the kids when they start developing their vocational interests.
Luxury craftsmanship is intrinsically correlated with the idea of being able to realize an
object. Being endowed with manual skills is paramount for this occupation. In the past, craft
skills were passed on from generation to generation via direct exposure; children or
apprentices watching experienced craftspeople working. Today, occupational training schools
have replaced or integrated this model into their programs. But luxury craftspeople who
repeatedly state their passion still are the best role models and spokespeople.
Luxury companies can play an important role in generating and disseminating the
culture of craftsmanship, given its central role in the luxury customer experience. Like human
resources managers, brand managers have to contribute to the new perception and recognition
of craftsmanship to assure lasting luxury CX. Luxury companies need to enhance the
professional recognition of their craftspeople, giving new dignity to their position by creating
opportunities to become more visible and to be seen as important. In addition to
communicating about tradition, heritage and craftsmanship in a depersonalized manner,
luxury marketing should celebrate the people who possess superior knowledge and skills and
their important contribution to the sustainability of luxury brands. Craftspeople can be
brought into the limelight of the fashion shows next to creative directors, as some brands
have already done. Karl Lagerfield, for example took Chanel seamstresses to the runway
(Silver, 2016). Luxury companies can allow their craftspeople to sign their creations,
especially the limited editions, as a tribute to their manual skills and as a certification of the
uniqueness of the product. Some companies have adopted similar solutions but only as
punctual initiatives. For example, Pierpaolo Piccioli, designer of the Italian haute couture
49
Maison Valentino, decided to exalt the atelier by bringing dresses with the name of the
person who made them on the catwalk (Beghelli, 2018).
Luxury companies can use Instagram to give a voice and to tag the faces (or the hands)
already showcased on social media. The intensive use of YouTube videos showing the
creative excellence of luxury craftspeople would reach a high number of adolescents and
young adults and allow craftspeople to become more popular among the followers of luxury
brands. Craftsmanship can be made spectacular by bringing craftspeople to the fore through
TV programs similar to Master Chef, such as creating a Master Bag format that addresses all
age groups and a Baby Master Bag edition to make kids’ dream of becoming a Master
craftsperson themselves one day. Prestigious professional contests can help to increase the
social status of craftsmanship.
Limitations and future research
This research has several limitations. To understand the career path decisions of
craftspeople in the luxury industry, the study mainly sampled pattern makers in fashion and
accessories clusters of Italy. Due to the difficulty in reaching participants, the respondents
represent a snowball sample. Despite the rather small sample, the data satisfy the criterion of
information redundancy (Charmaz, 2006). However, the sampled craftspeople represent only
one part of the creative production process of luxury goods, in only a part of the industry, and
in one country. The researchers could not reach junior craftspeople who had left the industry
after a first trial because of the lack of information available. For further theory development
and to draw managerial consequences for a broader range of luxury goods and countries it
would be interesting to understand the reasons for early career breakups, to focus future
research on craftspeople working for luxury brands in other countries; on other important
50
actors in the creation of luxury products, like sample makers, dressmakers or seamstresses;
and on different sectors of luxury such as jewellery or watch making.
In view of the importance of adolescents´ and young adults´ experience of luxury
craftspeople at work for the development of self-efficacy perceptions and vocational interest,
future research should conduct a field experiment to test the impact of direct versus vicarious
exposure of adolescents on their interest in becoming luxury craftspeople. Fuzzy-set
Qualitative Comparative Analysis (Ragin, 2008), a fuzzy set-theoretic approach based on
Boolean algebra, could reveal consistent conjunctions of treatment, context, beliefs, and job
attractiveness being sufficient for the occurrence of a strong career selection tendency.
Conclusion
Craftsmanship represents an essential touchpoint in the co-creation process of CX for
any luxury brand. Luxury marketing managers are aware of the importance of the role played
by skilled craftspeople. Preserving the specific skills and transferring the know-how from the
older generations of craftspeople to the new ones has become a priority for all those luxury
brands who sell handcrafted products. Despite having launched and developed specific
professional training and communication campaigns to raise the interest of young people in
luxury craftsmanship, the industry faces a substantial lack of candidates.
The presented research attempts to understand the reasons why adolescents and young
adults lack interest in and rarely choose a career as a craftsperson within the luxury industry.
The research identifies individual, social, and environmental barriers and drivers to becoming
a luxury craftsperson. Two different paths to becoming a craftsperson emerge from the
research: an envisioned and a discovered career path. On both paths, a passion for creative
activities emerges as a major driver for becoming and continuing to be a luxury craftsperson.
Direct experience of watching luxury craftspeople at work is where that passion originates
51
from. Specific barriers to luxury craftsmanship are the low social status and low regard for
craftsmanship in general, along with a lack of awareness due to not having direct or at least
vicarious contact with luxury craftspeople at work.
Traditional employer branding activities based on media communication and events
will not assure a sufficient supply of craftspeople in the future. To inspire new generations of
young luxury craftspeople, luxury marketing managers should closely cooperate with human
resource managers in aligning CXM with employer branding activities to simultaneously
inspire consumers and potential future craftspeople. It is paramount to create various
opportunities for potential candidates, their parents, and luxury consumers to experience
luxury craftspeople at work. Luxury companies and their suppliers must actively approach all
stakeholders in the ecosystem to give back dignity to the role of craftsmanship in general, to
increase the awareness and reputation of luxury craftsmanship in particular, and to abolish
existing barriers to the career of a luxury craftsperson. To this end, marketing managers and
researchers should broaden their perspectives from a focus on CX to the experiences of
stakeholders involved in the co-creation of CX.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declare no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or
publication of this article.
52
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