Compressive behaviour of anisotropic mycelium-based composites

Abstract

Mycelium based composites (MBC) exhibit many properties that make them promising alternatives for less sustainable materials. However, there is no unified approach to their testing. We hypothesise that the two-phase particulate composite model and use of ASTM D1037 could provide a basis for systematisation. An experimental series of MBC were produced using four substrate particle sizes and subjected to compression testing. We report on their effect over Young’s modulus and ultimate strength. We extend the study by investigating three anisotropic substrate designs through orientated fibre placement as a strategy for modifying compressive behaviour. We find that the two-phase particulate model is appropriate for describing the mechanical behaviour of MBC and that mechanical behaviour can be modified through anisotropic designs using orientated fibres. We also confirm that fibre orientation and particle size are significant parameters in determining ultimate strength.

Full text

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Compressive behaviour
of anisotropic mycelium‑based
composites
Adrien Rigobello* & Phil Ayres
Mycelium based composites (MBC) exhibit many properties that make them promising alternatives
for less sustainable materials. However, there is no unied approach to their testing. We hypothesise
that the two‑phase particulate composite model and use of ASTM D1037 could provide a basis for
systematisation. An experimental series of MBC were produced using four substrate particle sizes
and subjected to compression testing. We report on their eect over Young’s modulus and ultimate
strength. We extend the study by investigating three anisotropic substrate designs through orientated
bre placement as a strategy for modifying compressive behaviour. We nd that the two‑phase
particulate model is appropriate for describing the mechanical behaviour of MBC and that mechanical
behaviour can be modied through anisotropic designs using orientated bres. We also conrm that
bre orientation and particle size are signicant parameters in determining ultimate strength.
Mycelium-based composites (MBC) are being investigated in design and materials engineering by leveraging
the saprotrophic lifestyle of ligninolytic fungi, taking inspiration in the XIXth to early XXth century method of
fungal strain transfer by lignocellulosic solid-state cultivation1. Because MBC cultivation protocols can be based
on virtually any substrate containing organic polymers such as lignin, hemicellulose and cellulose, and as they
instrumentalise a range of widely available basidiomycota, this class of composite shows potential in obtaining
viable products for a variety of uses. Furthermore, MBC conform to circular economy production principles,
are expected to be biodegradable, and are assumed to have a low environmental impact in regards to Life-Cycle
Assessment (LCA). Lignocellulosic substrates cover a variety of geometries and chemical proles, from industrial
grade dusts and particles to supplies of irregular shavings, from grain husks to straws; this variety of supplies has
led to the emergence of a rich cra in MBC production. However, this poses a challenge in systematically under-
standing the behaviour of this new class of materials. We argue that rationalising and systematising approaches
to analysing their complexity is necessary to actualise their potential and facilitate market readiness.
No analytical model has been previously proposed for MBC. We hypothesise that they qualify as two-phase
particulate composites with the fungal mycelium acting as the matrix, and the substrate, with a high particle
content ratio and randomly orientated, acting as the dispersed phase. Because the mechanical response of the
fungal mycelium that binds particles together acts as a foam2, the composite stiness is primarily driven by
the substrate composition with angular particles. Previous studies of the failure mode of two-phase particulate
composites have extensively investigated particle dewetting and their interfacial interactions for high particle
content ratios3. Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectrometry was used to qualify the materials used as prin-
cipal substrate and bre addition, the mycelium of G. lucidum, and G. lucidum colonised beech wood. is study
then focuses on the inuence of particle size on the compressive behaviour of MBC. e study is then extended
to examine the inuence of orientated bres for modifying mechanical behaviour through anisotropic design.
ree granulations of beech wood from 0.5 to 12.0 mm are used.
Materials and methods
Standard reference for specimen design. A variety of experimental designs are being used in the eld
of MBC research and engineering, as there is a current lack of unied approach to the material description. Few
studies consider evaluation standards for MBC; among them, ASTM D3501 for wood-based structural panels
in compression has been referenced4, a standard designed for plywood, wafer-board, orientated strand board,
and composites of veneer and of wood-based layers, with use of 2:1 (D:h) cylindrical specimens in the study,
instead of rectangular cross-section as the standard advises; ASTM D695 for rigid plastics was also referenced5,
with a recommended 1:2 (D:h) ratio for cylindrical samples, but used with a diameter of 100mm and thickness
of 23mm in the study; ASTM C67 destined to brick and structural clay tile was referenced in a comparative study
OPEN
Centre for IT and Architecture, Royal Danish Academy, 1435 Copenhagen, Denmark. *email: arig@kglakademi.dk
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against clay bricks6, but without following the standard recommendations; and ASTM D2166-13 for cohesive
soil was referenced7, but deviating from the standard in the study. In requiring the largest particle to be smaller
than one tenth of the specimen diameter, the latter ASTM exemplies the instrumental role these standards can
play in systematically investigating materials based on previous studies. e variety of specimen geometries
found in the state of the art and lack of consistent recourse to the standards, challenges the portability of, and
comparability between, experimental results.
Hypothesising that the best t model for MBC is as two-phase particulate composite with a high particle
content ratio, with particles randomly orientated, and, for this study, with sizes in the 0.5–12.0 mm range, we
identify ASTM D1037 for assessment of wood-base bre and particle panel materials mechanical properties as the
most appropriate material standard for specimen and experimental plan design. We report compression parallel
to surface evaluation, for which the short-column method has been chosen as the specimens have of a nominal
thickness above 25 mm. ey are parallelepipeds of 1:1:4 ratio, the nominal dimensions are 36
×
36
×
144mm
and the dimensions of the dried specimens are 34
×
34
×
140mm. Our experimental plan investigates the eect
of granulate sizes and reinforcement strategies over the compressive Young’s modulus and ultimate compressive
strength.
Principal substrates. e principal substrates of the specimens originated from European beech wood
(Fagus sylvatica). To investigate the eect of particle sizes over the compressive behaviour, we used three granu-
lations (small, medium, large): 0.5–1.0 mm (Räuchergold type HB 500/1000, J. Rettenmaier & Söhne GmbH +
Co KG, Rosenberg, Germany), 0.75–3.0 mm (Räuchergold type HB 750/2000, J. Rettenmaier & Söhne GmbH
+ Co KG, Rosenberg, Germany), and 4.0–12.0 mm (Räuchergold type KL 2/16, J. Rettenmaier & Söhne GmbH
+ Co KG, Rosenberg, Germany). A fourth particle type was added to the experimental plan, as a 1:1:1 volume
ratio mix of the three granulations.
Fibre compositions. Longitudinal bres were introduced in a specimen series by using common reed bres
(Phragmites australis; Tækkemand Chresten Finn Guld, Køge, Denmark). Eight to ten bres of 1 mm ± 0.5 diam-
eter were chosen so as to balance their dimensional variability and positioned in two layers separated by 10 mm
of principal substrate. Fibres perpendicular to compressive stress were studied with use of 6 mm diameter by 32
mm length rattan bres (Calamus manan; B.V. INAPO, Bloemendaal, Netherland). ey were positioned regu-
larly within the principal substrate as two layers of bres, centred in the specimen thickness and separated by a
10 mm layer of principal substrate. It is common in MBC design practices to have mycelium grown externally
on the outer boundaries of the specimens4. In the context of this study, no external mycelium was grown so as
to observe the eect of granulate sizes and reinforcement strategies without introducing a specimen geometry
bias. We identify this bias as critical for the reproducibility of experiments as the characteristics of the external
mycelium mat is never found to be reported in the state of the art. In this study, a jacketing strategy has been
integrated to study the eect of boundary reinforcement with a reproducible method. Across granulate sizes,
a hemp-based hessian jacket (Cannabis sativa subsp. sativa; NEMO Hemp jam web 370 g/m
2
, Naturellement
Chanvre, Echandelys, France) was introduced on the specimen length. e study complies with relevant institu-
tional, national, and international guidelines and legislation regarding the use of plant materials.
Fungal species. Trametes spp., Ganoderma spp., and Pleurotus spp. are among the most frequently cited
families in MBC design8; Schizophyllum commune is a less investigated species but nds a growing interest9, and
Irpex lacteus has been used previously7. 565 carbohydrate-active enzyme families (CAZymes) have previously
been assigned to the Ganoderma lucidum species10,11, representing the widest array from hydrolytic enzymes
(hydrolysis of hemicellulose, pectin), to oxidoreductases (laccases, ligninolytic peroxidases and peroxide-gen-
erating oxidases), to cellobiose dehydrogenase. Because this species is considered a very versatile ligninolytic
fungus, in that it can exploit various strategies for the breakdown of lignin and can ultimately degrade all com-
ponents of lignocellulosic compounds, it was selected for implementing the experimental plan. A millet-grown
spawn of ligninolytic species G. lucidum (reference M9726) was acquired from Mycelia BVBA (Nevele, Bel-
gium). e spawn was stored at a constant 4
◦
C and 65% relative humidity (RH).
Specimen preparation. e moisture content (MC) within cell walls as bound water, and outside cell walls
in wood void structure as capillary water or vapour, is critical for understanding and predicting fungal activity12.
In MBC production, lignocellulosic substrates composed of particle or bres have a MC that is homogeneously
prepared at 55–70%4,13, and the use of mineralized to sterile demineralized water has been documented as a
moisturising mean4,13,14.
For this study, the principal substrates, bres and hessian were prepared at 40% MC with mineralized water,
and sterilised at 121
◦
C for 15 min. e principal substrates were then mixed with 16 wt% G. lucidum spawn
and incubated in PP ltered bags (PPD50/REH4+1/V22-49, SacO2, Deinze, Belgium) for 7 days at 25
◦
C in the
dark. Once colonised, the principal substrates were massaged to break them down and formed with the bres
and hessian into aerated PETG moulds. e formed specimens were incubated for 21 days at 25
◦
C in the dark,
then oven dried for 48h at 60
◦
C. e dried specimens were stored at 4
◦
C and 65% RH prior to testing.
Compressive behaviour characterisation. e use of seismic waves to characterise the mechanical
behaviour of MBC has been reported in the literature as an alternative to conventional uniaxial load testing7.
is method has become common in geological and civil engineering, and oers the benet of being non-
destructive. However, the anisotropic nature of the composite matrix (the mycelium), together with is its high
elasticity, causes waves to attenuate irregularly. Furthermore, MBC have such a high porosity and a high variation
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in particle sizes and distribution that gaining accurate measurements would be challenging. is is evidenced in
the literature by a larger standard deviation in results using this process applied to homogeneous MBC7. In the
context of this study, load testing was performed on a Mecmesin MultiTest-dV testing bench equipped with a
2500 N load sensor, with a loading speed of 1.0 mm/min. Young’s modulus and ultimate compressive strength
were calculated following ASTM D1037.
Chemical analysis. Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectrometry has been used previously for ana-
lysing the lignocellulosic proles of substrates and their relation to fungal degradation patterns4,15–17, with the
benet of requiring a limited specimen preparation, and spectra shape and frequencies being directly related to
microscopical physical quantities and hence prepared for interpretation18. FTIR spectrometry was conducted
in this study on a single reection diamond Attenuated Total Reectance (ATR) Agilent 4500a FTIR (Santa
Clara, USA). e acquisition resolution was 4 cm
−1
with 16 scans per specimen, for a band between 4000 and
650cm
−1
. We corrected the baseline of FTIR spectra following the adaptive iteratively reweighted Penalised
Least Squares (airPLS) method19, and spectra normalization was done with amide I/II band envelopes20. Four
samples were isolated from G. lucidum colonised beech wood specimens, their spectra were averaged for analy-
sis. e other specimens were tested with one replicate.
Chemical analysis
To serve as controls, we used FTIR spectrometry to characterise the four materials used in the composite design
(Fig.1). e materials were hemp-based hessian, beech wood, rattan, and common reed. Beech wood and rat-
tan spectra display a chemical prole that is very similar, with the exception of peaks at 1123 cm
−1
and 1160
cm
−1
, and the 1300–1500 cm
−1
region. is indicates a slightly higher content of cellulose, hemicellulose and
lignin in our tested beech wood specimen (C–O stretching, C–O–C asymmetrical stretching, C–H deformation,
COOH groups symmetrical stretching, symmetric C–H bending, CH
2
deformation stretching, CH
3
asymmetrical
angular vibration, vibrational mode of amide C–O stretching)21–23. Common reed displays a minimal amount of
lignin and hemicellulose compared to our other samples, while the peak at 890 cm
−1
is associated with C–O–C
stretching at the
β
–(1
→
4)–glycosidic linkages of amorphous cellulose24. e hessian displays distinctive peaks
at 707 cm
−1
, 890 cm
−1
, 1060 cm
−1
, 1316 cm
−1
, and 1430 cm
−1
in the ngerprint region, and 1640 cm
−1
, and
2921 cm
−1
. e 750–680 cm
−1
and 1680 – 1630 cm
−1
regions (C=O streching) are associated with primary and
secondary amides in hemp (amide V: C–N and N–H vibrations)25. Primary amides in hemp are amino acids,
fatty acids, and steroids, which contribute to the 3500–3000 cm
−1
region. e 1310–1230 cm
−1
region (C–N
stretching) is associated to secondary amides, such as cannabinoids, avonoids, stilbenoids, terpenoids, alkaloids,
and lignans26. e peak at 2921 cm
−1
is associated with alkyl C–H groups27.
Four samples were isolated from G. lucidum colonised beech wood specimens aer they were used for load
testing. eir spectra were averaged and are presented on Fig.2 along with the beech wood spectrum, and a
sample of G. lucidum mycelium. Peaks at 886 cm
−1
, 1075 cm
−1
and 1160 cm
−1
are characteristic of (1
→
3)– and
(1
→
6)–
β
–glucans that are present in the fungal cell wall (identied as [2], and [4] on Fig.2). e peaks [1] and
[3] at 780 cm
−1
and 1043 cm
−1
are also associated with
β
–glucans28. Chitin is identied at peak [5] 1313 cm
−1
(amide III: C–N stretching), which also aects the 1640 cm
−1
region [6] alongside the presence of peptides and
Figure1. FTIR spectra of hemp-based hessian, beech wood, rattan, and common reed bres.
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secondary metabolites (aromatic rings and conjugated alkenes). e peak [7] at 2922 cm
−1
is representative of
chitin and ergosterol (C–H stretching)29. e 3600–3000 cm
−1
region (peak [8]) is considered to be inuenced
by residual water and entrapped CO
2
(O–H and N–H stretching). Finally, peaks [9] to [12] represent decreases
at 1231 cm
−1
, 1425 cm
−1
, 1506 cm
−1
, and 1733 cm
−1
. ey are associated with lignin and xylan breakdown
(syringyl ring breathing and C–O stretching, C=C stretching vibration in aromatic ring), and cellulose (peak
[11]) and hemicellulose (peak [11] and [12]) breakdown is observed (CH
2
scissor vibration, C=O stretching)30.
To evaluate the lignocellulosic changes undertaken during G. lucidum activity quantitatively, the band ratio
indices at 1231 cm
−1
, 1425 cm
−1
, and 1506 cm
−1
were calculated from the 2921 cm
−1
band31 for beech wood
and G. lucidum colonised beech wood as:
Where
In
is the specic band intensity and
I2921
the band intensity at 2921 cm
−1
. e band ratio at 1231 cm
−1
went
from 1.58 in beech wood to 0.61 in G. lucidum colonised beech wood; the band ratio at 1425 cm
−1
went from
0.96 in beech wood to 0.63 in G. lucidum colonised beech wood; the band ratio at 1506 cm
−1
went from 0.71 in
beech wood to 0.24 in G. lucidum colonised beech wood; the band ratio at 1733 cm
−1
went from 1.19 in beech
wood to 0.41 in G. lucidum colonised beech wood. We can therefore observe that G. lucidum had a preference
in breaking down lignin and xylan at 1231 cm
−1
compared to cellulose and hemicellulose at 1425 cm
−1
(2.94:1),
which is conrmed by the ratios at 1506 cm
−1
for lignin (1.42:1), and 1733 cm
−1
for hemicellulose (2.36:1). e
CH
2
scissor vibration corresponding to the peak at 1425 cm
−1
reecting both cellulose and hemicellulose, the
present decrease might be primarily related to hemicellulose breakdown. is preference of G. lucidum for lignin
and hemicellulose is consistent with ndings reported in the literature10.
Compressive behaviour
We investigated the eect of particle sizes on the mechanical behaviour in compression of MBC using four levels
of granulation: small (BS family), medium (BM family), large particles (BL family), and a 1:1:1 volume ratio
mix of the three previous granulations (BSML family). A second parameter was introduced to investigate the
anisotrope modication of MBC. ree typologies of bre composition were implemented in the experimental
plan: hessian jacketing coaxial to the load case (H), unidirectional rattan bres perpendicular to the load case
(R), and unidirectional common reed bres coaxial to the load case (V). Isotropic controls were added for each
level of granulation (BS, BM, BL, BSML specimen types in the gures). Fig.3 illustrates the three typologies
alongside the control. Experimental parameters per specimen type and resulting mean density, mean Young’s
modulus and mean ultimate strength are presented in Table1. Box plots of the results for Young’s modulus and
ultimate strength are presented in Fig.4, and box plots for densities are reported in Fig.5.
(1)
I
n
I2921
,
Figure2. FTIR spectra of G. lucidum colonised beech wood, G. lucidum mycelium, and beech wood. Green
areas represent increased values in mycelium-colonised specimens (peaks 1 to 8), red areas are decreased values
in mycelium-colonised specimens (peaks 9 to 12).
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Table 1. Summary of specimen types parameters, resulting dried densities, and compressive properties.
Specimen type Granulate size (mm) Fibre composition Mean density (s.d.) Mean Young’s
modulus (s.d.) Mean ultimate
strength (s.d.)
BS 0.5–1.0 Control 209.67 kg/m
3
(6.47) 1.79 MPa (0.41) 171.86 kPa (36.54)
BS_H 0.5–1.0 Hessian jacketing 230.48 kg/m
3
(9.88) 1.58 MPa (0.42) 175.79 kPa (34.38)
BS_R 0.5–1.0 Rattan perpendicular
to load 196.59 kg/m
3
(19.01) 0.66 MPa (0.42) 89.06 kPa (58.49)
BS_V 0.5–1.0 Common reed coaxial
to load 194.12 kg/m
3
(5.09) 3.88 MPa (2.51) 146.85 kPa (39.26)
BM 0.75–3.0 Control 233.87 kg/m
3
(9.04) 3.32 MPa (0.80) 306.38 kPa (57.64)
BM_H 0.75–3.0 Hessian jacketing 248.70 kg/m
3
(12.20) 2.99 MPa (0.54) 298.85 kPa (35.47)
BM_R 0.75–3.0 Rattan perpendicular
to load 226.77 kg/m
3
(6.19) 4.02 MPa (4.45) 232.30 kPa (62.85)
BM_V 0.75–3.0 Common reed coaxial
to load 198.14 kg/m
3
(2.89) 9.21 MPa (6.42) 270.93 kPa (79.76)
BL 4.0–12.0 Control 217.60 kg/m
3
(10.58) 2.96 MPa (1.04) 245.60 kPa (30.31)
BL_H 4.0–12.0 Hessian jacketing 264.05 kg/m
3
(11.97) 3.01 MPa (0.46) 223.93 kPa (25.88)
BL_R 4.0–12.0 Rattan perpendicular
to load 240.98 kg/m
3
(3.91) 2.24 MPa (0.58) 180.88 kPa (64.75)
BL_V 4.0–12.0 Common reed coaxial
to load 209.47 kg/m
3
(7.90) 8.50 MPa (4.56) 290.86 kPa (100.83)
BSML 0.5–12.0 Control 220.59 kg/m
3
(8.12) 2.17 MPa (0.36) 237.09 kPa (31.73)
BSML_H 0.5–12.0 Hessian jacketing 246.85 kg/m
3
(11.29) 2.20 MPa (1.04) 194.48 kPa (48.47)
BSML_R 0.5–12.0 Rattan perpendicular
to load 224.09 kg/m
3
(3.55) 1.87 MPa (0.30) 171.44 kPa (26.13)
BSML_V 0.5–12.0 Common reed coaxial
to load 203.08 kg/m
3
(6.24) 7.89 MPa (2.41) 338.75 kPa (65.39)
Figure3. Fibre placement strategies and their sectional CT scan (le to right): control (BS), jacketing coaxial to
load (BM_H), bres perpendicular to load (BS_R), bres coaxial to load (BS_V).
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Figure4. Box plots for Young’s modulus results (a) and ultimate strength results (b).
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Jacketing coaxial to load. e introduction of the hessian jacket oers a contrasting illustration of the
eect of the mycelial mat usually grown on the external boundary of MBC. We observe that the dispersion of
Young’s modulus results across all specimen families is reduced compared to their controls with the exception of
the BL family. e jacketing also aects the dispersion of results in ultimate strength in the case of the BS, BM,
and BSML families, with a reduction of the deviation between the rst and third quartiles. e containment of
stress applied to the specimens within tight boundaries forces the arrangement of the particles within, restrict-
ing the ability for particles to arrange freely. Jacketed specimens have an average reduction of 0.12 MPa to the
controls as per Young’s modulus (s.d. 0.19), and an average decrease of 16.97 kPa to the controls as per ultimate
strength (s.d. 20.05). e jacket has two important advantages: it oers a durable alternative to low-ductility
mycelial mats usually grown on the external boundary of MBC, and we hypothesise that it can substantially
contribute to an increase in fracture resistance performance in shearing and bending load cases.
Fibres perpendicular to load. Specimens supplemented with rattan bres display a lower performance
across particle sizes considering their median in Young’s modulus and ultimate strength. e mean ultimate
strength follows the performance of the mean of the controls (Fig.6) with an average reduction of 71.81 kPa
(s.d. 8.45). is suggests that, should the production conditions of such MBC improve to reduce the dispersion
of results and increase the material behaviour predictability, introducing strategically parsed weakness points in
composites could nd a use with calibrated materials by tuning their failure mode.
Fibres coaxial to load. Common reed bre reinforced specimens resulted in the largest standard deviations
in Young’s moduli (reported in Table1), especially in the BM and BL families. is is due to the bres having
partially misaligned to the load case axis during specimen production. Nevertheless, results suggest that MBC
can be successfully stiened with regards to their use case. e eect of this stiening on the ultimate strength is
less obvious as we note that the smaller particles (BS and BM families) tend to perform better without reinforce-
ment coaxial to load. is is a result of the inherent large displacement of the bres within the specimens under
stress due to their stiness, thus initiating an early critical failure. e mean Young’s moduli (Table1) display a
clear improvement compared to the controls: we observe an average increase of a factor 2.86 (s.d. 0.6) between
the mean of the controls and the mean of the bre coaxial to load specimens. As per mean ultimate strengths,
they improved in the BL and BSML families when compared to controls (respectively by a factor 1.18 and 1.43),
but decreased in the smaller particles families BS and BM (respectively by a factor 0.86 and 0.88).
Principal substrate particles. e use of smaller particles in MBC increases the surface area to volume
ratio of what serves as a nutrient for the fungus, hence facilitating its access to it. Fungi also need air access
to develop a mycelium, and space between particles, if one desires to have it synthesise a biomass that has a
considerable eect over its mechanical properties. e small granulation essentially qualies as a dust with par-
ticles size in the 0.5–1.0 mm interval, leaving minimal amounts of air between particles within the constrained
boundaries of the specimen mould. e best performing BM family (as per ultimate strength) is composed of
0.75–3.0 mm particles, thus embedding particles of a comparable size to the BS dust, while containing particles
Figure5. Box plots for dried specimen densities.
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that are up to six times as long. is understanding is nonetheless challenged by looking at the BS, BM, BL and
BSML group densities (Table1 and Fig.5), where the BS group has the lowest resulting density.
Studying a material model composed of cylindrical particles with a length in 2–10 mm and diameter of 0.5–2
mm, a study concludes that the matrix phase of MBC is ruling the composite modulus2. is study avoids consid-
ering more particle shape parameters that have been shown to have a signicant eect over the system behaviour;
akiness/atness (thickness to width ratio), elongation (length to width ratio), sphericity (deviation from a sphere
geometry), and roundness/angularity (angular sharpness) have been previously investigated in particle studies of
granular materials32. It was reported that a 3:1 ratio of aky particles content would be an approximate optimal
for shear strength (depending on the system of study). is is related to cohesion being increased under stress
due to particle interlocking. A higher particle angularity was reported to induce a decrease in elastic modulus,
and an increase in ultimate strength. Shear strength was reported to increase with particle angularity. Increas-
ing particle akiness and angularity increases cohesion and abrasion. is leads to damage accumulation under
repeated loads, resulting in strain accumulation32. is suggests that modifying composite behaviour does not
only depend on mycelial expression, but should investigate substrate contribution too systematically.
While the BM group mean density is 11.54% higher and the most dierent to the BS group mean density, the
BM mean elastic modulus is 85.48% higher than that of the BS group and 78.27% higher in ultimate strength.
In this experiment, there is a correlation between an increased density and increased stiness and strength. As
the principal substrate used in these four groups is of the same nature and source, we can note that the particle
volume fractions are directly correlated to the densities. It is worth noting too that the dierent levels of granu-
lation result in dierent aggregate mechanical properties; on Fig.7 we can notice the eect of comminution,
smaller granulation (a) result in a higher content of short bres with a lower bending stiness, medium sized
particles (b) display a content of not only bre-type particles but also less elongated, more angular and bulky
ones, contributing to increase their bending stiness and interlocking potential under stress, and nally the
larger granulates (c) display an increased akiness and angularity to the medium ones. While the latter would
be expected to result in higher stiness and strength to the other groups because of their aggregate geometrical
characteristics, the manufacturing of the specimens did not focus on particulate arrangements for this series
and therefore these were randomly orientated and thus not optimised for interlocking.
Pure mycelium material response under tensile and compressive stress has been investigated and modelled2,
and has been classied as an open-cell foam-like material. Pure mycelium of an undisclosed species in this
study was reported to exhibit a Young’s modulus of 0.6–2 MPa in tension and compression, and an ultimate
tensile strength of 0.1–0.3 MPa. So as to situate this report, a P. ostreatus mycelium has been reported to exhibit
a Young’s modulus of up to 28 MPa for an ultimate strength of 0.7 MPa, and a G. lucidum mycelium a Young’s
modulus of up to 12 MPa for an ultimate strength of 1.1 MPa17. Beech wood has a Young’s modulus of 11.9 GPa
at 12% moisture content, and 9.5 GPa when green33. Beech wood particles are therefore important load-carrying
members of the system and reduce the magnitude of stress experienced by the mycelial matrix. e plastic strain
of the composite is contributed to only by particles in such composite, which is clearly exhibited in the range of
results in Fig.4. As introduced with the common reed and rattan containing specimens, the dewetting behaviour
of the larger particles or reinforcements present in the composite is a principal contributor to damage nucleation.
Furthermore, the shape, nature, and distribution of particles in a two-phase composite has been shown to have
a substantial inuence over the load transfer between members and hence their overall stiness3. Moreover,
while lignin is a primary contributor of strength parallel to grain, hemicellulose supports compression strength
perpendicular to grain. Its decay greatly aects the structural integrity of wood and its hardness34.
e results of the experimental series are plotted as normalised by density in Fig.8, and on an Ashby map for
elastic and density (Fig.9). In both gures compressive characterisation from the published MBC state-of-the-art
Figure6. Parameters interaction graph for Young’s modulus (a) and ultimate strength (b).
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are plotted4–7,35–43. ese gures gather evidences produced with approximately ten fungal species, two studies
having not disclosed the ones they used6,36. ere are 69 data points gathered from thirteen journal and confer-
ence articles. ese include articles reporting on strength and/or stiness in compression; 6 data points had no
density reported7. Only the reports with sucient data are rendered on the gures.
Figure7. Beech wood particles of small (a), medium (b) and large (c) granulation used in this study.
Figure8. Specic strength results as a function of specic stiness. Labelled data points: results from this
study; unlabelled data points: reports from the state-of-the-art.
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While wood particles are of common use in MBC, other substrates have been used such as non woven cotton
bres13. A small number of studies have investigated the addition of non-organic aggregates to a lignocellulosic
substrate for improving its stiness, such as with carbonate sand38, and sand and gravel44.
Statistical analysis
Six replicates were produced and tested for each of the specimen types, the distributions are two-tailed. e
mean of Fisher’s dened kurtosis for Young’s modulus series is −0.3328 (s.d. 0.9353) and −1.0564 for ultimate
strength (s.d. 0.5343). Fisher–Pearson’s skewness coecient mean for Young’s modulus is 0.5834 (s.d. 0.8540),
and 0.1733 for ultimate strength (s.d. 0.5137). e distributions are considered normal45, which was veried for
ultimate strength and Young’s modulus results with the Shapiro–Wilk test (respectively p=0.9224 and p=0.0030,
α
=0.001). Equality of variances was therefore controlled with the Levene test; Young’s modulus result variances
are not equal (p=1.3940e−05,
α
=0.05), neither are ultimate strength ones (p=0.0459,
α
=0.05). Welch’s ANOVA
was conducted for the two parameters: bre placement for Young’s modulus and ultimate strength (respectively
p=0.0001 and p=0.0013), and particle size for Young’s modulus and ultimate strength (respectively p=0.0030
and p=4.6462e−09). e mean values of specimen groups are signicantly dierent (
α
=0.005). Using the pair-
wise Games-Howell test we identied the most signicant reinforcement to be the bre coaxial to load against
bre perpendicular to load, the control, and hessian jacketing (all p=0.001 as per Young’s modulus; respectively
p=0.030, p=0.004, and p=0.004 as per ultimate strength;
α
=0.05). Continuing this test, we identied the most
signicant aggregate size to be the 0.5–1.0 mm interval (BS family) against the BM and BL families (respectively
p=0.029 and p=0.036 as per Young’s modulus; all p=0.001 as per ultimate strength;
α
=0.05). e BS family
had a signicant dierence to the BSML family as per aggregate size over ultimate strength (p=0.001,
α
=0.05),
but not over Young’s modulus (p=0.106,
α
=0.05).
Conclusions
Across the literature, we nd that the lack of a unied approach in the use of analytical models and/or meth-
odological approaches has resulted in inconsistency with specimen design, cultivation and testing protocols.
is raises the question of portability and comparability of results. e adoption of the two-phase particulate
composite model helped us identify ASTM D1037 as the most appropriate candidate to support the design of
specimens and of the experimental plan. As a general observation, we found that specimens using particles in
the 0.75–3.0 mm range resulted in a higher strength and stiness in compression.
We extended this study to bre placement strategies with three typologies: rattan bres perpendicular to
load, common reed bres coaxial to load, and hessian jacketing coaxial to load. e addition of bre coaxial to
load and hessian jacketing had a signicant eect over Young’s elastic modulus and ultimate strength (
α
=0.05).
Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectrometry was used to qualify (1) the materials used as principal substrate
Figure9. Young’s modulus results as a function of density. Circled data points: results from this study;
uncircled data points: reports from the state-of-the-art.
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and bre addition, (2) the mycelium of G. lucidum, (3) and G. lucidum colonised beech wood. We found that the
G. lucidum species degraded primarily lignin and hemicellulose before cellulose, in accordance with previous
observations10,46.
Because of the wide range in particle sizes used and bre composition typologies, the signicant dierence
between specimen groups supports our hypothesis that the two-phase particulate model is suited for future MBC
studies (
α
=0.005). ese studies might involve exploring a wider variety of particle shapes, natures, and distribu-
tions as these parameters have been shown to have a signicant inuence over the elastic and plastic behaviour of
composites3. We demonstrated that the modifying of specimens could be attained with contrasting examples of
coaxial reinforcement and perpendicular fracture initiators, with signicant eect (
α
=0.005). However, it should
be noted that bre placements were subjected to variability as bres could partially misalign with the load axis
or its perpendicular during production. is suggests that the standard deviation of the results can be reduced
by improving the accuracy in manufacturing.
Specic strength and stiness of the results is plotted on Fig.8, where we can notice the increased composite
eciency for the bre coaxial to load series. e resulting behaviour of the specimen groups is plotted onto an
Ashby map and presented in Fig.9. e composites display an average performance as compared to the MBC
state-of-the-art, and interestingly consolidate the existence of a material pole situating in between foam and
elastomer behaviour, as per Young’s modulus. Commercial applications for such materials typically situate as
EPS or XPS sustainable alternatives for insulation or packaging applications, while the elastic modulus of EPS
is 6.5–265 MPa for a yield strength of 0.04–10.9 MPa. For its biochemical prole and impact on phylogenetic
mycelial expression, or mechanical interest both at the scale of the particles or engineered artefact, heterogene-
ous and functionalised substrate design for MBC is a scarcely studied yet promising eld of research towards
market-ready sustainable and creative applications.
Received: 27 September 2021; Accepted: 15 April 2022
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Acknowledgements
is project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program
FET OPEN “Challenging current thinking” under Grant agreement No 858132. e authors declare no conict
of interest. e funding bodies had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation
of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.
Author contributions
A.R. and P.A. conceived the experiments, A.R. conceived the methodology, A.R. and P.A. conducted the experi-
ments, A.R. analysed the results. All authors reviewed the manuscript.
Competing interests
e authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to A.R.
Reprints and permissions information is available at www.nature.com/reprints.
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