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Abstract

In Nigerian cities, many different urban mass transit modes convey people from one point to another. However, each gender faces unique challenges and has different experiences of accessing and using public transport systems in metropolitan cities such as Abuja, especially with its growing increase in infrastructural development and its being the seat of government. Most studies of urban mobility have been undertaken in developed countries; there is little evidence on this subject in developing countries such as Nigeria. This paper aims to assess gender disparities in the access and use of urban public transport in Abuja, Nigeria. This research explored individual experiences and challenges in accessing and using public transport services and making recommendations for improvements. A mixed design approach was used to collect primary data comprising qualitative and quantitative data to achieve the research goal. Qualitative data were collected by conducting a focus group discussion which aided the researcher in gathering the overall perceptions of public transport commuters in terms of structure, experience, and challenges, and was subsequently used in designing a questionnaire for the quantitative data. This research sought to fill a gap in knowledge of gender disparities in public transport use in Abuja, Nigeria, by looking into the structure of the public transport system and how it affects men and women differently. The research findings revealed that females use more public transport services than males, that demographic characteristics affected respondents’ choices of public transport use, and that trip-related characteristics played a vital role in their use of public transport. It further revealed that men are generally more satisfied and face fewer challenges than women in accessing and using public transport services. There is, therefore, a need to improve the system to cater for the different mobility needs of women and to develop policies and frameworks to regulate the delivery of public transport services in Nigeria
Citation: Abdullah, A.;
Ababio-Donkor, A.; Adams, C.A.
Gender Disparities in the Access and
Use of Urban Public Transport in
Abuja, Nigeria. Sustainability 2022,14,
5219. https://doi.org/10.3390/
su14095219
Academic Editor: Aoife Ahern
Received: 27 February 2022
Accepted: 22 April 2022
Published: 26 April 2022
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sustainability
Article
Gender Disparities in the Access and Use of Urban Public
Transport in Abuja, Nigeria
Amatullah Abdullah 1, Augustus Ababio-Donkor 2, * and Charles Anum Adams 2, *
1Federal Ministry of Works and Housing Abuja, Kado 900108, Nigeria; abdallahamatullah00@gmail.com
2Regional Transport Research and Education Centre Kumasi, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and
Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
*Correspondence: aadonor@knust.edu.gh (A.A.-D.); caadams.coe@knust.edu.gh (C.A.A.)
Abstract:
In Nigerian cities, many different urban mass transit modes convey people from one point
to another. However, each gender faces unique challenges and has different experiences of accessing
and using public transport systems in metropolitan cities such as Abuja, especially with its growing
increase in infrastructural development and its being the seat of government. Most studies of urban
mobility have been undertaken in developed countries; there is little evidence on this subject in
developing countries such as Nigeria. This paper aims to assess gender disparities in the access
and use of urban public transport in Abuja, Nigeria. This research explored individual experiences
and challenges in accessing and using public transport services and making recommendations for
improvements. A mixed design approach was used to collect primary data comprising qualitative
and quantitative data to achieve the research goal. Qualitative data were collected by conducting
a focus group discussion which aided the researcher in gathering the overall perceptions of public
transport commuters in terms of structure, experience, and challenges, and was subsequently used in
designing a questionnaire for the quantitative data. This research sought to fill a gap in knowledge of
gender disparities in public transport use in Abuja, Nigeria, by looking into the structure of the public
transport system and how it affects men and women differently. The research findings revealed that
females use more public transport services than males, that demographic characteristics affected
respondents’ choices of public transport use, and that trip-related characteristics played a vital role in
their use of public transport. It further revealed that men are generally more satisfied and face fewer
challenges than women in accessing and using public transport services. There is, therefore, a need
to improve the system to cater for the different mobility needs of women and to develop policies and
frameworks to regulate the delivery of public transport services in Nigeria.
Keywords: gender disparities; public transport; travel patterns; accessibility; transport challenges
1. Introduction
In the 1990s, it became widely known that women and men have significantly different
demand patterns for transportation services and that transportation sector interventions
typically did not adequately address women’s demands. The scope of the challenge and
prospects were discussed in the context of poverty reduction and the relevance of gender
equality [
1
]. Gender is commonly identified as a key explanatory factor for travel behaviour;
since women’s role in societal structure has changed in the past few decades, the question
arises as to whether the “gender” factor still plays a decisive role in differences in mobility
within the working population [
2
]. It is well known that travel behaviour is gendered.
While there are differences in public transportation access between places, they all have one
thing in common: women’s travel patterns differ from those of men [
3
]. Generally, women
travel shorter distances but spend more time travelling than males [
4
]. Since they make
more non-work-related journeys, women make more and more complex trips than men.
Women’s journeys are often of longer durations than men’s due to the prevalence of trip
Sustainability 2022,14, 5219. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14095219 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
Sustainability 2022,14, 5219 2 of 24
chaining. Even though women’s travel habits are more complex than men’s, women use
public transportation more than men for similar journeys. [
5
]. Gender disparities in daily
mobility patterns have been largely explained by the role of men and women in society,
resulting in distinct activity patterns and more complex trip chains, with a greater number
of daily journeys, especially for non-work-related travels [
6
]. Although women’s and men’s
access to mobility and transportation differ depending on age, socio-economic status, local
culture, and other factors, there are widespread gender distinctions in Africa (particularly
among lower-income groups) [
7
]. Women, on average, use public transportation more than
men and are more reliant on it because they have less access to personal vehicles [8].
Globally, gender and socio-economic inequalities lead to differences between countries
regarding access to places and different modes of transport. The UN Sustainable Develop-
ment Goals 2030 recommend safe, accessible, and sustainable public transport, particularly
for vulnerable road users. Several studies in the literature show that the evolution of
transport is linked to the evolution of technology and planning; however, economic factors,
lack of infrastructure and socio-cultural problems slow down the spread of sustainable
mobility. Land use and transport planning are often related and connected by a cause–
effect relationship: the historical growth of transport is, in this sense, driven mainly by
other social factors, such as economic growth, spatial division of labour, large-scale social
integration, and gender equality [
9
]. The socio-economic aspect derives from a disparity in
wages between men and women. These differences are generally greater in low-income
socio-economic areas, in agreement with Lecompte and Pablo [
10
]. They found that women
generally travel less than men but spend more on transport than men, although their
journeys may be shorter. This has led to less transport being accessible to the workplace.
In addition, it has been found that there is a relationship between gender inequalities and
lower socio-economic areas.
Women make up a significant share of the global population [
11
], yet gender di-
mensions in public transportation access have been among the least recognised urban
transportation and development components in most developing nations. Inequalities
in public transportation accessibility, safety, and security persist in many Nigerian cities.
Kwan and Kotsev [
12
] found that demographic and socio-economic criteria, such as age,
household size, education, driving license, automobile ownership, income, workplace,
and accessibility, are the most prominent causes of varied disparities in urban mobility.
According to Singh [
13
], it can be said that little attention is paid to how these inequalities
affect the access, safety, ease, and comfort of mobility for women, whose travel needs are
genuinely different from those of men. However, challenges remain for the safety and
comfort of women on public transport [14].
There has been little emphasis on gender disparities in public transport accessibility
and how it caters for gender mobility needs. Few studies have examined the challenges
women encounter in relation to their transport mode choices and whether there is a signifi-
cant gender difference. Most studies of urban mobility have been undertaken in developed
countries; there is little evidence on this subject for developing countries, especially Nigeria.
This study seeks to fill this gap by assessing gender disparities in the accessibility and use
of urban public transport in Abuja, Nigeria. In specific terms, the research answers the
following questions:
What is the structure of public transport services in terms of men’s and women’s
accessibility and usage in Abuja?
What are the various experiences of men and women in accessing and using public
transport services in Abuja?
What challenges do men and women encounter in accessing and using public transport
systems in Abuja?
What interventions can be recommended to address gender disparities in public
transport access in Abuja?
Gender and public transportation studies are critical for a nation’s social and economic
development, particularly in a developing country such as Nigeria. Men and women use
Sustainability 2022,14, 5219 3 of 24
public transportation due to their different social roles and economic activities. In other
words, good public transportation improves or expands opportunities in health, education,
and employment. Consequently, understanding the gender differences in accessibility will
be crucial to enhancing existing transport services and helping design more efficient trans-
port policies. This study reviewed current considerations of gender requirements in public
transportation practices and presented the results of focus group discussions by means
of which gender experiences were collected from various public transportation terminals
by exploring gender perceptions and attitudes toward mobility access. The knowledge
collected through these methods aided in discovering new information about gendered
transportation accessibility. More importantly, this research serves as the foundation for a
survey that will look into the differences in female and male travel experiences and assess-
ments of the level of mobility available. The findings of this study will highlight gender
disparities in transportation accessibility in Nigeria and contribute to the elimination of
disparities in Abuja’s public transportation systems.
2. Literature Review
2.1. The Structure and Institutional Arrangement of Urban Transportation in Africa
Cities in Africa are rapidly expanding. In 2000, one out of three Africans lived in
urban centres, and this figure is projected to be one out of two by 2030 [
15
]. As a growing
percentage of the world population lives in cities, urbanisation in Africa has become
one of the most important contemporary phenomena. In light of this tendency, urban
transportation concerns are critical for meeting big urban agglomerations’ passenger and
freight mobility needs. Due to the various forms of transportation, the numerous sources
and destinations, and the volume and variety of traffic, transportation in metropolitan areas
is highly complicated. Public transport is an essential mode of transportation, particularly
in densely populated areas [
16
]. Contemporary cities are extremely complicated and are
serviced with transportation facilities to facilitate the essential functional interrelationships
among the various land uses in urban regions. Transport systems serve as the veins and
arteries of cities, connecting social and functional zones. Intra-urban transportation, in
particular, serves to connect the city’s many parts: work, school, recreation, and so on, into
a coherent whole. As a result, urban centres as we know them today will not be viable
until transportation provides for the mobility of people and things that allows them to
function [17].
The private sector (individuals, cooperative organisations, enterprises, and transport
unions) and the government mass transit outfit, operated by the Abuja Urban Mass Transit
Company (AUMTCO), provide public transportation services in the Federal Capital Ter-
ritory. The latter is often unregulated, but the former is responsible for scheduling, bus
routing, and fare charges. Nigeria’s urbanisation is accelerating at a fast pace. Nigeria has
the largest population and highest average population density in Africa, with a popula-
tion of over 200 million people living in an area of around one million square kilometres.
Between 2000 and 2004, the proportion of people living in cities increased from 36% to
38%. An increase in urban transportation accompanies urbanisation [
18
]. According to
studies in urban transportation, more than 75% of city dwellers rely on public transport,
while only 25% rely on private mobility. Nigerians’ socio-economic characteristics play
a significant role in this. The general decline in Nigeria’s economy, which resulted from
the worldwide recession of the 1980s, impacted all sectors, including the transportation
system. Most Nigerians in cities were more affected than those in rural areas because
people’s commuting distances in cities had increased significantly. This demonstrates that
commuting in cities is becoming increasingly difficult and inefficient as the city’s territory
expands [19].
2.2. Gender Differences in Access to Public Transport Services
The increased participation of women in the job market has increased the necessity
for travel; children are less commonly home-schooled, and hospital visits and caregiving
Sustainability 2022,14, 5219 4 of 24
are sometimes delegated to nurseries, among other developments. Nonetheless, because
household duties have not changed at the same rate as women’s engagement in the labour
market, many women are forced to accept harsh working circumstances in the informal
sector, resulting in a gender pay gap [
20
]. On average, women in metropolitan areas make
more and shorter excursions at varied times than men. They take public transportation
and walk more than males, and they travel to more distant destinations during off-peak
and non-working hours [
21
]. They are also more prone to trip chains, which means that
they travel for different purposes and to multiple destinations in the same trip. This can be
factored into fare structures and the design of new transportation routes. Women primarily
rely on public transportation and its accessibility: when there is only one vehicle in the
house, the male is more likely to use it. Women, aside from walking, rely heavily on
public transportation [
21
]. Accessing public transportation is challenging for anyone with a
physical impairment. They have difficulty boarding and alighting, whether when travelling
with children and packages or because the steps are excessively steep. Women are also
more impacted by issues of quality or capability. Overcrowding, for example, presents a
security risk for women since it encourages grabbing and other unwanted behaviour [21].
Women are more likely than men to use public transportation, who, in typical societies,
drive to work and have the first right to use a car in the home [
13
]. Minelgait
˙
e et al. [
22
]
revealed that women often engage in time-consuming activities, such as synchronising,
planning, and coordinating with household members, as well as the temporal and spatial
patterns of public transportation and those of other facilities and services, such as shops,
schools, and childcare, among others. All of this stem from developing far more complicated
trip chaining for women. As a result, to properly comprehend gender-based mobility, one
must first contextualise the institutional and familial context in which each individual
lives. Characteristics such as their families’ poor income, places of residency, age, or social
background, according to [
23
], compound the differences identified in the travel patterns
of the different genders. Other characteristics, such as race, social status, money, age, work,
and family responsibilities, might influence gendered patterns, and these differences are
reflected in aggregate statistics. However, research shows that the differences in men’s and
women’s travel patterns are due to more than a few factors, indicating that, regardless of the
household, there are still differences in how men and women access public transport [24].
In comparison to men, women have a wider range of modal options. When public
transportation is available and longer distances must be travelled, they are more likely
to use it. As a result, they spend more time travelling and thus suffer from time poverty,
or they seek work in regions that requires them to travel shorter distances. Even in some
situations, women are more likely than males to work from home. As a result, women
favour forms of transportation that allow for multipurpose journeys; [
25
,
26
] reported that
in the Southwestern part of Nigeria, men’s and women’s decisions on whether or not to live
in a city are influenced by their household income. According to the study, men commute
by automobile to various activity patterns, but women commute by foot for short distances
and rely on public transportation, which has high costs. Withers [
27
] highlighted the
indices of an accessible public transport system, which include: safety, reliability, comfort,
availability, public transport fare, distance to access points, and convenience. According
to Ng and Acker [
4
], several empirical studies conducted in developed and developing
countries have shown that women travel shorter distances, spend more time travelling,
and prefer public transport and taxi services to cars more than men.
Scarcity of resources, economic instability, and environmental collapse increasingly
diminish human well-being. The largest portion of the burden of environmental crisis is
borne by women and specifically by women in developing countries [
28
]. This burden adds
to the economic, social, and political participation inequities already faced by women, and
the lack of voice leads to negative social justice outcomes for women, children, families, and
communities. Women’s access, as leaders, administrators, advocates, and citizen experts,
creates opportunities to exercise their decision-making and problem-solving proficiencies
and leads to more inclusive and therefore more responsive public action [
29
]. Due to the
Sustainability 2022,14, 5219 5 of 24
nature of responsibilities, often women are forced to take short but more frequent trips
than men [30].
Moreover, land use, the physical layout and design of road networks, the interior
design of buses, as well as the design of bus stops and connecting sidewalks, greatly affect
the needs of women in terms of ease, comfort, and safety [
31
,
32
]. However, public transit
infrastructures (i.e., footpaths, bus stops, routes, and buses) are designed so that they are
insensitive to their needs [
33
]. Therefore, diligent attention needs to be paid to the design
of infrastructures, with an account of their common need profile and a special provision for
pregnant women and those who travel with children [13].
The majority of research studies on the mode of operation of public transportation
services in Nigeria ignore the quality of transportation services in terms of comfort, afford-
ability, safety, and income level, which are critical to urban inhabitants’ mobility patterns
in any nation. Therefore, this research aims to assess gender disparities in the access and
use of urban public transport in Abuja, Nigeria. The study also analyses the experiences of
men and women in using urban public transport services and investigates the factors that
influence their choice of transport.
Moreover, rapid growth in Nigeria’s major cities is an essential element of urbanisa-
tion. However, insufficient transportation infrastructure and services have made urban
mobility chaotic, complicated, and uncomfortable for commuters. In general, Nigeria’s
transportation system shows a sector with a skewed developmental approach, posing
significant issues in urban mobility. Understandings of the nature of Nigeria’s transporta-
tion system, the state of transportation infrastructure, gender, and difficulties with urban
public transportation services were all suggested in the study. However, it is sufficient to
highlight that most research on public transportation operations in Nigeria were conducted
in the country’s southwest, with little attention paid to the North Central zone, where the
study region is located. Therefore, there is a need for comprehensive studies in exploring
disparities in the access and use of the urban public transport system, especially in Abuja,
the country’s capital and seat of government.
3. Methods
3.1. Research Design
The underlying research method is based on McCusker and Gunaydin [
34
], which
suggests that a mixed research design combining qualitative and quantitative research
methods can be advantageous when investigating complex research problems. For example,
while qualitative data allow for a more in-depth comprehension of survey responses,
statistical analysis allows for a complete assessment of response patterns [
34
]. In addition,
the research method enables the analysis of various aspects, some of which may be linked
or impact one another, allowing a deeper look at issues related to gender and transport
accessibility in Nigeria.
Thus, to achieve the research objectives and properly answer the research questions,
the researchers carried out a qualitative study to gain a general overview of the individual
experiences of both men and women in public transport, their opinions, and information
regarding the challenges they faced. Information from the qualitative data was used to
complement the information from the literature review to design the questionnaire for the
quantitative aspect of the study; this is because the findings from the literature address
issues from various parts of the world but are not entirely specific to the study area.
3.2. Data Collection Techniques
The participants selected for data collection were divided into two groups. The first
group consisted of the respondents involved in the qualitative study (focus group discus-
sion); the second consisted of those involved in the quantitative research (questionnaire
survey). Purposive sampling was used to choose participants for the focus group discus-
sion [
35
]. This method was adopted because of its ability to recruit participants based on
their relevance to the study according to their experience of accessibility and usage of the
Sustainability 2022,14, 5219 6 of 24
public transport system, which was a criterion for sample selection [
36
]. The aim of carry-
ing out the focus group discussion was to gather perceptions and various experiences of
people in accessing public transport systems; therefore, the purposive sampling technique
was applicable here. The second category of respondents were those taking part in the
questionnaire survey. These participants were chosen based on a simple random sampling
technique to ensure that each member of the population had an equal probability of being
selected [37].
Focus groups: Three focus group discussions were conducted at three public transport
terminals (Nyanya, Aya, and Mararaba/Karu). Eighteen participants took part in the focus
group discussions, comprising eight men and ten women in three separate groups. Out of
the eighteen, seven were from Nyanya, six from Aya, and five from Mararaba/Karu. The
majority of the participants were civil servants, while the others were businesswomen, ICT
consultants, a Youth Corper and private workers. The monthly income of the participants
who provided their income details ranged between NGN 30,000 and NGN 80,000. The
participants were found to have academic qualifications ranging from diploma to bachelor’s
degrees (BSc).
The qualitative data obtained from the focus group discussion can be discussed
according to five broad themes, namely, accessibility and usage, safety, cost of services,
major barriers and key challenges, and needs and requirements. These five themes formed
the basis for developing sections three to five of the questionnaire survey instrument.
Questionnaire design: A questionnaire survey was employed to collect quantitative
data for the study. This qualitative survey method assists the researcher when collecting
a large amount of data due to its efficiency [
38
]. Combining qualitative (questionnaire
development through focus groups) and quantitative research tools isan attempt to improve
methodological reliability and the ability to capture several “non-statistical” dimensions
of a phenomenon that are often overlooked when a single methodological approach is
used [39].
The questionnaire was divided into five sections. The first section of the questionnaire
sought information about the socio-demographic characteristics of respondents. The second
section probed into trip-related characteristics. Here, participants were asked questions
about the particular mode of public transport they used the most, the time it is used, the
purpose and frequency of their trips, the weekly cost, and travel time. The third section
focused on the various user experiences of using public transport services. A couple of
statements were presented for commuters to choose from according to how well they
agreed or disagreed with them. The statements revolved around comfort, availability,
reliability, safety, and congestion along users’ daily routes. The fourth section dealt with
the different challenges and barriers encountered by participants in their use of public
transport. Challenges such as unstable transportation fares, poor vehicle maintenance,
fewer buses at the terminal, and inadequate lighting and facilities at the bus terminals
were among those presented to participants for which they were to indicate their level of
agreement or disagreement. The last part of the questionnaire concerned suggestions to
ensure gender equity. The last three sections of the questionnaire were primarily developed
from the focus group discussion results and measured on a five-point Likert scale. Table 1,
below, shows the structure of the survey instrument.
Main Survey: Increasing global access to the internet makes online data collection
popular, fast, and efficient [
40
]. However, due to the low internet usage of older demo-
graphics and rural dwellers, the main survey was carried out using a combination of online
and paper-and-pencil survey methods to prevent response bias. The survey data were
collected between 20 September and 6 October 2021 at the transport terminals. In addition,
ethical considerations, such as participants’ consent and anonymity and data protection
guidelines, were strictly adhered to.
Sustainability 2022,14, 5219 7 of 24
Table 1. Structure of the survey instrument.
A: Socio-Demographics B: Travel Characteristics Sections C–E
Variables Scale Variables Scale Variables Scale
A.1 Gender
Closed responses
B.1 Terminal
Closed responses
CUser Perceptions and
Experiences
5-point
Likert Scale
A.2 Age B.2 Travel Mode
A.3 Marital Status B.3 Time of Day
A.4 Educational Status B.4 Trip Purpose
DBarriers and Challenges
A.5 Occupation B.5 Trip Frequency
A.6 Income B.6 Travel Cost
A.7 Household Size B.7 Travel Time
ESuggestions for Gender
Equity
A.8 License B.8 Travel Distance
3.3. Data Analysis
We used the constant comparison analysis technique to analyse the qualitative data
from the focus group discussion. This method was preferred because of its advantage over
other methods when analysing multiple focus groups within the same study, such as this
study with three focus groups [
41
]. Descriptive statistics were used to describe and present
the characteristics of the sample data and the study population. Mean score (MS) analysis
was also used to describe the relative rankings of the participants’ perceptions in the form
of user experiences, challenges, and solutions relating to gender and equity in the delivery
of public transport services in the study area. The Mann–Whitney U test was used to test
for differences between the two independent groups of interest in this study (male and
female) on continuous measures. This non-parametric test provides an alternative to the
t-test for independent samples. The Mann–Whitney U Test compared median scores to the
mean scores of the two groups in the t-test [
42
]. This method was adopted to investigate the
difference in responses of the male and female respondents because of its relative strength
in detecting differences between population groups compared with the t-test [43].
4. Results
4.1. Qualitative Data
The analysis of the qualitative data obtained from the three focus group discussions
yielded five themes, namely, Accessibility and Usage, Safety, Cost of Services, Major
Barriers and Key Challenges, and Needs and Requirements. These themes are briefly
discussed below.
Accessibility and Usage: Participants of all three focus groups raised issues regarding
the availability, frequency of usage, modes, comfortability, travel time, and average distance
covered by public transport. All the respondents (P1–P18 for anonymity) indicated that
public transportation is available, but its reliability is questionable. For instance, P1 stated,
Yes, it is available,but the reliability is not guaranteed”. Even though some respondents
(P8 and P9) were less concerned about reliability and accessibility because of the level of
service from ride-hailing companies, such as Uber, Bolt and Taxify, the cost of these services
was of significant concern. Notably, P8 stated, “Yes, much available because I use Bolt App.
It is always available and convenient but expensive”. Most of the respondents (P1–P2, P4–P9,
and P11–P17) used public transport daily, while some used it occasionally because they
had private vehicles (P3, P10, and P18). The respondents indicated that their mode of
transportation was a matter of distance and destination. P1 stated, “Depending on where I am
going, bike for short distance and Taxi, bus and Keke Napep for long-distance”. Local taxis, buses,
bikes, and tricycles were the common modes of transportation, while very few used private
cars and modern taxi services, such as Uber, Bolt, and Taxify. Participants were dissatisfied
with the level of comfort of public transport services. It was observed from their responses
that a few factors, such as overloading of passengers, long waiting times, and few buses,
Sustainability 2022,14, 5219 8 of 24
were responsible for poor comfort and low satisfaction. For instance, P12 stated, “Yes, to
some extent, I think it is not really convenient because of overloading of persons. Imagine two in
front and four in the back seat”.
Safety: Given the country’s insecurity level, many of the participants preferred to
enter public transport from the park because it reduces the risk of being kidnapped or
robbed. For instance, P1 stated, “Safe to enter transport from parks rather than roadside,” while
P7 indicated, “I feel safe using public transport, especially with this high rise of insecurity”. In
summary, the participants had a general sense of insecurity, and most of them preferred to
travel with others for security reasons.
Cost of Services: The participants (P1–P3, P7, P12–P13) using public transport spent
between NGN 500 and NGN 1200 per day on transport, while those using taxis (P8 and
P9) spent between NGN 4500 and NGN 6500 per day. Despite being a means of public
transport, it is clear that modern taxi companies charge commuters more money due to the
comfort and level of technology integration. However, not everyone can afford to spend so
much money on transport.
Major Barriers and Challenges: According to the focus group participants, the major
challenges facing public transport users include long waiting times and accessibility. For
instance, P10 emphasised that “Accessing public transport in the morning is very difficult”,
while P11 stated, “I have to trek a far distance before I get bus
. . . . . .
” This means that users
have to struggle to occupy the few available buses because of the limited services at certain
times of the day, particularly during peak hours. Participants also highlighted the high cost
of transportation, traffic congestion, scarcity of buses, inadequate public transport services
to match the high rate of population and demand in the area, and poor management as
some of the transport challenges.
Needs and Requirements: The majority of participants (60%) believed that the pro-
vision of more buses by the government at a subsidised cost on major routes, staff de-
velopment, provision of incentives to drivers, proactive maintenance of existing buses,
checkmating corruption, partnership with network giants to increase network coverage, a
collaboration between government and the private sectors, and allowing bike and tricycle
use in strategic areas would facilitate movement and reduce pressures on buses.
4.2. Demographic Characteristics
This study was carried out to assess gender disparities in the access and use of
urban public transport in Abuja, Nigeria. Table 2and Figure 1show the demographic
characteristics of the respondents. Estimates indicate that 51.90% of the respondents were
female, while 48.10% were male. The age distribution in Figure 1a shows that almost all age
groups were well represented. Figure 1f highlights the educational attainment gap between
men and women in Nigeria. We found that men were more educated than women. The
majority of the women (56.9%) were educated to Diploma or A-level compared to 26.3% of
their male counterparts. More men than women had either a first degree, a master’s degree,
or a Ph.D. The results explain the gender inequality in the Nigerian education system and
society [44], particularly in the northern part of Nigeria.
Similarly, Figure 1b compares the monthly income of women and men. The figure
shows that women in the study area earn less than men: 72.1% of women earn less than
NGN 5000 monthly compared to 31.2% of men. While 68.8% of men were found to earn a
higher income (above NGN 5000), only 27.9% of women reported earning a similar amount
monthly. The sample estimates indicate that the sample data adequately represent the
study population in all the demographic characteristics presented.
Sustainability 2022,14, 5219 9 of 24
Table 2. Demographic characteristics.
Variable
Frequency Percentage
Male Female Male (%) Female (%) Total (%)
Gender Male 246 48.14 – 48.14
Female – 265 51.86 51.86
Marital Status Single 82 51 16.05 9.98 26.03
Married 144 180 28.18 35.23 63.41
Widowed 12 21 2.35 4.11 6.46
Separated 3 3 0.59 0.59 1.17
Divorced 5 10 0.98 1.96 2.94
Main
Occupation
Farming 18 14 3.52 2.74 6.26
Self-employed 55 51 10.76 9.98 20.74
Unemployed 44 51 8.61 9.98 18.59
Civil Servant 101 77 19.77 15.07 34.83
Business/Trader
28 71 5.48 13.89 19.37
Others 0 1 0.00 0.20 0.20
Household
Size
1 49 15 9.59 2.94 12.52
2 90 18 17.61 3.52 21.14
More than 2 107 232 20.94 45.40 66.34
Driver’s
License
Yes 181 30 35.42 5.87 41.29
No 65 235 12.72 45.99 58.71
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 26
26.3% of their male counterparts. More men than women had either a first degree, a mas-
ter’s degree, or a Ph.D. The results explain the gender inequality in the Nigerian education
system and society [44], particularly in the northern part of Nigeria.
Figure 1. Demographic characteristics. (a) population; (b) monthly income.
Similarly, Figure 1b compares the monthly income of women and men. The figure
shows that women in the study area earn less than men: 72.1% of women earn less than
NGN 5000 monthly compared to 31.2% of men. While 68.8% of men were found to earn a
higher income (above NGN 5000), only 27.9% of women reported earning a similar
amount monthly. The sample estimates indicate that the sample data adequately repre-
sent the study population in all the demographic characteristics presented.
Table 2. Demographic characteristics.
Variable Frequency Percentage
Male Female Male (%) Female (%) Total (%)
Gender Male 246 48.14 48.14
Female 265 51.86 51.86
Marital Status Single 82 51 16.05 9.98 26.03
Married 144 180 28.18 35.23 63.41
Widowed 12 21 2.35 4.11 6.46
Separated 3 3 0.59 0.59 1.17
Divorced 5 10 0.98 1.96 2.94
Main Occupa-
tion
Farming 18 14 3.52 2.74 6.26
Self-employed 55 51 10.76 9.98 20.74
Unemployed 44 51 8.61 9.98 18.59
Civil Servant 101 77 19.77 15.07 34.83
Business/Trader 28 71 5.48 13.89 19.37
Others 0 1 0.00 0.20 0.20
Household
Size
1 49 15 9.59 2.94 12.52
2 90 18 17.61 3.52 21.14
More than 2 107 232 20.94 45.40 66.34
Driver’s Li-
cense
Yes 181 30 35.42 5.87 41.29
No 65 235 12.72 45.99 58.71
Figure 1. Demographic characteristics.
4.3. Trip-Related Characteristics
Table 3and Figure 2show the trip-related characteristics of the respondents. Figure 1a
shows that most of the respondents (58.12%) travelled by shared taxi, 10.18% by tricycles
(locally called Keke), 16.3% used ride-hailing services (such as Uber, Bolt and Taxify),
8.22% travelled by bus, and 7.05% used Okada (motorbike taxi). While a significant
proportion of women travelled by shared taxi, more women than men travelled by Keke
and Okada. Similar to earlier research findings, Figure 2c,e indicate that women make
more trips per week and spend more on transport than men, respectively [
45
]. Meanwhile,
contrary to the assertion that women seek work in regions that require them to travel short
distances [
4
,
26
], we found that women travel greater distances than men (refer to Figure 2d).
Additionally, 44.81% of the respondents spend between 10 and 30 minutes, 27.98% spend
between
30 and 45 minutes
, 25.24% spend more than 45 minutes, and 1.96% spend less
than 10 minutes on a trip. Figure 2b compares the travel time of men and women; it can
be seen that the travel time of most men (68.8%) compared to 26.4% of women is between
Sustainability 2022,14, 5219 10 of 24
0 and 30 minutes. Meanwhile, 73.6% of women reported a travel time above 30 minutes
compared to 31.2% of men. In summary, women spend more time and money on travel
and travel longer distances than men.
Table 3. Trip-related characteristics.
Variable Frequency Percentage
Male Female Male (%) Female (%) Total (%)
Terminal AYA 35 38 6.85 7.44 14.29
Area 1 Junction 32 43 6.26 8.41 14.68
Deidei 50 35 9.78 6.85 16.63
New Nyanya 61 50 11.94 9.78 21.72
Mararraba 35 43 6.85 8.41 15.26
Berger Junction 33 56 6.46 10.96 17.42
Time Morning 101 45 19.77 8.81 28.57
Afternoon 21 13 4.11 2.54 6.65
Evening 44 8 8.61 1.57 10.18
Anytime of the Day 80 199 15.66 38.94 54.60
Public
Transport
Yes 48 196 9.39 38.36 47.75
No, I combine it
with private
transport
198 69 38.75 13.50 52.25
Purpose of
Your Trip
Work 148 173 28.96 33.86 62.82
School/Education 23 19 4.50 3.72 8.22
Recreation 30 11 5.87 2.15 8.02
Medical 16 20 3.13 3.91 7.05
Religion 17 12 3.33 2.35 5.68
Shopping 11 29 2.15 5.68 7.83
Others 1 1 0.20 0.20 0.39
However, we hold the view that due to the high cost of accommodation in most city
centres and considering the low-income levels of women, their tendency to make more
trips and the odds of spending more on transport, as a result, explain this observation. We
believe that women are more likely to rent in regions with low rental charges, which may
require longer commute distances.
Regarding the time of trips, 54.60% used public transport at any time of the day, 28.57%
used public transport in the morning, 10.18% used public transport in the evening while
6.65% used it in the afternoon. While men used public transportation in the morning,
afternoon and evening, women used public transport at any time of the day. Concerning
the use of public transport, 47.75% used only public transport, while 52.25% combined
public transport with a private mode of transport. Most women used only public transport,
while men preferred to combine public with private transport. Of the respondents, 62.82%
embarked on trips for work, 8.22% for school/education, 8.02% for recreational activities,
7.83% for shopping, 7.05% for medical reasons, 5.68% for religious engagement, while
others (0.39%) embarked on trips for personal reasons.
Table 4shows the results of the Mann–Whitney U and Kolmogorov–Smirnov (KS)
Z tests carried out for the trip-related characteristics from both gender perspectives (Male
and Female).
Sustainability 2022,14, 5219 11 of 24
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 26
Medical 16 20 3.13 3.91 7.05
Religion 17 12 3.33 2.35 5.68
Shopping 11 29 2.15 5.68 7.83
Others 1 1 0.20 0.20 0.39
Figure 2. Trip and demographic characteristics.
Figure 2. Trip and demographic characteristics.
Table 4. Mann–Whitney U and Kolmogorov–Smirnov for trip-related characteristics.
S/N Trip Characteristics Mann–
Whitney U Wilcoxon W Z Asymp. Sig.
(2-Tailed)
Kolmogorov–
Smirnov Z
Asymp. Sig.
(2-Tailed)
TC3 Trip Time of Day 19,322.00 49,703.00 8.83 0.00 4.81 0.00
TC4 Public Transport
Usage 14,847.00 50,092.00
12.30
0.00 6.15 0.00
TC6 Frequency of Trip 23,171.50 53,552.50 5.81 0.00 2.34 0.00
TC7 Trip Cost 19,986.50 50,367.50 8.25 0.00 4.83 0.00
TC8 Trip Duration 19,175.00 49,556.00 8.62 0.00 4.78 0.00
TC9 Trip Distance 22,825.00 53,206.00 6.77 0.00 3.38 0.00
Sustainability 2022,14, 5219 12 of 24
Trip-related characteristics significantly different at a 95% confidence level are
listed below:
TC3: “Trip time of day” between Males (n = 246) and Females (n = 265), U = 19322.00,
W = 49703.00, Z =
8.83, p= 0.00, and KS (Z = 4.81, p= 0.00). Males have a mean
rank of 202.04, while females have a mean rank of 306.09. This means that women’s
patterns significantly differ from men’s. Women have no definitive time they use
public transport, possibly due to women’s complex trips patterns and the theorised
triple burdens of women [
33
,
46
], while men have structured times at which they use
public transport services.
TC4: “Public transport usage” between Males (n = 246) and Females (n = 265),
U = 14847.00
,
W = 50092.00, Z =
12.30, p= 0.00, and KS (Z = 6.15, p= 0.00). Males have a mean
rank of 328.15, while females have a mean rank of 189.03. This indicates that males
have much more flexibility over their choice of public transport usage and appear less
captive than females. Comparatively, men were found to earn a higher income than
women (refer to Figure 1b) and therefore are more likely to be able to afford to own a
car than women.
TC6: “Frequency of trip” between Males (n = 246) and Females (n = 265), U = 23171.50,
W = 53552.50, Z =
5.81, p= 0.00, and KS (Z = 2.34, p= 0.00). Men have a mean
rank of 217.69, while the mean rank of women is 291.56. The significant difference in
ranking between men and women indicates that women make more trips than men.
The findings support the assertion that women make more trips than men [45].
TC7: “Trip cost” between Males (n = 246) and Females (n = 265), U = 19986.50,
W = 50367.50
, Z =
8.25, p= 0.00, and KS (Z = 4.83, p= 0.00). The mean rank of
women (303.58) compared with 204.75 for men suggests that women spend more on
transport fares than men. Women’s high number of trips coupled with their lower
earnings implies that women spend a higher proportion of their income on trans-
port than men. This is one of the reasons for poverty among women in sub-Saharan
Africa [47].
TC8: “Trip duration” between Males (n = 246) and Females (n = 265), U = 19175.00,
W = 49556.00
,Z=
8.62, p= 0.00, and KS (Z = 4.78, p= 0.00). Men have a mean rank
of 201.45 compared to a mean rank of 306.64 for women. The results indicate that
women spend more time travelling than men. This result buttress the findings of Ng
and Acker [
4
]. The amount of time women spend travelling could have a significant
impact on their space–activity–time budget [
48
] and consequently on job options
and wellbeing.
4.4. Experiences in the Access and Use of Public Transport Services in Abuja
Table 5shows the ranking of the ten (10) experiences in the access and use of public
transport in Abuja with respect to the mean scores in descending order. Women reported
significantly lower satisfaction with public transport accessibility, safety, reliability, and
comfort than men. With a mean score of 4.60, women considered the transport fares high,
compared to 3.02 for men. Table 2indicates that 33.3% of men have a household income
above NGN 100,000 whiles only 14.7% of women earn that much. Assuming that both
gender spend the same amount on transport per week, then, the percentage of women
income spent on transport fares will be higher than that of men.
Table 6shows the results of Mann–Whitney U and Kolmogorov–Smirnov Z tests
carried out for the experiences of access and use of public transport from both gender
perspectives (Male and Female). All the ten (10) experiences were significant at a 0.05 level.
However, E10 was not significant based on the KS test p-value. The experience statements
are statistically significantly different at a 0.05 level of significance.
Sustainability 2022,14, 5219 13 of 24
Table 5. Experiences of access and use of public transport.
S/N Experiences Mean Mean Std.
Deviation t-Value Sig.
(2-Tailed)
Male Female
E9
Public transport fulfils my daily
travel requirements in terms of
work commute and other trips
4.20 3.56 3.87 0.90 9.28 0.000
E6
The public transport mode I use for
my daily commute has a high
transportation fare
3.02 4.60 3.84 1.21 6.33 0.000
E5 My preferred public transport
mode is fast 4.39 2.92 3.63 1.20 2.42 0.016
E8 I use public transport because I do
not have a car 2.51 4.66 3.62 1.37 2.02 0.044
E10
I will always wait for my most
preferred vehicle at the bus
terminal regardless of time
3.69 3.42 3.55 1.08 1.00 0.318
E4 My preferred public transport
mode is always available 4.38 2.60 3.46 1.30 0.77 0.443
E1
My preferred public transport
mode is safe in terms of
accessibility and usage
4.45 2.49 3.43 1.39 1.07 0.287
E3 My preferred public transport
mode is reliable 4.39 2.51 3.41 1.32 1.52 0.129
E2 My preferred public transport
mode is comfortable 4.38 2.26 3.28 1.39 3.56 0.000
E7 The route I use for my daily
commute is always congested 2.70 3.55 3.14 1.00 8.14 0.000
Table 6.
Mann–Whitney U and Kolmogorov–Smirnov tests for experiences of access and use of
public transport.
S/N Experience Mann–
Whitney U Wilcoxon W Z Asymp. Sig.
(2-Tailed)
Kolmogorov–
Smirnov Z
Asymp. Sig.
(2-Tailed)
E1
My preferred public transport
mode is safe in terms of
accessibility and usage
8136.0 43,381.0 15.34 0.00 7.70 0.00
E2
My preferred public transport
mode is comfortable 5293.0 40,538.0 16.97 0.00 8.47 0.00
E3
My preferred public transport
mode is reliable 7237.0 42,482.0 15.89 0.00 7.46 0.00
E4
My preferred public transport
mode is always available 8339.5 43,584.5 15.32 0.00 7.22 0.00
E5
My preferred public transport
mode is fast 11,187.0 46,432.0 13.61 0.00 5.93 0.00
E6
The public transport mode I
use for my daily commute has
a high transportation fare
7911.0 38,292.0 15.53 0.00 7.06 0.00
E7 The route I use for my daily
commute is always congested 17,038.0 47,419.0 9.75 0.00 4.45 0.00
E8
I use public transport because
I do not have a car 4605.5 34,986.5 18.11 0.00 8.59 0.00
E9
Public transport fulfils my
daily travel requirements in
terms of work commute and
other trips
22,843.0 58,088.0 6.97 0.00 3.07 0.00
E10
I will always wait for my most
preferred vehicle at the bus
terminal regardless of the time
28,057.5 63,302.5 2.92 0.00 1.30 0.07
Sustainability 2022,14, 5219 14 of 24
Furthermore, the differences in the responses of both sexes are descriptively presented
using a violin plot, as shown in Figure 3. It is evident from the plot that men are generally
more satisfied with the public transport service compared to women. Women selected
lower scores for E1, E2, E3, E4, E5, E9, and E10 compared to men. Women are less satisfied
with the level of accessibility and safety, comfort, reliability, availability, fulfilment of daily
needs, and waiting time than men. It can be seen from the plot that men have fewer
challenges accessing and using public transport compared to women, as shown in Figure 3.
A greater percentage of women use only public transport to meet their mobility needs than
men. Likewise, more women make shopping trips and trip chain than men, as shown
in Table 5. This means they commute with shopping bags and kids in some cases, and
the existing transport system does not cater for such needs, causing discomfort and other
inconveniences. However, women selected high scores for E6, E7, and E8. This is because
the issue of transport cost, traffic congestion, and car ownership affect most women due to
their trip frequencies, longer travel times and low-income levels.
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 26
Figure 3. Comparison of mean responses for experience.
4.5. Challenges against Gender Equity in Service Delivery
Table 7 shows the ranking of the twelve (12) challenges against gender equity in ser-
vice delivery with respect to the mean scores in descending order. Using the one-sample
t-test, the table also reveals that most (83%) of the hypothesised experiences show signif-
icant (p < 0.05) differences between men and women.
Table 7. Challenges against gender equity in service delivery.
S/N Challenges Mean Mean Std. Devia-
tion
t-
Value
Sig. (2-
Tailed)
Male Female
C6
Facilities such as seating,
backrests, and restrooms are
adequate and convenient for
all genders and abilities
3.60 4.61 4.12 0.87 16.09 0.000
C4
Inadequate public transport
services to match the high
rate of population and de-
mand in the area
3.67 4.51 4.11 0.71 19.35 0.000
C1 Unstable transportation fare 3.41 4.37 3.90 0.94 9.74 0.000
C2 Poor vehicle maintenance 3.21 4.42 3.84 1.01 7.55 0.000
C7
Harassment on public
transport is common along
my travel route
2.85 4.73 3.83 1.16 6.38 0.000
C9 Overcrowding/long queuing
at the terminal 3.03 4.50 3.79 1.03 6.40 0.000
C11 Long waiting time at the ter-
minal 2.97 4.45 3.74 1.04 5.18 0.000
Figure 3. Comparison of mean responses for experience.
4.5. Challenges against Gender Equity in Service Delivery
Table 7shows the ranking of the twelve (12) challenges against gender equity in service
delivery with respect to the mean scores in descending order. Using the one-sample t-test,
the table also reveals that most (83%) of the hypothesised experiences show significant
(p< 0.05) differences between men and women.
Table 8shows the results of Mann–Whitney U and Kolmogorov–Smirnov Z tests
carried out on the challenges against gender equity in service delivery from both gender
perspectives (Male and Female). All the twelve (12) statements were found to be statistically
significantly different at a 0.05 level of confidence.
The difference in the responses of both sexes are presented graphically using a violin
plot, as shown in Figure 4. It is evident from the plot that women are more concerned
about challenges presented in the study compared to men because the mean scores for
women for each of the challenges are higher than those for men, as presented in Table 7.
Variables such as inadequate lighting, unhygienic facilities, provision of backrests, and
shelter against harsh weather conditions are some of the transport challenges in Abuja.
The results indicate that women are more concerned about these challenges than men,
Sustainability 2022,14, 5219 15 of 24
possibly because women are more likely to travel encumbered or accompanied compared
to men. Furthermore, high and unstable transportation fares is a major challenge for most
women due to their low-income level compared to men. In addition, the lack of buses at
the terminal and overcrowding lead to women being susceptible to harassment and danger
because of the long waiting times, hence leaving them vulnerable.
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 26
C8
Having an ATM at the
bus station is not neces-
sary
18,350.0 48,731.0 9.03 0.00 4.25 0.00
C9 Overcrowding/long
queuing at the terminal 6440.0 36,821.0 16.38 0.00 7.02 0.00
C10
The facility and service
available within the ter-
minal is appropriate
(especially under harsh
weather conditions)
8696.0 39,077.0 14.89 0.00 6.76 0.00
C11 Long waiting time at
the terminal 6504.5 36,885.5 16.30 0.00 7.17 0.00
C12 Availability of hygiene
facilities at the terminal 16,646.5 47,027.5 9.90 0.00 6.09 0.00
The difference in the responses of both sexes are presented graphically using a violin
plot, as shown in Figure 4. It is evident from the plot that women are more concerned
about challenges presented in the study compared to men because the mean scores for
women for each of the challenges are higher than those for men, as presented in Table 7.
Variables such as inadequate lighting, unhygienic facilities, provision of backrests, and
shelter against harsh weather conditions are some of the transport challenges in Abuja.
The results indicate that women are more concerned about these challenges than men,
possibly because women are more likely to travel encumbered or accompanied compared
to men. Furthermore, high and unstable transportation fares is a major challenge for most
women due to their low-income level compared to men. In addition, the lack of buses at
the terminal and overcrowding lead to women being susceptible to harassment and dan-
ger because of the long waiting times, hence leaving them vulnerable.
Figure 4. Comparison of mean responses for challenges.
Figure 4. Comparison of mean responses for challenges.
Table 7. Challenges against gender equity in service delivery.
S/N Challenges Mean Mean Std.
Deviation t-Value Sig.
(2-Tailed)
Male Female
C6
Facilities such as seating, backrests, and
restrooms are adequate and convenient
for all genders and abilities
3.60 4.61 4.12 0.87 16.09 0.000
C4
Inadequate public transport services to
match the high rate of population and
demand in the area
3.67 4.51 4.11 0.71 19.35 0.000
C1 Unstable transportation fare 3.41 4.37 3.90 0.94 9.74 0.000
C2 Poor vehicle maintenance 3.21 4.42 3.84 1.01 7.55 0.000
C7 Harassment on public transport is
common along my travel route 2.85 4.73 3.83 1.16 6.38 0.000
C9 Overcrowding/long queuing at
the terminal 3.03 4.50 3.79 1.03 6.40 0.000
C11 Long waiting time at the terminal 2.97 4.45 3.74 1.04 5.18 0.000
C10
The facility and service available within
the terminal is appropriate (especially
under harsh weather conditions)
3.00 4.40 3.73 1.19 4.33 0.000
C3 Fewer public buses at the terminal 3.04 4.34 3.72 1.00 4.88 0.000
C8 Having an ATM at the bus station is
not necessary 3.09 3.86 3.49 1.00 0.24 0.807
C5
Adequate lighting in the terminal and the
area around the terminal 2.84 3.95 3.42 1.28 1.47 0.144
C12 Availability of hygiene facilities at
the terminal 2.79 3.92 3.38 1.28 2.16 0.031
Sustainability 2022,14, 5219 16 of 24
Table 8. Mann–Whitney U and Kolmogorov–Smirnov tests for challenges against gender equity.
S/N Challenges Mann–
Whitney U Wilcoxon W Z Asymp. Sig.
(2-Tailed)
Kolmogorov–
Smirnov Z
Asymp. Sig.
(2-Tailed)
C1 Unstable transportation fare 12,952.0 43,333.0 12.54 0.00 5.91 0.00
C2 Poor vehicle maintenance 9932.0 40,313.0 14.19 0.00 6.47 0.00
C3 Fewer public buses at
the terminal 8758.5 39,139.5 14.98 0.00 6.50 0.00
C4
Inadequate public transport
services to match the high rate
of population and demand in
the area
11,786.0 42,167.0 13.65 0.00 6.08 0.00
C5
Adequate lighting in the
terminal and the area around
the terminal
16,687.0 47,068.0 9.97 0.00 5.72 0.00
C6
Facilities such as seating,
backrests, and restrooms are
not adequate and convenient
for all genders and abilities
8207.0 38,588.0 15.63 0.00 7.91 0.00
C7
Harassment on public
transport is common along
my travel route
3021.5 33,402.5 18.57 0.00 8.46 0.00
C8 Having an ATM at the bus
station is not necessary 18,350.0 48,731.0 9.03 0.00 4.25 0.00
C9 Overcrowding/long queuing
at the terminal 6440.0 36,821.0 16.38 0.00 7.02 0.00
C10
The facility and service
available within the terminal
is appropriate (especially
under harsh
weather conditions)
8696.0 39,077.0 14.89 0.00 6.76 0.00
C11 Long waiting time at
the terminal 6504.5 36,885.5 16.30 0.00 7.17 0.00
C12 Availability of hygiene
facilities at the terminal 16,646.5 47,027.5 9.90 0.00 6.09 0.00
4.6. The Need to Ensure Gender Equity
Table 9shows the ranking of the twelve (12) suggested solutions to achieve gender
equity in transport. The table also shows that all the hypothesised statements are statistically
significant (p< 0.05) using the one-sample t-test. To obtain the most significant solutions
based on the mean score, a threshold of 3.50 was set with a reference to the p-value,
which should be less than 0.05 for each of the significant variable. Therefore, only eleven
(11) solutions were considered significant because they were above the set 3.50 threshold.
Table 10 shows the Mann–Whitney U and Kolmogorov–Smirnov Z tests carried out
on the recommendations to ensure gender equity in public transport from both gender
perspectives (Male and Female). Out of the twelve (12) suggested solutions, only one
(1) was not significant (S3), while the rest were statistically significantly different at a
0.05 confidence level.
The differences in the responses of both sexes are shown graphically using a violin plot
in Figure 5. Table 9shows the mean scores of the responses of women and men. Figure 5
and Table 9show that both men and women agree that the implementation of items S1
to S12 are likely to enhance the service quality of and user satisfaction with the transport
services and deliver gender equity in the transport sector. In general, while both sexes agree
on the relevance of the suggested measures, women are observed to consider the suggested
measures more highly than men. The difference in acceptance of the suggested measures is
observed to be statistically different at a 95% confidence level (refer to Table 10).
Sustainability 2022,14, 5219 17 of 24
Table 9. Suggested solutions to ensure public transport gender equity.
S/N Solutions Mean Mean Std.
Deviation
t-
Value
Sig.
(2-Tailed)
Mean
Difference
Male Female
S12 Reduction in the number of
passengers in taxis 4.30 4.73 4.52 0.57 40.25 0.000 1.021
S2 Cleaner commercial vehicles 4.28 4.73 4.51 0.55 41.52 0.000 1.015
S8 Reduce cost of public
transportation fare 4.24 4.71 4.48 0.60 36.78 0.000 0.981
S10 Construction of more waiting areas
with hygiene facilities 4.23 4.65 4.45 0.65 32.97 0.000 0.950
S11
Construction of alternative routes
to ease the challenge of traffic
congestion
4.22 4.64 4.44 0.62 34.00 0.000 0.936
S9
Allowing bikes and tricycles (Keke)
in strategic areas to facilitate easy
movement and reduce pressure
on taxis
4.25 4.60 4.43 0.65 32.43 0.000 0.932
S1
Provision of more transportation
options suitable for all mobility
needs (comfortable seats and
backrests, adequate space)
4.20 4.63 4.42 0.54 38.63 0.000 0.923
S4 Proactive maintenance of
existing buses 4.11 4.66 4.40 0.73 27.96 0.000 0.897
S7 Construction of more terminals 4.17 4.59 4.39 0.65 30.79 0.000 0.889
S5 Effective management system at
bus terminals 4.16 4.58 4.38 0.71 28.21 0.000 0.882
S6
Collaboration between government
and private sectors 4.18 4.56 4.38 0.79 25.16 0.000 0.876
S3 Provision of incentives to drivers 2.70 2.74 2.72 1.30 13.55 0.000 0.778
Sustainability 2022, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 26
the suggested measures more highly than men. The difference in acceptance of the sug-
gested measures is observed to be statistically different at a 95% confidence level (refer to
Table 10).
Figure 5. Comparison of mean responses for solutions.
4.7. Discussion
This study assesses the gender disparities in the access and use of urban public
transport in Abuja, Nigeria. The study has a total of four objectives which include: (1)
assessing the structure of public transport services and how they cater for the mobility
needs of men and women in Abuja; (2) analysing the various experiences of men and
women in the access and use of public transport services in Abuja; (3) examining the bar-
riers to the access and use of public transport systems in Abuja; and (4) recommending
interventions to address gender disparities in public transportation accessibility in Abuja.
The study used descriptive (frequency distribution table, mean score) and inferential
(Mann–Whitney U Test) statistics to achieve the research objectives.
The first objective assessed the structure of public transport services. New Nyanya,
Berger Junction, and Deidei were revealed as the top three terminals many commuters
use. This finding agrees with the research of Nwankwo and Barimoda [49]. The research-
ers found that most commuters move through the Nyanya route. The results also show
that more than half of the public transport users in Abuja prefer to use shared taxis.
It has been reported that car ownership and the percentage of the population of Abuja
who drive have shown rising trends [50]. This observation is occasioned by the conven-
ience and flexibility car ownership provides its users and commuters’ dissatisfaction with
public transportation services. For instance, Harcourt et al. [50] indicated that most com-
muters in Abuja who use public buses are dissatisfied with their services. A substantial
percentage of commuters (62.80%) make trips for work, while many commuters (52.20%)
take public transportation five to six times per week. It was found that women make more
trips than men: 69.1% of women were found to make five or more trips in a week com-
pared to 48.6% of men. This finding is consistent with research in gender studies suggest-
ing that women make more trips per week than men [45]. Most women (83.6%) spend at
Figure 5. Comparison of mean responses for solutions.
Sustainability 2022,14, 5219 18 of 24
Table 10. Mann–Whitney U and Kolmogorov–Smirnov tests for solutions to ensure gender equity.
S/N Solutions Mann–
Whitney U Wilcoxon W Z Asymp. Sig.
(2-Tailed)
Kolmogorov–
Smirnov Z
Asymp. Sig.
(2-Tailed)
S1
Provision of more
transportation options
suitable for all mobility needs;
comfortable seats, backrests,
and adequate space
19,228.0 49,609.0 9.23 0.00 4.50 0.00
S2 Cleaner commercial vehicles 19,172.0 49,553.0 9.24 0.00 4.50 0.00
S3 Provision of incentives
to drivers 32,276.0 62,657.0 0.20 0.84 0.77 0.59
S4 Proactive maintenance of
existing buses 18,852.0 49,233.0 9.21 0.00 4.53 0.00
S5
Effective management system
at bus terminals 21,147.5 51,528.5 7.67 0.00 3.89 0.00
S6
Collaboration between
government and
private sectors
21,928.5 52,309.5 7.13 0.00 3.82 0.00
S7 Construction of
more terminals 21,552.5 51,933.5 7.43 0.00 3.55 0.00
S8 Reduce cost of public
transportation fare 19,604.5 49,985.5 8.87 0.00 4.25 0.00
S9
Allowing bikes and tricycles
(Keke) in strategic areas to
facilitate easy movement and
reduce pressure on taxis
21,989.0 52,370.0 7.21 0.00 3.61 0.00
S10 Construction of more waiting
areas with hygiene facilities 21,643.0 52,024.0 7.42 0.00 3.54 0.00
S11
Construction of alternative
routes to ease the challenge of
traffic congestion
21,433.5 51,814.5 7.57 0.00 3.61 0.00
S12 Reduction in the number of
passengers in taxis 20,216.5 50,597.5 8.54 0.00 4.14 0.00
Grouping Variable: Gender; KS = Kolmogorov–Smirnov
4.7. Discussion
This study assesses the gender disparities in the access and use of urban public trans-
port in Abuja, Nigeria. The study has a total of four objectives which include: (1) assessing
the structure of public transport services and how they cater for the mobility needs of
men and women in Abuja; (2) analysing the various experiences of men and women in
the access and use of public transport services in Abuja; (3) examining the barriers to the
access and use of public transport systems in Abuja; and (4) recommending interventions
to address gender disparities in public transportation accessibility in Abuja. The study
used descriptive (frequency distribution table, mean score) and inferential (Mann–Whitney
U Test) statistics to achieve the research objectives.
The first objective assessed the structure of public transport services. New Nyanya,
Berger Junction, and Deidei were revealed as the top three terminals many commuters use.
This finding agrees with the research of Nwankwo and Barimoda [
49
]. The researchers
found that most commuters move through the Nyanya route. The results also show that
more than half of the public transport users in Abuja prefer to use shared taxis.
It has been reported that car ownership and the percentage of the population of Abuja
who drive have shown rising trends [
50
]. This observation is occasioned by the convenience
and flexibility car ownership provides its users and commuters’ dissatisfaction with public
transportation services. For instance, Harcourt et al. [
50
] indicated that most commuters in
Abuja who use public buses are dissatisfied with their services. A substantial percentage
of commuters (62.80%) make trips for work, while many commuters (52.20%) take public
Sustainability 2022,14, 5219 19 of 24
transportation five to six times per week. It was found that women make more trips than
men: 69.1% of women were found to make five or more trips in a week compared to 48.6%
of men. This finding is consistent with research in gender studies suggesting that women
make more trips per week than men [
45
]. Most women (83.6%) spend at least NGN 1000
on transportation compared to 40.9% of men, while 59.1% of men reported spending less
than NGN 1000 on transport compared to only 16.4% of women. Public transportation
in Nigeria is largely operated by private operators who are motivated by profit. Nigeria
has no social interventions to support its low-income and vulnerable populations. Thus,
even though they are earning less than men, women spend a higher proportion of their
income on transport due to the absence of any form of support for the poor and vulnerable.
Sunday and Ademola [
51
] argued that because commuters work on a fixed budget for
the workplace and other forms of commuting, there is a relationship between public
transportation operator charges and commuter patronage. Odumosu [
52
] argued that
transport costs should not exceed 30% of an individual’s disposable income. Lower costs
for public transport would encourage more people to embrace it as their primary means of
transportation and would be welcomed by low-income earners, particularly women.
A large portion (72.8%) of the commuters sampled spent between 10 and 45 minutes
commuting, covering between 1 and over 5 km (97.4%). Most women (73.6%) had travel
times above 30 minutes compared to 31.2% of men, while 68.8% of men compared to 26.4%
of women had commuting times between 0 and 30 minutes. Additionally, women were
found to travel greater distances than men (refer to Figure 1d), contrary to the assertion that
women seek work in regions that require them to travel shorter distances [
4
,
26
]. Women
make more trips per week and spend more on transport than men [45].
We assert that due to the high rental cost in most city centres and considering the low-
income levels of most women, the tendency to make more trips and the odds of spending
more on transport explain this observation. We believe women are more likely to rent in
regions with low rental charges, which may require longer commute distances.
The second research objective analysed the experience of both genders in the access
and use of public transport. The non-parametric test (Mann–Whitney U Test) showed a
disparity between both sexes regarding their experience and satisfaction with the public
transport system. This means that men and women have different mobility characteristics
and different needs. Men are generally satisfied with the accessibility, comfort, reliability,
availability, and travel time. Women are less enthusiastic about and more dissatisfied
with the level and quality of the public transport system in terms of high transportation
fares, shortage of buses, safety and security in accessing public transport, and unreliability
and discomfort. These results support the findings by Jorritsma and Schaap [
45
] that
women make more and more complex trips than men. Since women undertake more
non-work-related trips, their experiences differ significantly with respect to almost every
form of accessibility. The findings can also be linked to a study by Kamargianni and
Polydoropoulou [
53
]. The division of duties in the labour market and the home impacts
women’s employment conditions, income levels, and mobility needs, and is mainly respon-
sible for gender variations in travel patterns. Women commute with groceries and children
and are paid less in most workplaces, causing them to spend more on transportation than
males. The availability of public transportation outside of rush hours, the physical and
financial accessibility of transportation facilities for women traveling with children or
disabled people, and safety conditions are all important factors to consider when designing
women-friendly transportation systems.
The results also showed that most male respondents own cars, while the opposite is
true for females. Hurez and Richer [
54
] mentioned that the proliferation of new forms of
work and growing labour market engagement by women along with technological devel-
opment are anticipated to expand the challenges women face in using public transportation
services and in their mobility patterns. As a result, we call for a transportation policy that
can balance sustainability with gender-specific mobility needs.
Sustainability 2022,14, 5219 20 of 24
The third objective examined the challenges men and women encounter in accessing
and using public transport systems in Abuja. The challenges with public transport are
general problems in developed and developing countries due to the rate of urbanisation [
55
].
In particular, there are inherent public transport issues in urban areas in many developed
countries [
56
]. Nwankwo and Barimoda [
49
] indicated a strong correlation between level of
education and the challenges commuters encounter. Furthermore, the findings of this study
still agree with Nwankwo and Barimoda [
49
], in which traffic congestion, overcrowding,
high fare, and delay are regarded as the top four challenges commuters experience. Stachyra
and Roman [
57
] reported that the most serious issues in public transportation are lack
of punctuality, congestion, and inadequate air conditioning. This study also agrees with
Belwal and Belwal [
58
], who studied the public perception of public transport in Oman and
found poor mobility, traffic congestion, and high individual transport costs to be the major
problems with public transport. The non-parametric test revealed that there is disparity
between both genders regarding the challenges against gender equity in service delivery.
This means that both genders have different views regarding the challenges they experience
in public transport. In the same vein, the test showed that the challenges mostly affect
women because a large number of women heavily rely on public transport. This means
they are usually exposed to a number of these challenges.
While men were less critical about crowded conditions and the provision of facilities
such as seating and backrests, issues of harassment along travel routes or at the terminal,
adequate lighting and the availability of hygiene facilities at terminals, women deemed all
of these very important. The results also corroborate the assertion that women emphasise
comfort attributes to a greater extent than men. Overall, all the challenges listed more
grossly affect women than men, as seen in the means. This result is supported by Silveira
et al.’s [
59
] findings, highlighting the importance of public policies that target improving
women’s access to public transport services.
The fourth objective evaluated the possible solutions or interventions that will ad-
dress the issue of gender disparities in public transport access in Abuja. Nwankwo and
Barimoda [
49
] indicated that government support is crucial in providing quality public
transport services. The non-parametric test showed that both genders see incentives to
drivers as a viable solution to improving gender disparity. In addition, it was observed
from the mean rank that women strongly feel all the strategies to ensure gender equity in
public transport systems are relevant to them and would like to see them implemented;
this means it is critical to implement these strategies to improve the transport services and
close the gender equity gap in the delivery of public transport services.
Implementing the proposed equity measures would improve the public transportation
systems so as to meet the needs and requirements of women. This could have a commercial
benefit because women are the primary users of this mode of transportation, and low
service quality and poor accessibility could be counterproductive. As a result, incorporating
women’s demands into the planning process could have significant policy implications [
60
]
and could help to prevent an increase in car use.
Conclusively, the analysis revealed that men are generally more satisfied with public
transport services compared to women. The same goes for challenges, and it is evident
from the sample data and the analysis that women face greater challenges in accessing
and using public transport systems in Abuja than men, suggesting that there is a need to
address the challenges and improve the services for and satisfaction of women.
5. Conclusions
The study findings revealed that shared taxis are the most used public transport mode.
Commuters make use of public transport at any time of the day. Most commuters prefer to
use public and private transport alternately due to personal comfort and schedules. Work
is the primary reason commuters move from one place to another; both sexes have a similar
attitude towards most trip-related characteristics, such as terminals and trip purposes.
Women are more likely to travel by transport modes with low transport fares, such as Keke
Sustainability 2022,14, 5219 21 of 24
and Okada (motorbike taxi). The study highlights the educational attainment gap between
men and women in Nigeria. Majority of the women (56.9%) have a diploma or A-level
certificate as their highest level of education compared to 26.3% of men. More men (73.7%)
than women (43.1) either have their first degree, a master’s degree, or a Ph.D. Women
were found to earn lower incomes compared to men: 72.1% of women earn less than NGN
5000 monthly compared to 31.2% of men, while 68.8% of men were found to earn a higher
income (above NGN 5000). Even though women earn less than men, the study found that
women make more trips per week and spend more on transport than men.
Furthermore, contrary to the assertion that women seek work in regions that require
them to travel shorter distances, we found that women travel greater distances than men.
Additionally, a significant difference was found between the travel times of men and
women. Women spend more time and money on travel and travel longer distances than
men. The travel time of most men (68.8%) is between 0 and 30 minutes compared to 26.4%
of women. Meanwhile, 73.6% of women reported a travel time above 30 minutes compared
to 31.2% of men. The difference in travel times between men and women is believed
to result from the high cost of accommodation in most city centres, which causes more
women to rent in regions with low rental charges, requiring longer commute distances. The
low-income levels of women, their tendency to make more trips and the odds of spending
more on transport means that they spend a higher proportion of their income on transport
than men—a possible cause of poverty among women in sub-Saharan Africa.
Women reported a significantly lower level of satisfaction with regard to public
transport accessibility, safety, reliability, and comfort than men. It is evident that men
are generally more satisfied with public transport services compared to women. Women
were found to be less satisfied with the level of accessibility and safety, comfort, reliability,
availability, fulfilment of daily needs, and waiting times than men. The study revealed a
dire need to scale up public transport in Abuja to meet the masses’ demands, with particular
attention to be paid to women’s mobility. This scaling up could include the expansion of
existing terminals and provision of more buses. Additionally, most female commuters use
public transport as their sole means of daily commute. This can be attributed to the fact
that work is the major motivation for going out because households now depend on more
than one source of income to pay bills. To ensure the safety of commuters, particularly
women, transport operators and government should ensure that the necessary measures
are put in place to ensure the safety and comfort of commuters. Lastly, the findings of this
study necessitate the development of a national public transport framework and policies to
regulate the practices of operators, users, and government parastatals. There would also
be a need for re-evaluation of the framework and policies as the population and transport
infrastructure change rapidly.
Limitations and Areas for Future Studies
The study is limited to road users only and restricted to only motorised public trans-
port systems. There is also a limitation in terms of geographical context. Future studies
should include more states in Nigeria with high populations, such as Lagos State and Kano
State. This would help improve the generalisation of this study. Future studies should
also conduct a detailed survey to measure actual transport times and costs across different
locations in Abuja or other states in Nigeria. Future studies could also examine public
transport use among different age groups and those with disabilities.
Author Contributions:
Methodology, A.A. and A.A.-D.; formal analysis, A.A.; investigation: A.A.,
resources: A.A., data curation, A.A.; writing—original draft preparation, A.A. and A.A.-D; writing—
review and editing, A.A., A.A.-D. and C.A.A.; visualization, A.A. and A.A.-D.; conceptualization,
A.A.-D.; supervision, A.A.-D. and C.A.A.; funding acquisition, C.A.A. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding:
This research was funded by the Transport Research and Education Centre Kumasi (TRECK)
of Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), Kumasi, Ghana.
Sustainability 2022,14, 5219 22 of 24
Institutional Review Board Statement:
The study was conducted according to the guidelines of
the Declaration of Ghana Data Protection Act, 2012 (ACT 843), and approved by the Committee on
Human Research, Publication and Ethics of Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology,
Kumasi, Ghana (Approval reference: CHRPE/AP/437/21 and dated 16 September 2021).
Informed Consent Statement:
Informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in
the study.
Data Availability Statement:
Data used for this research is availability on request from
treck@knust.edu.gh.
Acknowledgments:
The authors would like to acknowledge the Regional Transport Research and
Education Centre Kumasi (TRECK) of the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology
for funding support in carrying out this research.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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... Regarding transportation choice, women tend to walk and use public transportation more often (Levy, 2016;Scheiner, 2014;Basaric et al., 2016;Miralles-Guasch et al., 2016;Greed, 2019;Uteng & Turner, 2019;Bellmann et al., 2020;Havet et al., 2021;Nasrin & Bunker, 2021;Pirra et al., 2021;Abdullah et al., 2022;Chidambaram & Scheiner, 2023;Murphy et al., 2023) and have limited access to private car, which are more commonly used by men as they have the primary privilege for car use within a household (Boarnet & Hsu, 2015;Levy, 2016;Mahadevia & Advani, 2016;Miralles-Guasch et al., 2016;Singh, 2019;Dingil, et al., 2021;Havet et al., 2021;Nasrin & Bunker, 2021;Pirra et al., 2021;Chidambaram & Scheiner, 2023). Some explain this by the diversity of natural preferences between the two sexes and by women being less interested in modes and activities that are largely carried out by men (Miralles-Guasch et al., 2016;Nasrin & Bunker, 2021). ...
... This fact is supported by the unequal distribution of roles between the two genders in the household or society globally, as well as women's limited access to resources (reflected in their lower income) (Kwan & Kotsev, 2015;Parker & Rubin, 2023;Nasrin & Bunker, 2021). This reality leads to increased responsibilities for women, including travel related to household tasks and accompanying children or even the elderly (Sánchez de Madariaga, 2013;Scheiner & Christian Holz-Rau, 2017;Motte-Baumvol et al., 2017, Havet et al., 2021Chidambaram & Scheiner, 2023;Pirra et al., 2021;Scheiner & Holz-Rau, 2017;Abdullah et al., 2022;Loukaitou-Sideris & Ceccato, 2020), and they find themselves very constrained in terms of time, which limits the work opportunities that may be available to them (Kim et al., 2012;McQuaid & Chen, 2012;Scheiner & Holz-Rau, 2012;Craig & Powell, 2013;Chidambaram & Scheiner, 2023;Havet et al., 2021;Fan, 2015;Pirra et al., 2021). ...
... The table above clearly shows how women and men in the Sahel move differently, use different means of transport and face different restrictions in their daily movements. The statistical results highlight the dominance of two modes of transport: walking, which is used more often by women (38.9%) than by men (33.7%), and the private car, with one in four trips for men (of which 87.5% are drivers) and only one in six trips are for women (with around 57.7% as passengers) (Bellmann et al., 2020;Kawgan-Kagan, 2020;Havet et al., 2021;Nasrin & Bunker, 2021 ;Pirra et al., 2021;Abdullah et al., 2022;Chidambaram & Scheiner, 2023;Murphy et al., 2023). This is due to the fact that women are less likely to have a driving license compared to men (Fig.2). ...
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... We found no evidence that criminality or violence discourages men and women from using MMPT, contrary to previous research Abdullah et al. (2022) and Zheng et al. (2022). For the simple reason that our data indicates that the safety against crimes and behavior of security personnel and staff at MMPT stops and stations are very good. ...
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... Studies with respect to language issues in public transportation and transportation, in general, are minimal. Even though different aspects of transport equity, including gender equality (McDonnell (2019), Abdullah et al. (2022), ADB and UN Women (2019)), disabled usage (Field & Jette (2007), TUMI (2019), Yiyuan (2022)), economically underprivileged are available via past studies, the importance is given to language equity in transport and mainly public transit which is utilized by all language backgrounds is scarce, both in the national and international context. Thus, this study focuses on individuals' language rights in terms of ensuring equal access to public bus services via the right of language. ...
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