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The origin of novel coronavirus: COVID-19

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Abhinandan Patil at D.Y. Patil Education Society
Abhinandan Patil
Shivaji Pawar
Shivaji Pawar
Shivaji Pawar
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Abstract

The new respiratory disease frequently observed are zoonoses exhibiting positive-stranded RNA viruses called Coronaviruses (CoVs). These groups of the virus are having origin from non-human species such as bats, cows and birds. The transmission of the virus to humans is reported to cause severe acute respiratory infection from cough to pneumonia. The mortality rate is increased from its origin from severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) to newly developed COVID-19. The following review states that the SARS, MERS to newly developed COVID-19 are generally types of coronavirus. The mode of infection and symptoms exhibited by all the corona types are nearly the same but with the difference in its virulence.
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International Journal of Innovative Science Engineering and Technology (IJISET) GETAR-2019
18
Department of Pharmacology D. Y. Patil University, Kolhapur
The origin of novel coronavirus: COVID-19
Abhinandan Patil 1, 2, Shivaji Pawar 3
1 Chate Group of Education, Kolhapur (MS). India
2 Life Inspiration Social Foundation, Kolhapur (MS). India
3 Centre for Innovative and Applied Research, Anekant Education Society, Baramati, (MS).
India
* Correspondence author: Shivaji Pawar
Email: shpawar1946@gmail.com
Abstract
The new respiratory disease frequently observed are zoonoses exhibiting positive-stranded RNA viruses called
Coronaviruses (CoVs). These groups of the virus are having origin from non-human species such as bats, cows
and birds. The transmission of the virus to humans is reported to cause severe acute respiratory infection from
cough to pneumonia. The mortality rate is increased from its origin from severe acute respiratory syndrome
(SARS), Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) to newly developed COVID-19. The following review states
that the SARS, MERS to newly developed COVID-19 are generally types of coronavirus. The mode of infection
and symptoms exhibited by all the corona types are nearly the same but with the difference in its virulence.
1. Introduction
Emerging new diseases are frequently zoonoses developed from the positive-stranded RNA viruses called
Coronaviruses (CoVs) was found associated with common cold symptoms [1]. These viruses mostly infect the
upper respiratory system of the mammals including humans. The source of the virus and identification of its
reservoirs along with its mode of transmission between the hosts clarifies the difference. Infectious bronchitis
virus (IBV) was the first coronavirus to be isolated from domestic fowls in the late 1930s [2]. But, this virus has
not been reported to cause any human clinical disease. These avian coronaviruses have been found in nondomestic
avian species like peafowl, pheasant, teal, turkey, penguins, pigeon, duck, and Amazon parrot [3]. Further, the
coronavirus types causing minor infection in humans are 229E, NL63, OC43, and HKU1 [4]. Rarely these
coronaviruses may precipitate pneumonia or bronchitis in the human host. Two species HCoV-229E and
subsequently HCoV-OC43 were found to cause severe lower respiratory tract infection in immune-compromised
patients and elderly patients (Jean et al., 2013, p. 43). Similarly, in 2004 Holland another novel human coronavirus
(HCoV-NL63) was reported from infant (7 months) suffering from respiratory symptoms [5]. This virus also
infected other children and the immune-compromised, exhibiting mild upper respiratory symptoms along with
rhinorrhoea along with bronchiolitis and croup. A positive novel human coronavirus (HCoV-OC43) respiratory
specimens was reported in a pediatric hospital in Montreal (2010). HCoV-OC43 is a member of the
species Betacoronavirus 1 found to infect humans and cattle showing both upper and lower respiratory tract
infections along with cold-like symptoms [6]. In 2005, a novel coronavirus HCoV-HKU1, was reported in patients
of Hong Kong showing pneumonitis [7]. Thus, Coronavirus is a group of related viruses that cause diseases
in mammals and birds.
2. Pandemic eruption by a different novel coronavirus
Coronavirus investigators found that severe acute respiratory syndrome infected infants and old age persons. New
advances in the medical sciences of coronaviruses have developed a greater understanding of the trans-species
International Journal of Innovative Science Engineering and Technology (IJISET) GETAR-2019
19
Department of Pharmacology D. Y. Patil University, Kolhapur
infection, and pathogenesis of new diseases. The newly emerged zoonotic coronavirus: severe acute respiratory
syndrome (SARS-CoV) was declared as a pandemic outbreak (SARS) in 2002–2003 caused by order Nidovirales,
Coronavirus [8]. Similarly, other coronaviruses have spread from different host species from time to time causing
emerging diseases.
The first human cases of SARS were reported to be caused by coronaviruses, from the source of masked palm
civets and raccoon dogs which acted as an intermediate source of infection. Many survey studies reported a wide
variety of sources of coronaviruses from a bat species in Asian countries. Horseshoe-nosed bats found in different
locations of China and Hong Kong were found as a source of SARS-like CoVs in which these bats had found to
develop their natural antibodies to tackle these coronaviruses [9]. SARS was the first reported as a pandemic in
2003, where 8,097 cases were found with 774 deaths around 30 countries globally [10].
The incubation period of SARS reported is 2 to 14 days. Few cases showed longer incubation periods for more
than 14 days. Symptoms reported are the same as that of regular influenza virus, where the patients first fall ill
within 2 days and become eligible to transmit the infection from symptomatic SARS after the fifth day of onset
of disease with higher viral load in nasopharyngeal droplets [8].
Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) was first reported in 2012. The MERS-CoV is a
novel coronavirus that was earlier designated as HCoV-EMC [11]. Similarly, MERS-CoV also found to causes
mild to fulminant respiratory tract infection. The clinical manifestation found in the case of MERS-CoV is similar
to SARS. Bats are considered as the major suspects in terms of zoonotic infection of both MERS-CoV and SARS.
MERS-CoV is a genetically the single-stranded RNA virus belonging to the family Coronaviridae same as that of
other coronavirus reported. Monkeys, raccoon dogs, Himalayan palm civets, dogs, cats, and rodents are found
susceptible to MERS-CoV [11]. It was stated that this virus transmitted in bats from camels. From camels, it was
transmitted to humans, but the reason is unclear.
3. COVID-19 as novel coronavirus
The SARS-CoV-2 also called a COVID-19 epidemic was reported in late December 2019 in Wuhan, China.
Earlier, A pneumonia of unknown cause was detected in China was first reported to the WHO Country Office in
China on 31 December 2019 [12]. The outbreak was declared a Public Health Emergency of International Concern
on 30 January 2020. People who become infected developed serious illnesses mostly difficulty in breathing. Older
people, and those with underlying medical problems like high blood pressure, heart problems or diabetes, are
reported likely to develop serious illness. Studies to date suggest that the virus that causes COVID -19 is mainly
transmitted through contact with respiratory droplets rather than through the air. It was found that molecular
divergence is less between SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19. The scientist found about 4% variability in genomic
nucleotides of bat SARS and a bat SARS-CoV-2.
International Journal of Innovative Science Engineering and Technology (IJISET) GETAR-2019
20
Department of Pharmacology D. Y. Patil University, Kolhapur
Fig.1. Types of coronavirus
4. Pathogenesis found in all above-mentioned coronavirus shows
Several distinct features such as pneumonia with epithelial cell proliferation are reported in patients infected by a
coronavirus. Few reported macrophage infiltrations of the lungs along with the haemophagocytosis [13].
Symptoms
SARS
MERS
COVID-19
IBV
(in the avian
group, not in
human )
229E, NL63, OC43, and
HKU1
Fever
**
**
***
**
Dry cough
*
*
***
-
*
Runny nose
***
***
*
-
***
pneumonia
**
**
***
Extra-
pulmonary
damage
**
Shortness of
breath
**
**
***
**
**
Coronavirus
types
SARS
IBV
Animal
corona
229E, NL63,
OC43, and
HKU1
COVID-19
MERS
International Journal of Innovative Science Engineering and Technology (IJISET) GETAR-2019
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Department of Pharmacology D. Y. Patil University, Kolhapur
Chills and
muscle
aches,
**
**
***
**
**
Headache
**
**
**
-
**
Diarrhea
*
**
***
-
**
sore throat
***
**
***
-
**
rash
***
***
*
-
***
Other
specific
Tachypnea (34
respirations/minute),
dyspnea, and hypoxemia
*- minor symptoms, **- mostly observed symptoms, ***- majorly observed symptoms, - data not available.
Many research is going on to check that use of probiotics or neutraceuticals can prevent the infection by
antioxidant mechanism along with existing drugs available in the market [14–21].
5. Mode of transmission
The interaction of the coronavirus antigenic spike protein is complementary with the host cell receptor exhibiting
tissue tropism and infectivity [22]. The transmission primary mode of COVID-19 is via respiratory droplets from
an infected person. This generally spreads from coughs, sneezes, or talks. The fomite borne transmission is by
settling of the droplets of an infected person on the nose, eyes or mouth of a healthy
individual. Coronaviruses remain for several days on surfaces of metal, glass, or plastic for several days. The
transmission also spread by touching the face with hands contaminated by fomite mode. Respiratory droplets
settle due to heaviness as compared to air, hence, a distance of more than six feet prevent the spread of infection
from the suspected person
The basic transmission of infection is mostly by the droplet mode while it is unclear if airborne transmission
occurs with COVID-19 infection. It is thus suggested the application of protective measures, including N95 masks.
In general, the Coronavirus spread can be prevented by [2,4]:
Covering the mouth during coughing and sneezing to avoid the droplets containing the virus to spread in the air
Isolating the infected person who’s already carrying the virus from healthy individuals
Avoiding any contact with the object which contains the virus and then touching your nose or mouth
6. Conclusion
Coronavirus has affected the globe from time to time since the 20th Century by its different forms. The COVID-
19 is one of the types of Coronavirus that developed pandemic infection such as SARS, MERS, etc. The word
corona should be confused with the only COVID-19, but it is one type of acute respiratory infection such as SARS,
MERS, etc. The symptoms observed in the case of all Corona subtypes are more or less similar. Thus Corona can
briefly be called to all subtypes such as SARS, MERS and the newly evolved COVID-19.
International Journal of Innovative Science Engineering and Technology (IJISET) GETAR-2019
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Department of Pharmacology D. Y. Patil University, Kolhapur
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... The interaction of the probiotics cells with the living host cells may rarely precipitate toxicity [13][14][15][16][17][18] . The interaction of the LAB in pathophysiological conditions such as cancer is gaining importance as an alternative source of functional food [14][15][16] . To support the claim MTT test was performed on three different strains of Lactobacillus i.e. ...
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... The cytotoxicity studies of the nutraceutical products, especially the lactobacillus (LAB) formulation are gaining importance due to its industrial application [11,12]. The interaction of the probiotics cells with the living host cells may rarely precipitate toxicity [1][2][3]13,14,17,18]. The interaction of the LAB in pathophysiological conditions such as cancer is gaining importance as an alternative source of functional food [14][15][16]. ...
... The interaction of the probiotics cells with the living host cells may rarely precipitate toxicity [1][2][3]13,14,17,18]. The interaction of the LAB in pathophysiological conditions such as cancer is gaining importance as an alternative source of functional food [14][15][16]. ...
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... 4,5 milk and some plant extracts major source of probiotic, especially Lactobacillus. 2,[6][7][8] Probiotics are nothing but are a group of good microbes that may help indirectly to fight intestinal pathogens. Probiotic bacteria produce chemicals such as bacteriocins, and reuterin that act as good antimicrobial agents. ...
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... 4,5 milk and some plant extracts major source of probiotic, especially Lactobacillus. 2,[6][7][8] Probiotics are nothing but are a group of good microbes that may help indirectly to fight intestinal pathogens. Probiotic bacteria produce chemicals such as bacteriocins, and reuterin that act as good antimicrobial agents. ...
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... On the same ground, total of 100 milk samples was collected from Nagpuri (n=100) buffalo from countryside in India. Approximately 60 ml of the milk was used for the experimentation purposes [12][13][14][15] . Prior to use, the milk samples were treated by ultra-high-temperature (UHT) pasteurization for 8 s in a cyclic process of 60 min time duration. ...
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... Before the study to initiate the milk was processed with ultra-high-temperature (UHT) pasteurizedin cyclic process of 8 s for a period of 1 hour [12][13][14][15][16][17][18] . To analyse the nutrient content FOSS milk scan TM 120 (calibrated with buffalo standards, Swabhimani dairy, India) milk analyzer was used.The parameters which were screened included the total solid content (%), protein (%), casein (%), density (%), freezing point (%), fat (%) and lactose (%) in the milk sample in both raw and pasteurised conditions [17][18] . ...
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Depression is state of low mood and aversion to activity which affect a person's thoughts, behavior, feelings and sense of well-being". Its characterization done by change in mood, lack of interest in the surroundings, psychomotor retardation. In the present study Antidepressant Like Activity of Madhuca longifolia In Rat Model was studied using Forced Swim test model. In the present study, Methanolic extract of Madhuca longifolia (MEML) was evaluated by using various experimental models. MEML at doses of 750 mg/kg, p.o showed significant increase in the motor activity of mice which elevate depressed mood by decreasing immobility time of rats in Forced Swim Test.
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Complete Genome Sequence of Lactobacillus plantarum Strain JDARSH, Isolated from Sheep Milk
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2020
Lactobacillus plantarum strain JDARSH, a potential probiotic with a wide range of functions, was isolated from sheep milk. Here, we report the whole-genome sequence of this bacterium. The draft genome yielded a 3.20-Mb genome and 2,980 protein-coding sequences.
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Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV): Infection, Immunological Response, and Vaccine Development
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 2019
Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) first emerged in late 2012. Since its emergence, a total of 2279 patients from 27 countries have been infected across the globe according to a World Health Organization (WHO) report (Feb. 12th, 2019). Approximately 806 patients have died. The virus uses its spike proteins as adhesive factors that are proinflammatory for host entry through a specific receptor called dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP4). This receptor is considered a key factor in the signaling and activation of the acquired and innate immune responses in infected patients. Using potent antigens in combination with strong adjuvants may effectively trigger the activation of specific MERS-CoV cellular responses as well as the production of neutralizing antibodies. Unfortunately, to date, there is no effective approved treatment or vaccine for MERS-CoV. Thus, there are urgent needs for the development of novel MERS-CoV therapies as well as vaccines to help minimize the spread of the virus from infected patients, thereby mitigating the risk of any potential pandemics. Our main goals are to highlight and describe the current knowledge of both the innate and adaptive immune responses to MERS-CoV and the current state of MERS-CoV vaccine development. We believe this study will increase our understanding of the mechanisms that enhance the MERS-CoV immune response and subsequently contribute to the control of MERS-CoV infections.
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Molecular identification of Betacoronavirus in bats from Sardinia (Italy): first detection and phylogeny
Article
Full-text available
  • Nov 2018
  • VIRUS GENES
Bats may be natural reservoirs for a large variety of emerging viruses, including mammalian coronaviruses (CoV). The recent emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV) and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) in humans, with evidence that these viruses may have their ancestry in bats, highlights the importance of virus surveillance in bat populations. Here, we report the identification and molecular characterization of a bat β-Coronavirus, detected during a viral survey carried out on different bat species in the island of Sardinia (Italy). Cutaneous, oral swabs, and faecal samples were collected from 46 bats, belonging to 15 different species, and tested for viral presence. Coronavirus RNA was detected in faecal samples from three different species: the greater horseshoe bat (Rhinolophus ferrumequinum), the brown long-eared bat (Plecotus auritus), and the European free-tailed bat (Tadarida teniotis). Phylogenetic analyses based on RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) sequences assigned the detected CoV to clade 2b within betacoronaviruses, clustering with SARS-like bat CoVs previously reported. These findings point to the need for continued surveillance of bat CoV circulating in Sardinian bats, and extend the current knowledge on CoV ecology with novel sequences detected in bat species not previously described as β-Coronavirus hosts.
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A Rare Case of Human Coronavirus 229E Associated with Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome in a Healthy Adult
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 2018
Human coronavirus 229E (HCoV-229E) is one of the first coronavirus strains being described. It is linked to common cold symptoms in healthy adults. Younger children and the elderly are considered vulnerable to developing lower respiratory tract infections (LRTIs). In particular, immunocompromised patients have been reported with severe and life-threatening LRTIs attributed to HCoV-229E. We report for the first time a case of LRTI and acute respiratory distress syndrome developed in a healthy adult with no comorbidities and HCoV-229E strain identified as the only causative agent. A 45-year-old female with a clear medical history presented with fever, cough, and headache. Respiratory tract infection was diagnosed, and empirical antibiotics were started. Within two days, she developed bilateral pleural effusions, diffuse consolidations, and ground glass opacities involving all lung fields. She needed immediate oxygen supply, while ABGs deteriorated and chest imaging and PaO 2 /FiO 2 indicated ARDS. Early administration of systemic corticosteroids led to gradual clinical improvement. Multiplex PCR from nasal secretions was positive only for HCoV-229E and negative for multiple other pathogens. It remains to be elucidated how an immunocompetent adult developed a life-threatening LRTI caused by a “benign considered” coronavirus strain, the HCoV-229E.
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Infectious bronchitis corona virus establishes productive infection in avian macrophages interfering with selected antimicrobial functions
Article
Full-text available
Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) causes respiratory disease leading to loss of egg and meat production in chickens. Although it is known that macrophage numbers are elevated in the respiratory tract of IBV infected chickens, the role played by macrophages in IBV infection, particularly as a target cell for viral replication, is unknown. In this study, first, we investigated the ability of IBV to establish productive replication in macrophages in lungs and trachea in vivo and in macrophage cell cultures in vitro using two pathogenic IBV strains. Using a double immunofluorescent technique, we observed that both IBV Massachusetts-type 41 (M41) and Connecticut A5968 (Conn A5968) strains replicate in avian macrophages at a low level in vivo. This in vivo observation was substantiated by demonstrating IBV antigens in macrophages following in vitro IBV infection. Further, IBV productive infection in macrophages was confirmed by demonstrating corona viral particles in macrophages and IBV ribonucleic acid (RNA) in culture supernatants. Evaluation of the functions of macrophages following infection of macrophages with IBV M41 and Conn A5968 strains revealed that the production of antimicrobial molecule, nitric oxide (NO) is inhibited. It was also noted that replication of IBV M41 and Conn A5968 strains in macrophages does not interfere with the induction of type 1 IFN activity by macrophages. In conclusion, both M41 and Con A5968 IBV strains infect macrophages in vivo and in vitro resulting productive replications. During the replication of IBV in macrophages, their ability to produce NO can be affected without affecting the ability to induce type 1 IFN activity. Further studies are warranted to uncover the significance of macrophage infection of IBV in the pathogenesis of IBV infection in chickens.
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The early immune response to infection of chickens with Infectious Bronchitis Virus (IBV) in susceptible and resistant birds
Article
Full-text available
  • Oct 2015
  • BMC Vet Res
Background: Infectious Bronchitis is a highly contagious respiratory disease which causes tracheal lesions and also affects the reproductive tract and is responsible for large economic losses to the poultry industry every year. This is due to both mortality (either directly provoked by IBV itself or due to subsequent bacterial infection) and lost egg production. The virus is difficult to control by vaccination, so new methods to curb the impact of the disease need to be sought. Here, we seek to identify genes conferring resistance to this coronavirus, which could help in selective breeding programs to rear chickens which do not succumb to the effects of this disease. Methods: Whole genome gene expression microarrays were used to analyse the gene expression differences, which occur upon infection of birds with Infectious Bronchitis Virus (IBV). Tracheal tissue was examined from control and infected birds at 2, 3 and 4 days post-infection in birds known to be either susceptible or resistant to the virus. The host innate immune response was evaluated over these 3 days and differences between the susceptible and resistant lines examined. Results: Genes and biological pathways involved in the early host response to IBV infection were determined andgene expression differences between susceptible and resistant birds were identified. Potential candidate genes for resistance to IBV are highlighted. Conclusions: The early host response to IBV is analysed and potential candidate genes for disease resistance are identified. These putative resistance genes can be used as targets for future genetic and functional studies to prove a causative link with resistance to IBV.
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Probiotic potential of Lactobacillus plantarum with the cell adhesion properties
Article
  • Dec 2018
The uses of microbes as functional food maintain health and prevent many disease and disorder. The isolation and research of new strains of probiotic strains especially lactobacilli proven to be useful to satisfy the increasing demand of the population. In the current study, the probiotic potential of Lactobacillus strains isolated from sheep milk was investigated. The Lactobacillus strains were identified and evaluated for tolerance against gastric acidity and bile toxicity, along with the adhesion to HT-29 cells. The study proved the antimicrobial activities and antibiotic susceptibility. Survival of the strains through the host intestine was examined by the 12 week Wister rat feeding and faecal analysis trial. The in-vivo trials not only proved the adhesion but also the survival of the Lactobacillus plantarum MCC 3595 inside the intestinal lumen of the host. Thus, the isolated strain can act as the functional food by the further clinical investigation.
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Shelf life stability of encapsulated lactic acid bacteria isolated from Sheep milk thrived in different milk as natural media
Article
  • Sep 2018
  • SMALL RUMINANT RES
Four types of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) were isolated from sheep milk and identified by physiological, biochemical and 16S rRNA sequencing analysis. These LAB were thrived in the milk of cow, buffalo, goat, and sheep and hence characterized for colony forming unit (cfu). It is revealed that in case of buffalo milk the cfu count was found higher ∼14 × 10¹⁰ cfu mL⁻¹ comparative to other milk treated samples. Thus, this was further selected for various stress tolerance studies such as in vitro bile salt, pH, and other biochemical studies. The shelf life of LAB was also studied and found to be enhanced by encapsulation using maltodextrin and starch (2:1) by spray dry technique. The effect of maintenance temperature on shelf life stability of encapsulated LAB was found highest; 82 ± 2.5% at 4 °C after 12 months study as compared to 37 °C.
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Lactobacillus Model Moiety a New Era Dosage Form as Nutraceuticals and Therapeutic Mediator
Chapter
  • Jul 2015
In this era Bacteria are mostly considered as pathogenic. Bacteria though are pathogenic but still a few are friendly and essential for human growth and immunity; called as Probiotics. Lactobacillus model moiety is one of such probiotic bacterium which when introduced in sufficient colony serves as new prophylaxis and curing agent. This will increase the innate immunity of humans. Indian market lacks the quality uni-strain product of the probiotics as Nutraceuticals and as Health enhancing drug product. Global market is full of multi-strain microbes dosage form. The best mode to utilize Nutraceutical aspect of probiotics is to convert in dry form. These purified colony; later converted into the solid dry form by spray dry (JISL mini-spray drier) technique. Starch, lactose were used as thermo-protective agent while heat drying technique. Anti-microbial screenings carried out along with In vitro cytotoxicity studies. In vitro cytotoxicity screening evaluated that Lactobacillus powder showings anti-cancer activity nearly same as standard drug with no side effects. Dry powder increased the shelf life of the microbes that resulted in maintenance of viability and activity.
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