Geotechnical Characteristics of Soils and Rocks of India

Full text

Geotechnical Characteristics of Soils
and Rocks of India

Geotechnical Characteristics of
Soils and Rocks of India
Edited by
Sanjay Kumar Shukla
School of Engineering, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Perth, Australia

Cover image: Sanjay Kumar Shukla
First published 2022
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DOI: 10.1201/9781003177159
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by codeMantra

Contents
Preface ix
About the editor xi
List of contributors xiii
1 Introduction 1
Sanjay Kumar Shukla
2 Andaman and Nicobar Islands 11
Rajashri Shashikant Kulkarni
3 Andhra Pradesh 19
G.V. Rama Subba Rao and Chava Srinivas
4 Arunachal Pradesh 37
Ajanta Kalita, Sukumar Baruah, and Yachang Omo
5 Assam 57
Utpal Kumar Das, Diganta Goswami, and Ramani Mohan Das
6 Bihar 79
J.N. Jha, S.K. Singh, Sunita Kumari, Akash Priyadarshee,
VijayKumar, and Ashish Kumar
7 Chandigarh 103
S. K. Singh
8 Chhattisgarh 123
Laxmikant Yadu, Sunny Deol Guzzarlapudi,
MahasaktiMahamaya, and Arun Bhave

vi Contents
9 Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu 145
Rakesh Kumar, Radha J. Gonawala, Ketan Bajaj, Neetu Yadav,
Moirangthem Johnson Singh, Lalit Borana, and Chandresh H. Solanki
10 Delhi 165
Ashutosh Trivedi and Sadanand Ojha
11 Goa 199
Purnanand P. Savoikar
12 Gujarat 231
Chandresh H. Solanki, Mohit K. Mistry, and Manali S. Patel
13 Haryana 251
Ashwani Jain and Nitish Puri
14 Himachal Pradesh 279
Varinder S. Kanwar, Surinder Kumar Vashisht,
AbhishekKanoungo, Rajesh Pathak, and Manvi Kanwar
15 Jammu and Kashmir 295
Falak Zahoor and Bashir Ahmed Mir
16 Jharkhand 323
Anil K. Choudhary and Awdhesh K. Choudhary
17 Karnataka 335
C.R. Parthasarathy
18 Kerala 355
Anil Joseph, Jayamohan J., and Sreevalsa Kolathayar
19 Ladakh 375
Chandan Ghosh, Nitin Joshi, Prabhat Kumar, and Avinash Dubey
20 Lakshadweep 389
Sreevalsa Kolathayar, Nizar P.K., and Anil Joseph
21 Madhya Pradesh 407
Lalit Borana, Sanjoy Bhowmik, V.K. Panwar,
ManishKumarGoyal, and Vikas Poonia
22 Maharashtra 429
Hemant S. Chore, S. Rupali, and Gaurav Kumar

Contents vii
23 Manipur 451
Sangeeta Shougrakpam, Ashutosh Trivedi, and
Arunkumar Yendrembam
24 Meghalaya 473
Smrutirekha Sahoo
25 Mizoram 489
Naveen Kumar, Prashant Navalakha, and Ashish D. Gharpure
26 Nagaland 497
Raju Sarkar, Devashish Gupta, Aman Pawar, Sunil Saha, and
Chandan Ghosh
27 Odisha 511
Manas Chandan Mishra, Swagatika Senapati, and
BendadiHanumantha Rao
28 Puducherry 529
J. Saravanan, T. Kaviarasu, N.J.L. Ramesh, and R. Premkumar
29 Punjab 537
Harvinder Singh, K.S. Gill, and J.N. Jha
30 Rajasthan 557
Anil Dixit, Nirbhay Mathur, and Harsh Chittora
31 Sikkim 579
Kaushik Bandyopadhyay, Abhipriya Halder, Saptarshi Nandi,
Bappaditya Koley, and Subhajit Saraswati
32 Tamil Nadu 603
K. Premalatha, M. Muthukumar, B. Arun, and M. Dhanasekaran
33 Telangana 623
Balunaini Umashankar, Sravanam Sasanka Mouli, and
Chennarapu Hariprasad
34 Tripura 639
Sima Ghosh and J.R. Kayal
35 Uttarakhand 657
S.S. Gupta and V.A . S awant

viii Contents
36 Uttar Pradesh 671
Ashish Gupta, Vinay Bhushan Chauhan, and Vikrant Patel
37 West Bengal 695
Kaushik Bandyopadhyay, Abhipriya Halder, Saptarshi Nandi,
Bappaditya Koley, and Subhajit Saraswati
Index 719

Every country needs to construct and maintain infrastructures, such as buildings,
bridges, roads, railway tracks, runways, ports, tunnels, towers, dams and retaining
structures. Transport and building projects are two everyday examples as we may ex-
perience their performance, even without being engineers and technical professionals.
We also need similar infrastructures in industrial areas and mining, agriculture, aqua-
culture and energy sectors. The stability and performance of all these facilities greatly
depend on the ground strength and compressibility characteristics of soils and rocks.
For their analysis and design, the project professionals need the basic and technical
details of the project ground sites.
This book presents the basic description of soils, rocks and other similar materials
of India with a focus on the subsurface investigation in its 28 states and 8 union territo-
ries. An attempt has been made to cover more geological and geotechnical engineering
aspects. It includes the ground subsurface details in terms of boring logs, project site
photographs, engineering properties of soils/rocks and specic eld challenges. Some
details are also presented on how soils and rocks are used as construction materials.
Challenges caused by natural hazards, case studies and effects of geoenvironmental
impacts are also presented as observed in specic areas of India.
This book has adopted a simple and practical approach for easy learning of geo-
technical characteristics and related aspects, even by self-reading, in a single volume.
The engineering professionals (e.g., planners, managers, practising engineers, consult-
ants and contractors) and university students, including researchers from several areas
(civil, mining, agriculture and aquaculture), may nd relevant details in this book as
often required in analysis, design, construction and maintenance of the ground in-
frastructure/eld projects, especially for project site selection and getting the design
parameters during the initial planning and preliminary design stages of the projects.
Those dealing with geology and geological engineering, geography and soil science
may also nd useful information in this book. This book may be recommended as a
reference book in courses dealing with soils and rocks. High school students and com-
mon people may also get some useful information of their level.
I would like to extend special thanks and recognition to all the authors for their val-
uable contributions to this book. The authors have worked hard during the COVID-19
pandemic to present their contributions as per the need of the readers/users. I am truly
grateful to them.
Preface

x Preface
I would like to thank Alistair Bright, Acquisitions Editor and the staff of CRC
Press/Balkema, Taylor and Francis, and Assunta Petrone, Codemantra for their sup-
port and cooperation at all the stages of preparation and production of this book.
I wish to extend sincere appreciation to my wife, Sharmila, for her encouragement
and support throughout the preparation of the manuscript. Thanks to my daughter,
Sakshi, and my son, Sarthak, for their patience during my work on this book at home.
Finally, I welcome suggestions from the readers and users of this book for improv-
ing its contents in future editions.
Sanjay Kumar Shukla
Perth, 2021

Sanjay Kumar Shukla is Founding Editor-in-Chief of the International Journal of
Geosynthetics and Ground Engineering, Springer Nature, Switzerland. He is Found-
ing Research Group Leader (Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering) at
the School of Engineering, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Perth, Australia.
He holds the Distinguished Professorship in Civil Engineering at Delhi Technologi-
cal University, Delhi, VIT University, Vellore, Chitkara University, Solan, Himachal
Pradesh, VR Siddhartha Engineering College, Vijayawada, Amity University, Noida,
and Amrita University, Coimbatore, India. He has over 25 years of experience in
teaching, research and consultancy in the eld of Civil (Geotechnical) Engineering.
He collaborates with several world-class universities, research institutions, industries
and individuals on academic and eld projects. As a consulting geotechnical engi-
neer, he has successfully provided solutions to the challenging eld problems faced by
many engineering organisations. He has authored more than 280 research papers and
technical articles, including over 175 refereed journal publications. He is also author/
editor of 23 books, including seven textbooks and 22 book chapters. In 2020/2021,
his ICE textbooks, namely Core Principles of Soil Mechanics and Core Concepts of
Geotechnical Engineering, have been ranked number 1 by Amazon. His research and
academic works have been cited well. Shukla’s Generalized Expressions for Seismic
Active Thrust (2015) and Seismic Passive Resistance (2013) are routinely used by
practising engineers worldwide for designing the retaining structures. Shukla’s wrap-
around reinforcement technique, developed during 2007–2008, is a well-established
ground improvement technique. He has been honoured with several awards, includ-
ing 2021 ECU Aspire Award from the Business Events Perth, Australia, and the most
prestigious IGS Award 2018 from the International Geosynthetics Society (IGS), USA,
in recognition of his outstanding contribution to the development and use of geosyn-
thetics. He serves on the editorial boards of several international journals. He is a
fellow of American Society of Civil Engineers and Engineers Australia, a life fellow of
the Institution of Engineers (India) and Indian Geotechnical Society, and a member of
several other professional bodies.
About the editor

B. Arun WRD, TNPWD, Environmental Cell Division, Chennai, India
Ketan Bajaj Risk Management Solution, Noida, India
Kaushik Bandyopadhyay Department of Construction Engineering, Jadavpur University,
Kolkata, India
Sukumar Baruah NEEPCO Limited, Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh, India
Arun Bhave Marhsal Geo Test Laboratory, Raipur, India
Sanjoy Bhowmik Engineers India Limited, New Delhi, India
Lalit Borana Discipline of Civil Engineering, IIT Indore, Indore, India
Vinay Bhushan Chauhan Department of Civil Engineering, MMMUT, Gorakhpur,
India
Harsh Chittora Landmark Material Testing and Research Laboratory Pvt. Ltd.,
Jaipur, India
Hemant S. Chore Department of Civil Engineering, Dr B.R. Ambedkar National
Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, India
Anil K. Choudhary Department of Civil Engineering, NIT Jamshedpur, Jamshedpur,
India
Awdhesh K. Choudhary Department of Civil Engineering, NIT Jamshedpur, Jamshedpur,
India
Utpal Kumar Das Department of Civil Engineering, Tezpur University, Tezpur, India
Ramani Mohan Das Public Works Department, Chandmari, Guwahati, India
M. Dhanasekaran Public Works Department, Kottar, India
Anil Dixit Landmark Material Testing and Research Laboratory Pvt. Ltd., Jaipur,
India
Avinash Dubey Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
Jammu, Ban, India
Ashish D. Gharpure Genstru Consultants Pvt. Ltd., Wakad, India
Contributors

xiv Contributors
Chandan Ghosh National Institute of Disaster Management, Ministry of Home Affairs,
Government of India, New Delhi, India
Sima Ghosh Civil Engineering Department, National Institute of Technology, Agartala,
India
K.S. Gill Civil Engineering Department, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering College,
Ludhiana, India
Radha J. Gonawala Department of Civil Engineering, Sardar Vallabhbhai National
Institute of Technology, Surat, India
Diganta Goswami Department of Civil Engineering, Assam Engineering College,
Guwahati, India
Manish Kumar Goyal Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Indore, Indore, India
Ashish Gupta Department of Civil Engineering, BIET Jhansi, Jhansi, India
Devashish Gupta Department of Civil Engineering, Delhi Technological University,
New Delhi, India
S.S. Gupta Department of Civil Engineering, College of Technology, G.B. Pant
University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar, India
Sunny Deol Guzzarlapudi Department of Civil Engineering, NIT Raipur, Raipur, India
Abhipriya Halder Department of Construction Engineering Jadavpur University,
Kolkata, India
Chennarapu Hariprasad Department of Civil Engineering, Ecole Centrale School of
Engineering, Mahindra University, Hyderabad, India
Ashwani Jain Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology
(NIT), Kurukshetra, India
Jayamohan J. LBS Institute of Technology for Women, Thiruvananthapuram, India
J.N. Jha Formerly Muzaffarpur Institute of Technology, Muzaffarpur, India,
Anil Joseph Geostructurals (P) Ltd., Cochin, India
Nitin Joshi Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Jammu,
Ban, India
Ajanta Kalita Department of Civil Engineering, North Eastern Regional Institute of
Science and Technology, Nirjuli, India
Abhishek Kanoungo Chitkara School of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara
Univer sity, Chandigarh, India
Manvi Kanwar Chitkara School of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara University,
Chandigarh, India
Varinder S. Kanwar Chitkara School of Engineering and Technology, Chitkara
University, Chandigarh, India

Contributors xv
T. Kaviarasu Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, Annamalai University,
Chidambaram, India
J.R. Kayal Civil Engineering Department, National Institute of Technology Agartala,
Agartala, India, (Formerly Geological Survey of India), Kolkata, India
Sreevalsa Kolathayar Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of
Technology Karnataka, Mangalore, India
Bappaditya Koley Department of Construction Engineering, Jadavpur University,
Kolkata, India
Rajashri Shashikant Kulkarni Department of Civil Engineering, Dr B. R. Ambedkar
Institute of Technology, Port Blair, India
Ashish Kumar Department of Civil Engineering, Muzaffarpur Institute of Technology,
Muzaffarpur, India
Gaurav Kumar SNF India, 1408 Laurel Building, Nahar Amrit Shakti, Chandivali,
India
Naveen Kumar Genstru Consultants Pvt. Ltd., Wakad, India
Prabhat Kumar Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
Jammu, Ban, India
Rakesh Kumar Department of Civil Engineering, Sardar Vallabhbhai National Insti-
tute of Technology, Surat, India
Vijay Kumar Department of Civil Engineering, Muzaffarpur Institute of Technology,
Muzaffarpur, India
Sunita Kumari Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology,
Patna, India
Mahasakti Mahamaya O.P. Jindal University, Raigarh, India
Nirbhay Mathur Landmark Material Testing and Research Laboratory Pvt. Ltd.,
Jaipur, India
Bashir Ahmed Mir Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology
Srinagar, Srinagar, India
Manas Chandan Mishra School of Infrastructure, IIT Bhubaneswar, Khordha,
India
Mohit K. Mistry Department of Civil Engineering, Sardar Vallabhbhai National
Institute of Technology, Surat, India
Sravanam Sasanka Mouli Department of Civil Engineering, VNR VJIET, Hyderabad,
India
M. Muthukumar School of Civil Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT),
Vel lore, India

xvi Contributors
Saptarshi Nandi Department of Construction Engineering, Jadavpur University,
Kolkata, India
Prashant Navalakha Genstru Consultants Pvt. Ltd., Wakad, India
Sadanand Ojha Swati Structure Solutions Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, India
Yachang Omo Department of Civil Engineering, Central Institute of Technology,
Kokrajhar (CIT), India
Nizar P.K. Calicut Central Subdivision, CPWD, Calicut, India
V.K. Panwar Engineers India Limited, Gurugram, India
C.R. Parthasarathy Sarathy Geotech & Engineering Services Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore,
India
Manali S. Patel Department of Civil Engineering, Sardar Vallabhbhai National
Institute of Technology, Surat, India
Vikrant Patel Department of Civil Engineering, BIET Jhansi, Jhansi, India
Rajesh Pathak Thapar Institute of Engineering and Technology, Patiala, India
Aman Pawar Department of Civil Engineering, Delhi Technological University, New
Delhi, India
Vikas Poonia Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Indore, Indore, India
K. Premalatha Department of Civil Engineering, Anna University, Chennai, India
R. Premkumar Department of Civil Engineering, Pondicherry University, Puducherry,
India
Akash Priyadarshee Department of Civil Engineering, Muzaffarpur Institute of
Technology, Muzaffarpur, India
Nitish Puri Environment Division, AECOM India Private Limited, Chennai, India
N.J.L. Ramesh Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, Annamalai University,
Chidambaram, India
Bendadi Hanumantha Rao School of Infrastructure, IIT Bhubaneswar, Khordha, India
G.V. Rama Subba Rao Department of Civil Engineering, Velagapudi Ramakrishna
Siddhartha Engineering College, Vijayawada, India
S. Rupali Department of Civil Engineering, Dr B.R. Ambedkar National Institute of
Technology, Jalandhar, India
Sunil Saha Department of Geography, University of Gour Banga, Malda, India
Smrutirekha Sahoo Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology
Meghalaya, Shillong, India
Subhajit Saraswati Department of Construction Engineering, Jadavpur University,
Kolkata, India

Contributors xvii
J. Saravanan Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, Annamalai University,
Chidambaram, India
Raju Sarkar Department of Civil Engineering, Delhi Technological University, New
Delhi, India
V. A. S aw an t Depar tment of Civil Engineeri ng, Ind ian Institute of Technology Roorkee,
Roorkee, India
Purnanand P. Savoikar Department of Civil Engineering, Goa College of Engineering,
Ponda, India
Swagatika Senapati Institute of Technical Education and Research (ITER), SOA
University, Bhubaneswar, India
Sangeeta Shougrakpam Department of Civil Engineering, Delhi Technological
University, New Delhi, India and, Department of Civil Engineering, Manipur
Institute of Technology, Imphal, India
Harvinder Singh Civil Engineering Department, Guru Nanak Dev Engineering
College, Ludhiana, India
Moirangthem Johnson Singh Discipline of Civil Engineering, IIT Indore, Indore, India
S. K. Singh Department of Civil Engineering, Punjab Engineering College (Deemed to
be University), Chandigarh, India
Chandresh H. Solanki Department of Civil Engineering, Sardar Vallabhbhai National
Institute of Technology, Surat, India
Chava Srinivas Department of Civil Engineering, Velagapudi Ramakrishna Siddhartha
Engineering College, Vijayawada, India
Ashutosh Trivedi Department of Civil Engineering, Delhi Technological University,
New Delhi, India
Balunaini Umashankar Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India
Surinder Kumar Vashisht Himachal Pradesh Housing and Urban Development Authority
(HIMUDA), Dharamshala, India
Neetu Yadav Department of Civil Engineering, Shree Starambhai Naranjibhai Patel
Institute of Technology and Research Centre, Surat, India
Laxmikant Yadu Department of Civil Engineering, NIT Raipur, Raipur, India
Arunkumar Yendrembam Department of Civil Engineering, Manipur Institute of
Technology, Imphal, India
Falak Zahoor Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology
Srinagar, Srinagar, India

Chapter 1
Introduction
Sanjay Kumar Shukla
Edith Cowan University
CONTENTS
1.1 Soil and rock ........................................................................................................1
1.2 India and its states and union territories ............................................................. 3
1.3 Structure and use of this book ............................................................................. 6
1.3.1 Contents ....................................................................................................7
1.3.2 Introduction .............................................................................................. 7
1.3.3 Major types of soils and rocks .................................................................. 7
1.3.4 Properties of soils and rocks ..................................................................... 7
1.3.5 Use of soils and rocks as construction materials ...................................... 7
1.3.6 Foundations and other geotechnical structures .......................................7
1.3.7 Other geomaterials ...................................................................................7
1.3.8 Natural hazards ........................................................................................7
1.3.9 Case studies and eld tests........................................................................8
1.3.10 Geoenvironmental impact on soils and rocks ..........................................8
1.3.11 Concluding remarks .................................................................................8
1.3.12 References .................................................................................................8
1.4 Concluding remarks ............................................................................................9
References .....................................................................................................................9
1.1 SOIL AND ROCK
The materials that constitute the Earth’s crust are arbitrarily divided by civil engi-
neers into soil and rock. Soil, a natural aggregate of mineral grains, comprises all the
materials in the surface layer of the Earth’s crust that are loose enough to be moved by
a spade or shovel. In general, soil is a particulate and multiphase system consisting of
three phases, namely solid, liquid and gas. The space in a soil mass occupied by liquid
and/or gas is known as the void. Dry soil has only air in the void, while the void volume
of a fully saturated soil is occupied by water only. There are several phase relation-
ships and inter-relationships as detailed in the textbook of Shukla (2014). Based on the
method of formation, soils are classied as residual soils, sedimentary soils, organic
soils and lls (or man-made soils). Figure 1.1 shows a project site view of the soil mass.
Permeability, compressibility and shear strength are the most important properties
of soil, which are used in a suitable form by civil engineers for designing geotechnical
structures and other ground-related infrastructures.
Rock is a natural aggregate of mineral grains connected by strong and perma-
nent internal cohesive forces and occurs in large masses and fragments. Rocks gen-
erally require blasting for their excavation. Based on their formation by geological
DOI: 10.1201/9781003177159-1

2 Geotechnical Characteristics of Soils and Rocks
processes, rocks are classied as igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic
rocks. Granite, basalt, dolerite, gabbro and rhyolite are examples of igneous rocks.
Sandstone, limestone, shale and conglomerate are examples of sedimentary rocks.
Quartzite, marble, slate, mica schist, graphite and gneiss are examples of metamorphic
rocks. A rock mass generally behaves as an inhomogeneous and anisotropic material
because of the presence of discontinuities in different forms such as joints, fractures
and bedding planes. Figure 1.2 shows a project site view of the rock mass. Permeabil-
ity, strength/stiffness and durability are important properties of rocks.
Figure 1.1 A project site view of the soil mass.
Figure 1.2 A project site view of the rock mass.

Introduction 3
The index properties of soils and rocks are total unit weight, void ratio, spe-
cic gravity of solids, water content, degree of saturation and water absorption.
For soils, consistency limits, namely, liquid limit, plastic limit and shrinkage limit,
and particle size classication are the index properties, which help in classifying
the soiland predicting its behaviour during the initial planning/designing of a
projectsite.
Soil and rock support the structural foundations, and they are used as construc-
tion materials in various civil/geotechnical/infrastructure engineering projects.
The engineering properties of soil and rock at and/or beneath the ground surface
at a project site can vary dramatically. A thorough site investigation (also known
as site exploration) is therefore a prerequisite for the design of civil engineering
structures and mining excavations. The purpose of site investigation is to conduct a
scientic examination of the site for collecting as much information as possible at a
minimal cost about the existing topographical and geological features of the site, for
example, exposed overburden, course of streams/rivers nearby, rock outcrop, hillock
or valley, and vegetation, and mainly the subsurface conditions underlying the site
(Shukla, 2015).
The subject dealing with soil, rock and similar materials (e.g., coal ashes, mine
tailings) is known as geotechnical engineering. This subject involves analysis, de-
sign, construction, maintenance and renovation of geotechnical structures, which
can be categorised into the following seven basic types: foundation, retaining wall,
slope, embankment, earth dam, tunnel and pavement (Shukla, 2014, 2015). Geotech-
nical engineering presents cost-effective, sustainable and environmentally friendly
solutions to soil and rock problems. Sound background knowledge of engineering
geology, soil mechanics and rock mechanics is essential for becoming a geotechnical
engineer.
1.2 INDIA AND ITS STATES AND UNION TERRITORIES
India, ofcially the Republic of India and also known as Bharat, Hindustan and
Aryavarta, is a constitutional country in South Asia with New Delhi as its capital.
It has 28 states and 8 union territories (UTs) as listed below (Figure 1.3):
States of India
1. Andhra Pradesh
2. Arunachal Pradesh
3. Assam
4. Bihar
5. Chhattisgarh
6. Goa
7. Gujarat
8. Haryana
9. Himachal Pradesh
10. Jharkhand
11. Karnataka

4 Geotechnical Characteristics of Soils and Rocks
12. Kerala
13. Madhya Pradesh
14. Maharashtra
15. Manipur
16. Meghalaya
17. Mizoram
LADAKH
Leh
Srinager
Jammu
Shimla
Dehradun
Jaipur
Lucknow
Patna
Gangtok Itanagar
Dispur
Shillong Kohima
Imphal
Aizawl
Agartala
Kolkata
Ranchi
Bhubaneswar
Port Blair
International Boundary
State/UT Boundary
Country Capital
State/UT Capital
BAY
OF
BENGAL
ARABIAN
SEA
Rajpur
Bhopal
Gandhinager
Daman
Mumbai
Panaji
Hyderabad
Amaravati
Chennai
Bengaluru
Kavaratti
Thiruvananthapuram
I N D I A N O C E A N
HIMACHAL
PRADESH
UTTARAKHAND
PUNJAB
CHANDIGARH
PAKISTAN
TAJIKISTAN
I N D I A
AFGHANISTAN
RAJASTHAN
GUJARAT MADHYA PRADESH
CHHATTISGARH
MAHARASHTRA
D
ADRA & NAGAR
HAVELI AND
DAMAN & DIU
TELANGANA
ANDHRA
PRADESH
GOA KARNATAKA
TAMIL NADU
SRI
LANKA
PUDUCHERRY
Karaikal
(Puducherry)
Mahe
(Puducherry)
LAKSHADWEEP
(INDIA)
KERALA
Yanam
(Puducherry)
HARYANA
DELHI New Delhi
UTTAR PRADESH
CHINA
(TIBET)
SIKKIM
States and Union Territories
BHUTAN
NAGALANDASSAM
MANIPUR
MIZORAM
MYANMAR
(BURMA)
TRIPURA
MEGHALAYA
BIHAR
JHARKHAND
ODISHA
WEST
BENGAL
BANGLADESH
ARUNACHAL
PRADESH
NEPAL
JAMMU &
KASHMIR
Figure 1.3 Map of India showing its capital, 28 states and 8 UTs with their capitals, state
boundaries and international boundaries (Maps of India, 2021).

Introduction 5
18. Nagaland
19. Odisha
20. Punjab
21. Rajasthan
22. Sikkim
23. Tamil Na du
24. Telangana
25. Tripura
26. Uttarakhand
27. Uttar Pradesh
28. West Bengal
Union Territories of India
1. Andaman and Nicobar Islands
2. Chandigarh
3. Daman and Diu and Dadar and Nagar Haveli
4. Delhi
5. Jammu and Kashmir
6. Ladakh
7. Lakshadweep
8. Puducherry
With reference to land area, India ranks the seventh-largest country in the world and is
the second-most populous country (Britan nica, 2021). Though the country’s population
remains largely rural, Mumbai, Kolkata and Delhi are the three most populous cities
of India. Bengaluru, Chennai and Hyderabad are amongst the world’s fastest-growing
high-technology centres. India has roughly one-third coastline, bounded by the Indian
Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest and the Bay of Bengal on the
southeast. India is bounded on the northwest by Pakistan, on the north by Nepal,
China and Bhutan, and on the east by Myanmar and Bangladesh. In the Indian Ocean,
Sri Lanka is in the vicinity of India, about 65 km off the southeast coast of India, and
also the Maldives. Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India share a maritime border
with Thailand and Indonesia (Britannica, 2021; Wikipedia, 2021). The Himalayas,
which is the loftiest mountain system in the world and is geologically young, form the
northern limit of India.
There is a wide range of soil and rock types in India. Igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks are found in different states/UTs of India. As the products of
natural environmental weathering processes, soils can be broadly divided into two
groups: residual (or in situ) soils and transported soils. The type of soil is determined
by numerous factors, including parent rock/material, topography, climate, organisms
and time (Sivakugan et al., 2013; Shukla, 2014). Figure 1.4 shows the major soil map
of India with soils classied as alluvial, desert, black, mixed red and black, red, grey
and black, laterite and mountain soils. Chapters 2–37 present the details of soils and
rocks and related aspects focussing on their geological/geotechnical characteristics as
observed in the respective Indian state/UT.

6 Geotechnical Characteristics of Soils and Rocks
1.3 STRUCTURE AND USE OF THIS BOOK
This book presents the geotechnical characteristics of soils and rocks of all the 28
states and 8 UTs of India. There are 37 chapters, including this chapter, in this book,
and Chapters 2–37 have been presented according to the alphabetical order of the
states and UTs. Each chapter, contributed by a team of authors, follows a common
section format as applicable. The sections are described below.
Port Blair
BAY
OF
BENGAL
ARABIAN
SEA
I N D I A N O C E A N
PAKISTAN
N
S
EW
TAJIKISTAN
I N D I A
AFGHANISTAN
DADRA &
NAGAR HAVELI
GOA
SRI
LANKA
PUDUCHERRY
Karaikal
(Puducherry)
Mahe
(Puducherry)
LAKSHADWEEP
(INDIA)
Yanam
(Puducherry)
CHINA
(TIBET)
SIKKIM
MAJOR SOIL MAP
MYANMAR
(BURMA)
NEPAL
DAMAN & DIU
Soil
LEGEND
Soil type Depth of
soil in cm
Above 300
Below 300
100−300
50−100
25−50
25
25
Below 25
Soil pH
range
Alluvial
Desert
Black
Mixed red & black
Red
Gray & brown
Laterite
Mountain
6.5-8.4
6.5-8.4
6.5-7. 5
5.2-7. 5
7. 6-8.9
Below 5.5
5.0-6.5
7. 6-8.4
International Boundary
State Boundary
BHUTAN
BANGLADESH
LADAKH
HIMACHAL
PRADESH
UTTARAKHAND
PUNJAB
CHANDIGARH
RAJASTHAN
MADHYA PRADESH
CHHATTISGARH
MAHARASHTRA
TELANGANA
ANDHRA
PRADESH
KARNATAKA
TAMIL NADU
KERALA
HARYANA
DELHI
UTTAR PRADESH
BHUTAN
MANIPUR
MIZORAM
TRIPURA
MEGHALAYA
BIHAR
JHARKHAND
ODISHA
WEST
BENGAL
BANGLADESH
JAMMU &
KASHMIR
GUJARAT
ASSAM
ARUNACHAL
PRADESH
NAGALAND
Figure 1.4 Major soil map of India (Maps of India, 2021).

Introduction 7
1.3.1 Contents
This section provides the contents of the chapter.
1.3.2 Introduction
This section includes very basic information about the geology, soils and rocks of an
Indian state/UT. A general map of the state/UT is also presented.
1.3.3 Major types of soils and rocks
This section describes major types of soils and rocks as observed during the geological
and geotechnical site investigations.
1.3.4 Properties of soils and rocks
This section provides typical engineering geological information and geotechnical
properties of soils/rocks as observed in open pits/boreholes. The properties have been
included in tabular, graphical or other suitable forms with relevant discussion.
1.3.5 Use of soils and rocks as construction materials
In most of the chapters, an attempt is made to explain how soils and rocks are used in
the particular state for the construction of geotechnical and other structures.
1.3.6 Foundations and other geotechnical structures
Soils and rocks are often used as foundations of structures (buildings, bridges, towers,
retaining structures, embankments, slopes, dams, canals and so on), including founda-
tions for electrical and mechanical infrastructures/poles/machines. This section high-
lights some related aspects.
1.3.7 Other geomaterials
In addition to soils and rocks, there are some waste materials, such as y ash, bot-
tom ash and mine tailings, which are often utilised in civil/geotechnical engineering
applications in the way we use soils and rocks. This section covers some aspects in this
regard, as applicable.
1.3.8 Natural hazards
Most of the Indian states/UTs face geotechnical problems caused by natural hazards
(e.g., earthquakes/volcanoes, landslides/erosion, oods, avalanches). This section

8 Geotechnical Characteristics of Soils and Rocks
covers some details of the hazards focussing on how they affect foundations and other
geotechnical structures.
1.3.9 Case studies and eld tests
As possible, some case studies of success and/or failure of geotechnical structures
as observed/reported in the state have been described with specic technical details,
including a brief description of the eld tests.
1.3.10 Geoenvironmental impact on soils and rocks
This section highlights some aspects of the geoenvironmental impact caused by tem-
perature change, climate change, global warming, and interaction with wastes, chem-
icals and so forth on soil, rock and geotechnical structures.
1.3 .11 Concluding remarks
Each chapter ends with some key points about the soils, rocks and other related aspects
of that particular state or UT.
1.3.12 References
The relevant references are included.
All the chapters with the above sections cover highly practical information and
technical data for application in ground infrastructure projects, including foundations
of structures (buildings, towers, tanks, machines and so on), highway, railway and air-
port pavements, embankments, retaining structures/walls, dams, reservoirs, canals,
ponds, landlls and tunnels. Engineering professionals (e.g., practising engineers, con-
sultants, contractors) and university students, including researchers from several areas
(civil, mining, agriculture, aquaculture), may get some useful basic technical details
as often required in the analysis, design, construction and maintenance of the ground
infrastructure/eld projects, especially during the initial project planning and prelim-
inary design stage. Though this book covers the Indian ground characteristics, the in-
formation provided in this book is quite helpful to the professionals of other countries
having similar ground conditions.
It is important to note that no two project sites/locations have identical subsoil
proles, water table locations and other geological/topographical features. In most
cases, the variation in geotechnical properties of soil and rock is extremely large. Ad-
ditionally, the climate at the project site differs signicantly. As the geographical area
of states and UTs is large, it is difcult to present the variation in the subsoil prole
from a geotechnical point of view in a comprehensive form. Certainly, the informa-
tion presented in this book provides basic information only. It is mandatory/obliga-
tory to conduct detailed site investigations and testing for any specic construction/
infrastructure project. The geological and geotechnical information presented in this

Introduction 9
book may help practising engineers to plan a proper soil investigation and testing pro-
gramme. Inadequate soil investigation or change of project location of a construction
site without carrying out the studies at its new place may result in considerable damage
to constructed facilities.
It is also important to note that the information provided in this book does not
imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the chapter’s contribu-
tors, editor or publisher concerning the legal status of the state, territory, city or area.
Moreover, the data presented do not necessarily represent the exact status of the soil/
rock, and only give an idea about the subsurface prole while the detailed investiga-
tions are essentially required for any ground projects in the civil, mining, agriculture,
aquaculture and other related areas.
1.4 CONCLUDING REMARKS
1. Soil, a natural aggregate of mineral grains, comprises all the materials in the sur-
face layer of the Earth’s crust that are loose enough to be moved by a spade or
shovel.
2. Rock is a natural aggregate of mineral grains connected by strong and permanent
internal cohesive forces and occurs in large masses and fragments. Rocks gener-
ally require blasting for their excavation.
3. India has 28 states and 8 UTs, and this book covers several aspects of soil, rock
and other related details as observed in all the states and UTs of India.
4. Chapters 2–37 have been presented according to the alphabetical order of the
states and UTs. This book provides only basic information about soil, rock and
related aspects. The evaluation of soil and rock for any ground-related project
shall be based on site-specic investigation and testing.
5. The information in this book has been presented only for learning the several
geotechnical aspects of the soils and rocks of India. The contributors, editor or
publisher of this book has no legal responsibility for the correctness and accuracy
of the details as included, although the contributors have taken all the care.
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Introduction
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information provided in this book is quite helpful to the professionals of other countries having similar ground
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