ArticlePDF Available

A short review on Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Types, Symptoms, Prevention and Treatment

April 2022
International Journal for Pharmaceutical Research Scholars 7(1):1202-1204

DOI:10.35629/7781-070112021204

Authors:

Aman Kumar

University of Petroleum and Energy Studies

Suraj Mandal

IIMT Group of Colleges

Show all 5 authorsHide

In this present review studying about the attention deficit hyperactivity disorder which may cause sleep disease, anxiety, depression and certain type of learning disabilities etc. Former enquiry command linked meaningful commutability in consideration deficiency/hyperactivity complaint.It is by and large previously analyzed in immaturity and as often as possible keeps going into greater part. Youngsters with ADHD might experience difficulty focusing, controlling rash activities or be excessively action. Attention inadequacy hyperactivity objection (ADHD) is recorded by thought, hyperac-tivity and impulsivity in compatibility of DSM-IV.ADHD frequency calculation all over the world by and large got across by mythological courses and remedy everywhere the once many ten years hold power enterprises about whether the right diffusion of the complaint has acceleratedceased movement.

Content uploaded by Suraj Mandal

Content may be subject to copyright.

International Journal of Pharmaceutical Research and Applications

Volume 7, Issue 1 Jan-Feb 2022, pp: 1202-1204 www.ijprajournal.com ISSN: 2249-7781

DOI: 10.35629/7781-070112021204 | Impact Factor value 7.429 | ISO 9001: 2008 Certified Journal Page 1202

A short review on Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

(ADHD): Types, Symptoms, Prevention and Treatment

Devrat Singh1, Aman Kumar2, Ramandeep Kaur3, Suraj Mandal4*, Sanjeev Ku-

mar5

1,2,3,4,5 Pt. Rajendra Prasad Smarak College of Pharmacy, Campus- KajriNiranjanpur, Khutar Road, Puranpur,

Pilibhit, Uttar Pradesh, India, 262122

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Submitted: 05-02-2022 Accepted: 20-02-2022

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

ABSTRACT-

In this present review studying about theattention

deficit hyperactivity disorder which may cause

sleep disease, anxiety, depression and certain type

of learning disabilities etc. Former enquiry com-

mand linked meaningful commutability in consid-

eration deficiency/hyperactivity complaint.It is by

and large previously analyzed in immaturity and as

often as possible keeps going into greater part.

Youngsters with ADHD might experience difficul-

ty focusing, controlling rash activities or be exces-

sively action. Attention inadequacy hyperactivity

objection (ADHD) is recorded by thought, hyperac-

tivity and impulsivity in compatibility of DSM-

IV.ADHD frequency calculation all over the world

by and large got across by mythological courses

and remedy everywhere the once many ten years

hold power enterprises about whether the right dif-

fusion of the complaint has acceleratedceased

movement.

Keywords: ADHD,DSM-IV, attention deficit

hyperactivity disorder.

I. INTRODUCTION:

ADHD is one of the most common neuro-

developmental diseases of nonage. It is generally

first diagnosed in nonage and frequently lasts into

majority. Children with ADHD may have trouble

paying attention, controlling impulsive actions or

be exorbitantly action.[1] Attention deficiency

hyperactivity complaint (ADHD) is inscribed by

consideration, hyperactivity and impulsivity in pur-

suance of DSM-IV. [2] The world Health Organiza-

tion (WHO) utilizing apart name hyperactive com-

plaint (hyperkinetic disorder) but lists analogous

functional yard stick for the complaint. Heed lower

of the name used ADHD/HD is one of the most

thoroughly delved diseases in drug.[3, 4]It has been

allied with an expanded range of negatory issues

for affected subjectsand with a solemnfical burden

to families and society.[5, 6, 7]which inscribe it as a

major public health probleman understanding of

the epidemiological aspect of ADHD/HD may give

sapience into its dispensation and origin specifical-

ly (etiology) as well as acquaintance for convening

the allotment of finances for internal health servic-

es in once a period of 10 years especially (decades),

in experimenter (inquisitor) from all regions of the

world have made stantaial sweats.[8, 9]

Types:

there are three different types of ADHD depending

on which types of symptoms are strongest in the

individual persons:

1. Predominantly Inattentive Presentation: It

is difficult for the particular to manage or get

over an action. To give consideration to ex-

pending or to adhere reference or exchange.

The individual is fluently anxious or forgets

specific thing of diurnal banality.[10]

2. Predominantly hyperactive-impulsive pres-

entation: The individual becomes suddenness

and a loquacious person. It is difficult to squat

stagnant for prolong. lower children may run

jump or climb constantly. The person feels

restless and has trouble with impulsivity.

3. Combined presentation:The combined form

of above both two have seen in this or inverse-

ly present in this.[11]

Symptoms:

Now the first step to know the symptoms

start to talk the health care provider to find out the

correct symptoms, but every time it has the differ-

ent symptoms. The different type of ADHD has

different symptoms. some of the symptoms are

given below:

 Like sleep disease

 Anxiety

 Depression

 Certain type of learning disabilities

 Analogous symptoms

 Day dreams a lot

International Journal of Pharmaceutical Research and Applications

Volume 7, Issue 1 Jan-Feb 2022, pp: 1202-1204 www.ijprajournal.com ISSN: 2249-7781

DOI: 10.35629/7781-070112021204 | Impact Factor value 7.429 | ISO 9001: 2008 Certified Journal Page 1203

 Talk too much

 Have difficulty getting along with others [12]

On the basis of type of ADHD symptoms

are seen if criteria inattention and hyperactivity-

impulsivity both were present for last six months

then it is combined presentation. If enough symp-

toms of inattention, but not hyperactivity-

impulsivity were present for the past six months

then it is predominantly inattentive presentation.[13]

And the last one is predominantly hyperactive-

impulsive presentation it has the enough symptoms

of hyperactivity-impulsivity but not intention. The

American academy of pediatrics (AAP) recom-

mends that health care providers ask parents, pre-

ceptors and other grown-ups who watch for the

child about the child’s geste in different settings

like at home, academy or with peers. The health-

care provider should examine that which type of

the symptoms does the child have.[14]

Prevention:

The prevention of ADHD generally prec-

ludes comforting or specifics, either single or in

admixture.Whileremedy may ameliorate lengthy

tour issues, it does not master relief of adversarial

issues entirely.[15]Specific operated contain instiga-

tions, atomoxetine which makes you tired and slee-

py, nascence-2 adrenergic receptor agonist, and

occasionally antidepressant.[16,17] in those who hold

condition fastening on lengthy tour prices a big

quantum of admiring under pinning worsen duty

interpretation. [18]ADHDinstigation alike ameliorate

continuity and assignment version in kids with

ADHD.[19, 20]

Treatment:

The advice for ADHD treatment means

many modes paths involving pharmacotherapy and

psychosocial in difficult situation as the major part

efficient. earliest range specific for the remedy of

ADHD are instigations (methylphenidate, hybrid

amphetamine mariners, and amphetamine deriva-

tions lisdexamfetamine and dextroamphetamine).

Alternate file specifics are atomoxetine,tricyclic

antidepressant, bupropion and nascence agonist

meta-anatomies and methodical retrospect display

moderate to hefty fate sizes of instigation in low

hitch discount of symptom.[21, 22]

II. CONCLUSION:

ADHD is a disease which spread most

widely in nonage.It is a neurodevelopment disorder

characterizedby inattention, hyperactivity, and im-

pulsivity, which are extensive impairingand age

inappropriate. Due to affect this condition any child

cannot be concentrate/attention properly.it is envi-

ronmental as well as a genetic problem.It is usually

spread into the child at the age of under twelve

years.Someare the very effective symptoms of this

diseaselike children have difficulty in playing and

controlling on behavior. It is treated based on the

symptoms of the disease.It is treated by the psyco-

therepy and as well as change in the lifestyle of

child.Some medications are given which are stimu-

lant like methylphenidate and mixed amphetamine

salts.

Conflict of Interest; The authors declare that the

review was conducted in the absence of any com-

mercial or financial relationships that could be con-

strued as a potential conflict of interest

Acknowledgement: The authors are thankful to

his/her parents.

Funding: None.

Ethics approval and consent to participate: Not

applicable.

Human and animal rights: Not applicable.

Consent for publication: Not applicable.

Code availability: Not applicable.

REFERENCE:

[1]. Jaeschke RR, Sujkowska E, Sowa-Kućma

M. Methylphenidate for attention-

deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults: a

narrative review. Psychopharmacology.

2021 Oct;238(10):2667-91

[2]. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnos-

tic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disord-

ers DSM 4 TR (Text Revision). American

Psychiatric Association; 2003.

[3]. World Health Organization. The ICD-10

classification of mental and behavioural dis-

orders: clinical descriptions and diagnostic

guidelines. World Health Organization;

1992.

[4]. Goldman LS, Genel M, Bezman RJ, Slanetz

PJ. Diagnosis and Treatment of Attention-

Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Jama. 1998

Apr 8;279(14):14.

[5]. Dulcan M. Practice parameters for the as-

sessment and treatment of children, adoles-

cents, and adults with attention-

deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the

American Academy of Child & Adolescent

Psychiatry. 1997 Oct 1;36(10):85S-121S.

[6]. Swanson JM, Sergeant JA, Taylor E, Sonu-

ga-Barke EJ, Jensen PS, Cantwell DP. At-

tention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and

hyperkinetic disorder. The Lancet. 1998 Feb

7;351(9100):429-33.

International Journal of Pharmaceutical Research and Applications

Volume 7, Issue 1 Jan-Feb 2022, pp: 1202-1204 www.ijprajournal.com ISSN: 2249-7781

DOI: 10.35629/7781-070112021204 | Impact Factor value 7.429 | ISO 9001: 2008 Certified Journal Page 1204

[7]. Stubbe DE. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity

disorder overview: Historical perspective,

current controversies, and future directions.

Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of

North America. 2000 Jul 1;9(3):469-79.

[8]. Kumawat AR, Singh K, Mangal G. SCOPE

OF PANCHAKARMA IN NEURO-

DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDERS.

[9]. Bakare MO. Attention deficit hyperactivity

symptoms and disorder (ADHD) among

African children: a review of epidemiology

and co-morbidities: original. African journal

of psychiatry. 2012 Sep 1;15(5):358-61.

[10]. Magnin E, Maurs C. Attention-

deficit/hyperactivity disorder during adult-

hood. Revue neurologique. 2017 Jul

1;173(7-8):506-15.

[11]. Wamulugwa J, Kakooza A, Kitaka SB, Na-

lugya J, Kaddumukasa M, Moore S, Sajatov-

ic M, Katabira E. Prevalence and associated

factors of attention deficit hyperactivity dis-

order (ADHD) among Ugandan children; a

cross-sectional study. Child and adolescent

psychiatry and mental health. 2017

Dec;11(1):1-7.

[12]. Daley D, Hollis CP. The World Federation

of ADHD international consensus statement:

208 evidence-based conclusions about the

disorder.

[13]. Barbaresi WJ, Colligan RC, Weaver AL,

Voigt RG, Killian JM, Katusic SK. Mortali-

ty, ADHD, and psychosocial adversity in

adults with childhood ADHD: a prospective

study. Pediatrics. 2013 Apr 1;131(4):637-44.

[14]. Faraone SV, Banaschewski T, Coghill D,

Zheng Y, Biederman J, Bellgrove MA,

Newcorn JH, Gignac M, Al Saud NM, Ma-

nor I, Rohde LA. The world federation of

ADHD international consensus statement:

208 evidence-based conclusions about the

disorder. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Re-

views. 2021 Sep 1;128:789-818.

[15]. Shaw M, Hodgkins P, Caci H, Young S,

Kahle J, Woods AG, Arnold LE. A syste-

matic review and analysis of long-term out-

comes in attention deficit hyperactivity dis-

order: effects of treatment and non-

treatment. BMC medicine. 2012

Dec;10(1):1-5.

[16]. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnos-

tic and statistical manual of mental disorders

DMS V. Diagnostic and statistical manual of

mental disorders.

[17]. Bidwell LC, McClernon FJ, Kollins SH.

Cognitive enhancers for the treatment of

ADHD. Pharmacology Biochemistry and

Behavior. 2011 Aug 1;99(2):262-74.

[18]. Modesto-Lowe V, Chaplin M, Soovajian V,

Meyer A. Are motivation deficits underesti-

mated in patients with ADHD? A review of

the literature. Postgraduate medicine. 2013

Jul 1;125(4):47-52.

[19]. Singletary C. The Effect of Resistance Exer-

cise Circuit Training on Adults with Atten-

tion-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

(Doctoral dissertation, Southeastern Louisi-

ana University).

[20]. Modesto-Lowe V, Chaplin M, Soovajian V,

Meyer A. Are motivation deficits underesti-

mated in patients with ADHD? A review of

the literature. Postgraduate medicine. 2013

Jul 1;125(4):47-52.

[21]. Van der Oord S, Prins PJ, Oosterlaan J,

Emmelkamp PM. Efficacy of methylpheni-

date, psychosocial treatments and their com-

bination in school-aged children with

ADHD: a meta-analysis. Clinical psycholo-

gy review. 2008 Jun 1;28(5):783-800.

[22]. Klassen A, Miller A, Raina P, Lee SK, Ol-

sen L. Attention-deficit hyperactivity dis-

order in children and youth: a quantitative

systematic review of the efficacy of different

management strategies. The Canadian Jour-

nal of Psychiatry. 1999 Dec;44(10):1007-16.

Lived Experiences of Mothers of Children with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Phenomenological Study

Article

Oct 2024

The World Federation of ADHD International Consensus Statement: 208 Evidence-based Conclusions about the Disorder

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2021
NEUROSCI BIOBEHAV R

Background: Misconceptions about ADHD stigmatize affected people, reduce credibility of providers, and prevent/delay treatment. To challenge misconceptions, we curated findings with strong evidence base. Methods: We reviewed studies with more than 2,000 participants or meta-analyses from five or more studies or 2,000 or more participants. We excluded meta-analyses that did not assess publication bias, except for meta-analyses of prevalence. For network meta-analyses we required comparison adjusted funnel plots. We excluded treatment studies with waiting-list or treatment as usual controls. From this literature, we extracted evidence-based assertions about the disorder. Results: We generated 208 empirically supported statements about ADHD. The status of the included statements as empirically supported is approved by 79 authors from 27 countries and 6 continents. The contents of the manuscript are endorsed by 362 people who have read this document and agree with its contents. Conclusions: Many findings in ADHD are supported by meta-analysis. These allow for firm statements about the nature, course, outcome causes, and treatments for disorders that are useful for reducing misconceptions and stigma.

Prevalence and associated factors of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) among Ugandan children; a cross-sectional study

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2017
Child Adolesc Psychiatr Ment Health

Background Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common neuropsychiatric disorder among the children. The burden of ADHD or its associated factors in Uganda are not known. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence and the associated factors of ADHD among children attending the neurology and psychiatry clinics at Mulago National Referral Hospital. Methods Using the disruptive behavior scale (45 items), we investigated the presence of ADHD symptoms among children attending Mulago Hospital. Questionnaires were administered to the primary care-takers of the study participants to gather information on the factors associated with ADHD. All children were subject to a clinical examination. Children presumed to have ADHD, using the aforementioned rating scale were further assessed by a child psychiatrist to confirm the diagnosis and associated co-morbid conditions. Results The estimated prevalence of DSM-IV ADHD symptoms was 11%. Children aged less than 10 years were four times likely to have ADHD (OR 4.1, 95% CI 1.7–9.6, p < 0.001). The demographic factors independently associated with ADHD were age less than 10 years, male gender, history of maternal abnormal vaginal discharge during pregnancy, and no formal education or the highest level of education being primary school. Conclusion The prevalence of ADHD among children attending the pediatric neurology and psychiatry clinics is high in our settings and is associated with delayed milestones. Early identification and addressing the co-morbid conditions associated with ADHD such as epilepsy, autism spectrum of disorder, conduct disorder, opposition defiant disorder and intellectual disability in our setting is needed.

Attention deficit hyperactivity symptoms and disorder (ADHD) among African children: A review of epidemiology and co-morbidities

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2012

Muideen Owolabi Bakare

To review literature from Africa on the epidemiology of ADHD as well attention deficit hyperactivity symptoms and associated co-morbid conditions among African children. A literature search was done through Pubmed/MEDLINE and Google Scholar using then following terms, "attention deficit", "hyperactivity disorders", "epidemiology", "co-morbid conditions", "Africa". Nine studies met the inclusion criteria with four studies coming from South Africa, two each from Democratic Republic of Congo and Nigeria respectively and one from Ethiopia. The prevalence of ADHD varied with rates of between 5.4% and 8.7%, amongst school children, 1.5% amongst children from the general population between 45.5% to 100.0% amongst special populations of children with possible organic brain pathology. Common associated co-morbid conditions were oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder as well as anxiety/depressive symptoms. Published data from Africa is limited. For effective healthcare policy further studies are needed to define the magnitude and burden of ADHD and other childhood neurodevelopmental disorders in Africa.

A systematic review and analysis of long-term outcomes in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Effects of treatment and non-treatment

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2012
BMC MED

Background In childhood, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is characterized by age-inappropriate levels of inattentiveness/disorganization, hyperactivity/impulsiveness, or a combination thereof. Although the criteria for ADHD are well defined, the long-term consequences in adults and children need to be more comprehensively understood and quantified. We conducted a systematic review evaluating the long-term outcomes (defined as 2 years or more) of ADHD with the goal of identifying long-term outcomes and the impact that any treatment (pharmacological, non-pharmacological, or multimodal) has on ADHD long-term outcomes. Methods Studies were identified using predefined search criteria and 12 databases. Studies included were peer-reviewed, primary studies of ADHD long-term outcomes published between January 1980 to December 2010. Inclusion was agreed on by two independent researchers on review of abstracts or full text. Published statistical comparison of outcome results were summarized as poorer than, similar to, or improved versus comparators, and quantified as percentage comparisons of these categories. Results Outcomes from 351 studies were grouped into 9 major categories: academic, antisocial behavior, driving, non-medicinal drug use/addictive behavior, obesity, occupation, services use, self-esteem, and social function outcomes. The following broad trends emerged: (1) without treatment, people with ADHD had poorer long-term outcomes in all categories compared with people without ADHD, and (2) treatment for ADHD improved long-term outcomes compared with untreated ADHD, although not usually to normal levels. Only English-language papers were searched and databases may have omitted relevant studies. Conclusions This systematic review provides a synthesis of studies of ADHD long-term outcomes. Current treatments may reduce the negative impact that untreated ADHD has on life functioning, but does not usually 'normalize' the recipients.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder during adulthood

Article

Aug 2017
REV NEUROL-FRANCE

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), although considered a childhood-onset neurodevelopmental condition, is nevertheless a frequent and disabling condition in adults. A proportion of such patients are not diagnosed during childhood or adolescence, as diagnosis of the syndrome is rather complex, especially when other psychiatric, neurological or other neurodevelopmental conditions are also associated, yet comorbidities and consequences of ADHD are frequently observed in adults and older populations. As ADHD patients present to memory clinics with attentional and executive disorders, neuropsychological examinations of undiagnosed ADHD patients may reveal atypical cognitive profiles that can complicate the usual diagnostic procedure and increase the risk of delayed diagnosis or misdiagnosis. Thus, explorations of cognitive and/or behavioral disorders in adult populations should systematically screen for this neurodevelopmental condition. Accurate diagnosis could lead to non-pharmaceutical and/or pharmaceutical treatments to improve symptoms and quality of life for adult ADHD patients.

Mortality, ADHD, and Psychosocial Adversity in Adults With Childhood ADHD: A Prospective Study

Article

Mar 2013
Pediatrics

Objective: We examined long-term outcomes of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in a population-based sample of childhood ADHD cases and controls, prospectively assessed as adults. Methods: Adults with childhood ADHD and non-ADHD controls from the same birth cohort (N = 5718) were invited to participate in a prospective outcome study. Vital status was determined for birth cohort members. Standardized mortality ratios (SMRs) were constructed to compare overall and cause-specific mortality between childhood ADHD cases and controls. Incarceration status was determined for childhood ADHD cases. A standardized neuropsychiatric interview was administered. Results: Vital status for 367 childhood ADHD cases was determined: 7 (1.9%) were deceased, and 10 (2.7%) were currently incarcerated. The SMR for overall survival of childhood ADHD cases versus controls was 1.88 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.83-4.26; P = .13) and for accidents only was 1.70 (95% CI, 0.49-5.97; P = .41). However, the cause-specific mortality for suicide only was significantly higher among ADHD cases (SMR, 4.83; 95% CI, 1.14-20.46; P = .032). Among the childhood ADHD cases participating in the prospective assessment (N = 232; mean age, 27.0 years), ADHD persisted into adulthood for 29.3% (95% CI, 23.5-35.2). Participating childhood ADHD cases were more likely than controls (N = 335; mean age, 28.6 years) to have ≥1 other psychiatric disorder (56.9% vs 34.9%; odds ratio, 2.6; 95% CI, 1.8-3.8; P < .01). Conclusions: Childhood ADHD is a chronic health problem, with significant risk for mortality, persistence of ADHD, and long-term morbidity in adulthood.

Cognitive enhancers for the treatment of ADHD

Article

Aug 2011

Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is associated with multiple cognition-related phenotypic features in both children and adults. This review aims to clarify the role of cognition in ADHD and how prevailing treatments, which are often highly effective at reducing the clinical symptoms of the disorder, fare in modulating ADHD-related cognitive processes. First, we consider how the broad construct of cognition can be conceptualized in the context of ADHD. Second, we review the available evidence for how a range of both pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions have fared with respect to enhancing cognition in individuals affected by this pervasive disorder. Findings from the literature suggest that the effects across a broad range of pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions on the characteristic symptoms of ADHD can be distinguished from their effects on cognitive impairments. As such the direct clinical relevance of cognition enhancing effects of different interventions is somewhat limited. Recommendations for future research are discussed, including the identification of cognition-related endophenotypes, the refinement of the ADHD clinical phenotype, and studying the difference between acute and chronic treatment regimens.

Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Children and Youth: A Quantitative Systematic Review of the Efficacy of Different Management Strategies

Article

Jan 2000

To obtain estimates of the relative efficacy of 3 main treatment strategies for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and youth (age < 18 years). Design: quantitative systematic review of randomized trials. Subjects: 999 patients with ADHD from 26 randomized trials. Interventions: medications alone, behavioural interventions alone, and a combination of these 2 modalities. Main outcome measure: differences in scores between treatment groups on commonly used teacher- and parent-completed behaviour rating scales. Medication-only therapy was efficacious in ADHD. Behavioural therapies used alone appeared not to be efficacious in ADHD. Combination therapy was more efficacious than placebo or no treatment for parent but not teacher ratings, not more efficacious than drug therapy alone, and more efficacious than behavioural treatments alone based on parent but not teacher ratings. Though stimulant medications were found to be an effective treatment strategy for ADHD in children and youth, it proved difficult to assess the relative benefits of behavioural interventions alone and combined medication and behavioural therapy because of the paucity of treatment studies other than medication-only treatment studies and heterogeneity of various kinds that exist in relation to ADHD studies and treatments.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder overview. Historical perspective, current controversies, and future directions

Article

Aug 2000
CHILD ADOL PSYCH CL

Dorothy E Stubbe

There have been "modern" descriptions of ADHD in the medical literature since 1902. Despite the burgeoning growth of information about the cause, pathophysiology, and effective treatments of the disorder, ADHD has been particularly steeped in controversy, especially regarding the use of medication (safety, efficacy, use or overuse, and concerns about medication treatment of preschool children). Changing diagnostic criteria, evolving conceptualizations of the disorder, and international differences in diagnosis, have enhanced and complicated ongoing research and understanding of the disorder. The recent Multimodal Treatment Study of Children with ADHD, a large, multisite study comparing efficacy of behavioral, medication, and combined treatments, and a recent NIH Consensus Conference on ADHD, represent true advances in the scientific understanding of the disorder and its treatment.

The Effect of Resistance Exercise Circuit Training on Adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) (Doctoral dissertation

C Singletary

Singletary C. The Effect of Resistance Exercise Circuit Training on Adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) (Doctoral dissertation, Southeastern Louisiana University).