Moderating impact of billboard location and quality on the relationship between advertisement elements and its goals

Abstract

The study aims to detect the relative impact of the basic advertising elements on attaining advertisement objectives. It also seeks to determine if the location and quality of billboards have an essential moderating impact on the effectiveness of advertising elements concerning their ability to achieve desired advertisement objectives in a developing country such as Jordan.A quantitative survey methodology and an online questionnaire were used to a convenient sample of 450 university students from different academic years and their family members and acquaintances in Amman, Jordan, to achieve the study goals. IBM SPSS version 25 and Smart PLS 3 were used to test the hypotheses. The study revealed a statistically significant impact (p ≤ 0.05) of three billboard advertising elements in achieving the goals of promoting advertisements, namely: headline (t = 3.483), color (t = 2.308), and the number of elements (t = 2.418). However, the study failed to prove the effectiveness of other two elements in achieving these objectives. The analysis did not confirm the effect of moderation of billboard locations and quality between independent variables and billboard’s advertising objectives; however, the location of billboards (independent variable) directly affects the achievement of advertising objectives. The study came up with a set of conclusions, the most important of which is that the billboard still has an important impact on customers’ purchasing behavior or power, regardless of the location and the quality of billboards as a moderator variable.

Full text

“Moderating impact of billboard location and quality on the relationship between
advertisement elements and its goals”
AUTH ORS
Ghaiath Altrjman
Asaad Hameed Al-Ali
Raed Ahmad Momni
Khaleel Al-Daoud
ARTICLE INFO
Ghaiath Altrjman, Asaad Hameed Al-Ali, Raed Ahmad Momni and Khaleel Al-
Daoud (2022). Moderating impact of billboard location and quality on the
relationship between advertisement elements and its goals. Innovative Marketing
, 18(2), 26-38. doi:10.21511/im.18(2).2022.03
DOI http://dx.doi.org/10.21511/im.18(2).2022.03
RELEASED ON Wednesday, 13 April 2022
RECE IVED ON Wednesday, 20 October 2021
ACCEPTED ON Wednesday, 30 March 2022
LICENSE
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International
License
JOURNAL "Innovative Marketing "
ISSN PRINT 1814-2427
ISSN ONLINE 1816-6326
PUBLISHER LLC “Consulting Publishing Company “Business Perspectives”
FOUNDER LLC “Consulting Publishing Company “Business Perspectives”
NUMBER OF REFERENCES
59
NUMBER OF FIGURES
2
NUMBER OF TABLES
5
© The author(s) 2022. This publication is an open access article.
businessperspectives.org

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Innovative Marketing, Volume 18, Issue 2, 2022
http://dx.doi.org/10.21511/im.18(2).2022.03
Abstract
e study aims to detect the relative impact of the basic advertising elements on at-
taining advertisement objectives. It also seeks to determine if the location and quality
of billboards have an essential moderating impact on the eectiveness of advertising
elements concerning their ability to achieve desired advertisement objectives in a de-
veloping country such as Jordan.
A quantitative survey methodology and an online questionnaire were used to a conve-
nient sample of 450 university students from dierent academic years and their fam-
ily members and acquaintances in Amman, Jordan, to achieve the study goals. IBM
SPSS version 25 and Smart PLS 3 were used to test the hypotheses. e study revealed
a statistically signicant impact (p ≤ 0.05) of three billboard advertising elements in
achieving the goals of promoting advertisements, namely: headline (t = 3.483), color
(t = 2.308), and the number of elements (t = 2.418). However, the study failed to prove
the eectiveness of other two elements in achieving these objectives. e analysis did
not conrm the eect of moderation of billboard locations and quality between in-
dependent variables and billboard’s advertising objectives; however, the location of
billboards (independent variable) directly aects the achievement of advertising ob-
jectives. e study came up with a set of conclusions, the most important of which is
that the billboard still has an important impact on customers’ purchasing behavior or
power, regardless of the location and the quality of billboards as a moderator variable.
Ghaiath Altrjman (Jordan), Asaad Hameed Al-Ali (Jordan),
Raed Ahmad Momni (Jordan), Khaleel Al-Daoud (Jordan)
Moderating impact
of billboard location and
quality on the relationship
between advertisement
elements and its goals
Received on: 20 of October, 2021
Accepted on: 30 of March, 2022
Published on: 13 of April, 2022
INTRODUCTION
Billboard advertisement refers to one type of (out of home) advertising
that is considered one of the most common (Ang, 2014). It is estimated
that spending on this type of billboard is approximately 55% of the
total outdoor advertising budget (OAAA, 2014); spending in 2024 is
anticipated to reach $54.13 billion, with a compound annual growth
rate of 5.1%, for the period from 2020 to 2024 (Globe Newswire, 2020).
Meanwhile, the eectiveness of billboards has increased despite the
dominance of electronic means (LopezPumarejo & Bassell, 2009).
In the Jordanian capital of Amman, it is found that the dependency
of advertisers on billboards is due to the control of small and medi-
um-sized businesses with service nature. It is characterized by their
weak nancial resources and the localization of their businesses in
specic geographical areas. In addition, their markets are regarded
as overcrowding which leads to congestion in the streets. Finally, the
increased use of mobile phones, the internet, and social networking
© Ghaiath Altrjman, Asaad Hameed
Al-Ali, Raed Ahmad Momni, Khaleel
Al-Daoud, 2022
Ghaiath Altrjman, Ph.D., Associate
Professor, Business School, Department
of Marketing, Al-Ahliyya Amman
University, Jordan. (Corresponding
author)
Asaad Hameed Al-Ali, Professor, Al-
Ahliyya Amman University, Jordan.
Raed Ahmad Momni, Assistant
Professor, University of Petra, Jordan.
Khaleel Al-Daoud, Assistant Professor,
Al-Ahliyya Amman University, Jordan.
is is an Open Access article,
distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International license, which permits
unrestricted re-use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided
the original work is properly cited.
www.businessperspectives.org
LLC “P “Business Perspectives”
Hryhorii Skovoroda lane, 10,
Sumy, 40022, Ukraine
BUSINESS PERSPECTIVES
JEL Classification M30, M37
Keywords advertising, billboard ads, eectiveness of billboard ads,
advertisement objectives, Jordan, Amman
Conict of interest statement:
Author(s) reported no conict of interest

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sites at home has weakened the role of all advertising media that individuals used to receive at home or
in the workplace (Al Adwan et al., 2021; Zamil et al., 2021; Al Adwan, 2019). However, at the same time,
the importance of billboards has increased.
e availability of appropriate conditions for the use of billboard advertisements and the increased
spending on them does not necessarily mean that billboard advertisements in Amman work with the
required eectiveness and eciency, and thus perform their important role and functions to the fullest.
is was indicated by Suditu et al. (2016), who emphasized that the eectiveness of a billboard depends
on what is communicated and how that communication is provided. Furthermore, when it is not based
on scientic bases, spending on advertising is considered a curse on small and medium-sized businesses,
especially in developing economies such as Jordan. erefore, the search for an accurate measure of
the eectiveness of billboards according to their specicity is deemed important. Moreover, it is neces-
sary to determine the success of this type of advertising in achieving its objectives (Rosewarne, 2090).
Otherwise, it is considered not only lost spending, but a loss of its necessary and important impact on
the business of such companies. erefore, in light of the previous discussion, this paper tries to answer
the following question: What are the basic advertisement elements that may aect the eectiveness of
achieving advertising objectives regarding quality and location as moderating factors?
1. LITERATURE REVIEW
e success of billboard advertising design is pri-
marily related to understanding the characteris-
tics and limitations of this advertising medium.
e most important characteristic is that viewing
the advertisement takes place in motion mode and
the short time available for individuals to absorb
and place the advertisement in a surrounding en-
vironment with many sensory stimuli (Celsi &
Olson, 1988). erefore, an advertiser’s ability to
succeed in meeting the goals of billboard advertis-
ing is primarily related to his ability to understand
the specicity and limitations of billboard adver-
tising. ese features require unique methods for
communicating advertising messages and a crea-
tive design approach (LopezPumarejo & Bassell,
2009). It simultaneously requires careful selection
of billboard locations and billboard quality checks.
e main advertising elements are designed very
eciently and comprehensively complement and
support each other. ey form a complete, inno-
vative, and unied image capable of attracting at-
tention and maintaining the interest of passers-by
and thus, eectively presenting a high advertising
claim in a short time and from the farthest dis-
tance (Chan & Cheng, 2012; Till & Baack, 2005).
1.1. Essential advertisement elements
e headline on the billboard advertisement is
considered one of the leading and important el-
ements (Belch & Belch, 2004; Pieters et al., 2010;
Ang, 2041). It should be written in large and clear
handwriting using a few words written in a crea-
tive and eective way that attracts attention and
can be understood in the shortest time possible. A
viewer of the billboard has only 6 seconds on av-
erage to perceive the advertisement and integrate
with the rest of the advertisement elements; es-
pecially the image conveys the idea of the adver-
tisement. In this regard, Grigaliūnaitė et al. (2016)
concluded that consumers better perceive the ad
with a large font title. On the other hand, Tian and
Pan (2015) concluded that it became more notice-
able only when the written portion is short and
brief enough. In addition, the ad can be under-
stood quickly, easy to remember, and potentially
stimulates interest and generate a desire to buy.
e billboards usually contain bold colors be-
cause they will be more visible from long distances.
e contrast of colors on the billboard helps im-
prove the readability of the advertisement. us,
colors should be bright, have a saturated contrast,
and be high and attractive (Pieters et al., 2010;
Zhang et al., 2009). At the same time, one should
not over-diversify the use of colors and limit to
only a group of colors that serve the design of the
advertisement. Designers should invest the strong
inuence of color on individuals’ emotional and
mental feelings to make others remember the
brand in the billboard advertisement (Panigyrakis
& Kyrousi, 2010; Elliot et al., 2007). In this regard,

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Cheng and Chan (2014) found that color clear-
ly aects consumers’ attention to billboards. In
addition, Balka et al. (2005) and Hussain and
Nizamani (2011) concluded that color in billboard
ad design signicantly attracts consumers’ atten-
tion to the billboard and their perception of the ad.
Panigyrakis and Kyrousi (2010) found the relative
order of colors in terms of their eect on improv-
ing memory implicitly. At the same time, Taylor et
al. (2006) and Donthu et al. (1993) found that the
strong and contrasting colors in advertising play a
signicant role in the success of billboard adver-
tisement and lead to better brand memory.
Billboard advertisement has to tell a story about
a company using thought-provoking images
and very few words to accompany the pictures.
Picture/Drawing in billboard advertisement
could attract attention and maintain interest in
viewing the remaining elements of the adver-
tisement (Negm & Tantawi, 2015). Also, the pic-
ture can create the rst enjoyable experience for
the consumer and might be the reason why con-
sumers oen buy a product based on experience.
Further, Sharma et al. (2012) found that the erot-
ic picture of motives and instincts in advertising
inuences attitude, interest, and attention. Negm
and Tantawi (2015) and Hussain and Nizamani
(2011) found that the images in the advertisement
aect consumers’ perception, increasing their re-
call and enhancing attitude toward the advertis-
ing, and aecting behavioral intentions.
On the other hand, Grigaliūnaitė et al. (2016) con-
cluded that consumers better perceive advertising
in which visual elements are dominated. Pieters et
al. (2010) and Pieters and Wedel (2004) found that
the eect of visual objects on advertising plays a
signicant role in attracting attention to advertis-
ing, but that does not mean selling. Cook (2001)
concluded that a picture attracts consumers be-
fore the headline and helps provide hidden verbal
information. Kayode (2015) said that the entire
burden of getting potential customers’ attention
and getting them to read the copy rests on the
headline without the image.
e words of the advertisement should be lim-
ited, clear, understandable, and attractive to the
billboard as to the color, size, and thickness of
the letters (Taylor et al., 2006). e separations
between the words also should be appropriate to
graphic design criteria (Balka et al., 2005) with
the ability to be perceived as far away as possible.
On the other hand, the type of letters should be
narrowly dened, easy to read, and understanda-
ble to be read from the farthest possible distance.
In addition, the typed words are mainly related
to the nature of the product and the targeted au-
dience (Balka et al., 2005). It is also concluded
that letters and words within the design of the bill-
board advertisement have a great inuence on at-
tracting consumers’ attention and their awareness
of this advertisement. On the contrary, Donthu et
al. (1993) argued that the fewer words on the bill-
board, the better. Taylor et al. (2006) also found
that the typeface should be well spaced and legible.
It is asserted that any element that does not add
value to the rest of the advertisement elements
should be deleted, especially in the billboard ad-
vertisement. ere is no time to move between the
elements of the advertisement beyond the capac-
ity of the human being to absorb the advertise-
ment at the required speed (Nyarko et al., 2015).
at is why necessary elements of the advertise-
ment should be linked and integrated to help the
viewer’s eye move from one element to another in
a planned way. is can increase the ability to at-
tract attention and maintain interest to continue
examining all these elements (Sharma et al., 2012).
erefore, Balka et al. (2005) stressed the eec-
tive use of white spaces within the billboard to
determine which elements should be highlighted.
For example, Grigaliūnaitė et al. (2016) conclud-
ed that the billboard containing many elements
would be perceived better. is contradicts the
aforementioned rule and interpretation of this re-
sult as those billboards are intended in crowded,
slow-moving markets for pedestrians. However,
Pilelienė and Grigaliūnaitė (2016) concluded that
the complexity of the advertising layout negatively
inuences the visual attention to the brand in the
printed advertisement.
1.2. Billboard location and quality
e location of the billboard plays a vital role in
light of two aspects. e rst is the good location
(regarding the size of the billboard), which has a
fundamental role in attracting attention to the
billboard itself and its ability to be noticed by pas-

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sers (Wilson & Casper, 2016; Wilson & Till, 2011).
e second is the ability to absorb the advertise-
ment (Helmer, 2016). Hence, location is crucial
in ad awareness within the time available while
people are moving. us, advertising elements
of high quality can distort the viewer’s ability to
perceive the ad correctly if the billboards are lo-
cated in places where the confusing elements are
present (Tucker et al., 2005; Wilson & Till, 2012).
Accordingly, the location of the billboard should
play an important role in isolating the billboard
from the elements of interference that can hinder
it for the longest possible time to be visible.
It is worth mentioning that the advertiser’s ability to
use creativity – associated with some studied ambi-
guity – in the billboard is non-existent due to insuf-
cient time for the viewer to decode that advertis-
ing message and to be easier to understand by their
targeted audience (Iqbal & Batool, 2016). On the
other hand, when the billboard is placed correctly
according to the targeted market for advertisers, its
viewership is more signicant, and advertisers can
target the customers who want to reach them (Lopez
Pumarejo & Bassell, 2009). For example, Iqbal and
Batool (2016) concluded that the positioning of the
billboard has a signicant impact on the purchasing
behavior of customers. Bhargava and Donthu (1999)
indicated that the location of exposure inuences the
sales’ response to billboards. Hussain and Nizamani
(2011) found that the locations selected matter in
gaining the customers’ attention.
Considering quality, the advertiser must consider
dierent types and shapes of billboards that vary in
terms of their physical characteristics (e.g., shape
and size) before designing the advertisement and
its various elements. Consequently, any ad design
that does not t with the nature and specicity of
the type of billboard hinders the ability of that de-
sign to realize the planned eect. Moreover, the
quality of the billboard in terms of physical aspect
may be reected negatively or positively on the
ability of the ad design to have the planned eect.
In this regard, Ephron (2004) described outdoor
advertising as a unique case in which the medium
is the message that allows the advertiser to invest
this creativity in designing the ad. In this context,
Taylor et al. (2006) conrmed that billboards can
have a great potential for attracting attention due
to their physical size and creativity.
Although printing is the last step before the bill-
board is displayed, the entire implementation pro-
cess that includes printing and its quality must
be considered to achieve a clear vision of the bill-
board advertisement. Likewise, when choosing
between the types of billboard shape, one must
consider the weather, lighting sources, and the ar-
ea where the billboard will be located since they
aect the visibility of the advertisement. e cor-
rect utilization of the appropriate lighting in terms
of its quality and intensity has a signicant impact
on the visibility of the advertisement by showing
the true colors of the billboard.
1.3. Billboard advertisement
objectives
Billboard’s advertisement is characterized by its in-
uence to achieve its objectives, some of which are
shared with various other advertising media, and
others are distinguished from the rest of the me-
dia. e most important issue is represented in the
ad ability to introduce new goods, remind the au-
dience of the product, and create awareness of the
brand in the local markets. It also urges consumers
to purchase in places close to billboard advertising.
It is asserted that to evaluate the eectiveness of
the billboard advertisement fully and objectively,
it must be measured by its ability to achieve a set
of its most critical main objectives. From the cus-
tomer’s point of view, it is the best assessment of
the feasibility of spending on advertising. Several
studies focused on measuring the eectiveness of
advertising through its impact on consumers’ be-
havior (attracting attention or remembering the
advertisement and recalling it). Moreover, several
research papers studied the inuence of billboard
ads on purchasing, loyalty, or their inuence on
the brand. However, no study is found that high-
light the eectiveness of the advertisement in
terms of its familiarity with most of the advertis-
ing objectives of the billboard in this study.
2. AIMS AND HYPOTHESES
is study aims to investigate the impact of the es-
sential or basic elements of the billboard advertise-
ment on its eectiveness. In addition, it critical-
ly assesses whether introducing billboard quality

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and location as moderating variables on the re-
lationship between the independent variable (ads
basic elements) and the dependent variable (bill-
board ads eectiveness).
Several studies were carried out seeking to ana-
lyze the feasibility and eectiveness of spending
on advertising by identifying several internal or
external factors that have a direct impact, from
their perspective, on the eectiveness of advertis-
ing on billboards. However, this study proposes a
model that involves all basic elements that are in-
tegrated to achieve the eectiveness of the adver-
tisement and according to the privacy of the ad-
vertisement on the billboards (independent vari-
ables). Furthermore, taking into account variables
that may hinder or help in the delivery of that in-
uence (modied variables), this paper measures
the eectiveness of the advertisement through a
more specic and objective scale (billboard’s ad-
vertisement objectives). In general, this was high-
lighted in previous studies, which gives a complete
and plain image to measure the eectiveness of
billboards more accurately.
erefore, the main aim of the proposed research
model is to nd out an inclusive measure that fo-
cuses on all essential factors and any external
factors that may enhance or hinder the eect of
those factors on the dependent variable scale that
determines the eectiveness of the advertisement
accurately. Aer the review of literature related to
the eectiveness of advertising in Jordan and the
world, it was found that some papers tried to focus
on one or some individual factors that determine
the eectiveness of advertising from the view-
point of each researcher separately. It was found
that there is no consensus on these factors among
researchers. For example, Hussain and Nizamani
(2011) examined the impact of the size, color, loca-
tion, celebrity, and images of the billboard adver-
tisement on its ability to attract customers’ atten-
tion. However, Iqbal and Batool (2016) examined
the impact of billboard location, words, product
recognition, simple, easy, understandable message,
and uniqueness on consumer buying behavior.
Nonetheless, Akhtar (2019) studied the size, color,
images, location, and the models used in billboard
advertisement and its impact on customers’ pur-
chasing behavior. In addition, Donthu et al. (1993)
studied the factors inuencing the recall of out-
door advertising, such as location, position, color,
number of words, and subjects’ experience. On
the other hand, Grigaliūnaitė et al. (2016) focused
on the inuence of headline font size, the number
of elements in the advertisement, and dominating
elements in the advertisement (visual or textual)
on outdoor advertising eectiveness.
In line with these peripheral factors (modied
variables), no study adopts these two variables as
Figure 1. Proposed research model
Headline of the billboard
advertisement
Color of the billboard
advertisement
Picture/Images on the billboard
advertisement
Words and letters
on the billboard advertisement
Moderation in the number
of elements on the billboard
advertisement
Billboard
advertisement
objectives
Ad billboard
locations
Quality of
the billboard
H1
H2
H3
H4
H5
H6 H7

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moderated variables. On the one hand, studies
focused on the locations of the billboard as the
main independent and sole variable. For exam-
ple, Wilson and Till (2011) questioned the impact
of billboard placement on advertising eective-
ness. Hussain and Nizamani (2011), Donthu et al.
(1993), and Bhargava et al. (1994) also considered
this impact among the factors aecting the bill-
board as an independent variable. On the other
hand, no study considered the quality and the
shape of the billboard as independent or modi-
ed variables.
Similarly, there is a lack of literature that meas-
ures the eectiveness of the advertisement based
on an evaluation of the ability of the billboards to
achieve most of their goals altogether, which can
eectively measure the success or failure of any
advertisement.
In light of the previous discussion, a dependent
variable was adopted to collect most of the adver-
tising objectives of the billboard. ey are charac-
terized by their ability to achieve and express in
depth the extent of the success of the advertise-
ment to achieve the desired eect. It is the best ev-
idence of the feasibility and eectiveness of spend-
ing on advertising, as types of printed and au-
dio-visual advertising. Moreover, it is easier for re-
spondents to evaluate more accurately. According
to the previous discussion, the following hypothe-
ses are proposed:
H1: ere is a statistically signicant impact
of the headline of the billboard advertise-
ment on achieving billboard advertisement
objectives.
H2: ere is a statistically signicant impact of
the color of the billboard advertisement on
achieving billboard advertisement objectives.
H3: ere is a statistically signicant impact of
the picture/images of the billboard advertise-
ment on achieving billboard advertisement
objectives.
H4: ere is a statistically signicant impact of
the words and letters in the billboard adver-
tisement on achieving billboard advertise-
ment objectives.
H5: ere is a statistically signicant impact of
the moderation of billboard advertisement
elements on achieving billboard advertise-
ment objectives.
H6: Billboard locations moderate the positive re-
lationship between headline, color, images,
words, and the number of billboard adver-
tisement elements and achieving billboard
advertisement objectives.
H7: Billboard quality moderates the positive re-
lationship between headline, color, images,
words, and the number of billboard adver-
tisement elements and achieving billboard
advertisement objectives.
3. METHODS
e descriptive and analytical approach was ap-
plied in this study, taking into account the the-
oretical framework and previous studies. It was
based on collecting data using a questionnaire
that included many items related to the study var-
iables. e data were analyzed statistically to test
the validity of the hypotheses.
3.1. Population, sample, and tools
The population of the study consisted of all stu-
dents (and their family members or acquaint-
ances) of the College of Business at Al-Ahliyya
Amman University. After the approval of the
Student Affairs Department, it was found that
Al-Ahliyya Amman University students reside
in different areas in Amman, which is a small
city.
The study was conducted using the quantita-
tive methodology and the empirical support
for the hypotheses. The empirical analysis was
carried out using a survey on the data collect-
ed from 450 students (and their family mem-
bers or acquaintances) who answered the ques-
tionnaire published on the university’s website
for one week on June 5, 2021. It is a facilitated
sample that gives students who are interested
and willing to answer the questions the com-
plete freedom to give their answers objectively.
Considering the accuracy aspect, 74 question-

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naires were not considered since they were in-
valid for analysis, and only 376 questionnaires
were analyzed (83.5%).
e study tool is a questionnaire that consists of
four main sections to achieve research objectives.
450 questionnaires were collected, and 376 ques-
tionnaires were analyzed; 56.9% were males and
43.1% females. 77.7% of the respondents are aged
18 -23 years, and 16.5% are aged 29-24. An over-
whelming number of the respondents have bach-
elor’s degrees – 343 (91.2%), and those with a di-
ploma or less are 25 (6.6%), and 6 (1.6%) are higher
degree holders (Table 1).
IBM SPSS version 25 and Smart PLS 3 were ap-
plied on the collected data to conduct structural
equation modeling (SEM) for diagnosing not on-
ly the measurement model but also the structure
of the variables. SEM investigates the relationship
between dependent and independent variables
concurrently and provides statistical procedures
to deal with research models (Hair et al., 2006). In
addition, SEM was chosen because it is convenient
for investigating a research model with a moder-
ation relationship where another method like re-
gression cannot cover such a relationship (Raykov
& Traynor, 2016).
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Convergent validity was examined by calculating
factor loadings for all instrument items. All fac-
tor loadings ranged from 0.683 to 0.841 and ex-
ceeded the minimum recommended level of 0.5
(Steenkamp & Van Trijp, 1991; Hair et al., 2010).
Cronbach’s alpha was applied to investigate inter-
nal consistency. e values of the alpha test ranged
between 0.773 and 0.902, which is considered an
acceptable level of reliability, according to Sekaran
and Bougie (2019). e average variance extracted
(AVE) for each latent variable was above 0.50, which
shows a good level of convergent validity, according
to Hair et al. (2010). Moreover, composite reliability
(CR) was also applied to check internal reliability. It
indicates good internal reliability if the CR value is
higher than 0.7 (Hair et al., 2006). CR values rang-
ing from 0.845 to 0.923 indicate good internal relia-
bility. Table 2 summarizes these results.
Discriminant validity through correlation coef-
cients between research variables ranged from
0.456 to 0.794. is increased the condence in
the discriminant validity as Kline (2005) noted
that correlation coecients that are less than 0.80
suggest evidence of discriminant validity. Table 3
summarizes the result of the correlation test.
Table 1. Sample characteriscs
Measure Value Frequency Percentage (%)
Gender Male 214 56.9
Female 162 43.1
Age
18-23 years 292 7 7.7
29-24 yea rs 62 16.5
30-60 years 18 4.8
More than 60 years 4 1.1
Educaon
High school or less 25 6.6
Bachelor 343 91.2
Higher educaon 61.6
Other 2.6
Total 376 100%
Table 2. Alpha, CR, and AVE
Construct Alpha CR AVE
Headline of the billboard adver sement 0.77 3 0.845 0.523
Color of the billboard adver sement 0.830 0.876 0.5 42
Picture/images on the billboard adversement 0.885 0.910 0.592
Words and leers on the billboard adversement 0.838 0.886 .610
Number of elements on the billboard adversement 0.843 0.888 0.614
Billboard adversement objecves 0.902 0.923 0.630
Billboard lo caons (moderator) 0.845 0.890 0.618
Quality of the billboard (moderator) 0.827 0.885 0.659

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e previous ndings reveal discriminant and
convergent validity for the proposed model. It in-
dicates that the paper can move ahead with further
analysis. Accordingly, the bootstrapping meth-
od was conducted to test the research hypotheses.
Against this framework, this study tries to provide
more understanding concerning the relationship
among these variables. e results are presented
in Tables 4 and 5 and Figure 1.
e analysis result reveals that three advertise-
ment elements (headline, color, and a number of
billboard advertisement elements) signicant-
ly impact advertisement objectives. In detail, the
results show that headline of the billboard ad-
vertisement as an advertisement element has a
signicant impact on advertisement objectives
(t = 3.483, p ≤ 0.05). us, H1 is supported. is is
consistent with Hussain and Nizamani (2011), Ara
et al. (2015), Zekiri (2019), Hartanto et al. (2021),
Siddiqui et al. (2016), and Khan et al. (2016). In
addition, color of the billboard advertisement as
an advertisement element has a signicant impact
on advertisement objectives (t = 2.308, p ≤ 0.05).
Table 3. Correlaons of study variables
No. Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1Billboards adversement objecves 0.79 4
2Color of the billboard adver sement 0.627 0.7 36
3Billboard lo caons 0.632 0.676 0.786
4Quality of the billboard 0.604 0.661 0.787 0.812
5Words and leer s on the billboard adversement 0.533 0.663 0.588 0.582 0.781
6Picture/images on the billboard adver sement 0.545 0.7 22 0.6 42 0.643 0.679 0.7 70
7Number of elements on the billboard adversement 0.548 0.624 0.545 0.479 0.466 0.456 0.783
8Headline of the billboard adversement 0.610 0.656 0.65 0 0.595 0.580 0.6 08 0.569 0.723
Table 4. Research hypotheses results (direct path)
Hypotheses Beta t-value PResults
H1: Headline of the billboard adver sement will aect achieving billboard adversement
objecves 0.186 3.483 0.001 Suppor ted
H2: Color of the billboard adversement will aect achieving billboard adversement objecves 0.16 9 2.308 0.021 Supported
H3: Picture / Images in the billboard adversement will aect achieving billboard
adversement objec ves 0.008 0.123 0.902 Rejected
H4: Words and leers in the billboard adversement will aect achieving billboard
adversement objec ves 0.040 0.7 12 0.47 7 Rejected
H5: Moderaon of billboard adversement elements will aect achieving billboard
adversement objec ves 0.180 2.418 0.016 Supported
Table 5. Research hypotheses results (indirect path)
Hypotheses Moderator Beta t-value PResults
Headline of the billboard adver sement will aect achieving billboard adversement
objecves Quality –0.036 0.405 0.686 Rejected
Color of the billboard adver sement will aect achieving billboard adversement
objecves Quality 0.160 1.276 0.203 Rejected
Picture/images in the billboard adversement will aect achieving billboard
adversement objec ves Quality 0.001 0.011 0.991 Rejected
Words and leers in the billboard adversement will aect achieving billboard
adversement objec ves Quality –0.108 1.19 4 0.233 Rejected
Moderaon of the billboard adversement elements will aect achieving billboard
adversement objec ves Quality –0.059 0.582 0.561 Rejected
Title of the billboard adversement will aect billboards adver sement objecves Locaon –0.013 0.141 0.888 Rejected
Color of the billboard adver sement will aect achieving billboard adversement
objecves Locaon –0.194 1.427 0.154 Rejected
Picture/images in the billboard adversement will aect achieving billboard
adversement objec ves Locaon 0.044 0.386 0 .700 Rejected
Words and leers in the billboard adversement will aect achieving billboard
adversement objec ves Locaon 0.168 1.691 0.091 Rejected
Moderaon of billboard adversement elements will aect achieving billboard
adversement objec ves Locaon –0.0 03 0.023 0.982 Rejected

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Figure 2. Research path model
# Elements
Colour
Title
Quality
Words
Q19
Image
Billboards
Ad. Obj.
Q18
[+] [+] [+][+][+]
[+][+][+][+][+]
Location &
title
Location &
element
Location &
image
Location &
word
Location &
colour
Location
Q20
Q21
Q17
Q16
Q15
Q14
Q13
Q12
Q11
Q10
Q8
Q7
Q6
Q5
Q4
Q28 Q29 Q30 Q31 Q32
Q23 Q24 Q25 Q26 Q27 1Q22
Q41
Q40
Q39
Q38
Q37
Q48
Q47
Q46
Q45
Q44
Q43
Q36
Q35
Q34
Q33
0.894
0.454
0.001
0.020
0.982
0.700 0.091 0.154
0.3688
2.110
22.768
29.706
32.508
29.133
32.465
25.457
27.746
0.686
0.561 0.991
0.233
0.203
0.020
29.190
30.589
34.669
24.1100
29.190
45.168
24.312
39.073
20.836
16.173
14.804
29.768
22.741
19.438
19.431
20.095
21.847
31.068
26.329
35.509
29.270
27.463
18.193
20.053
35.727
33.612
25.749
23.247
18.432
19.521
14.633
26.186
21.352
27.049
36.050
33.909
32.884
Q42
Quality &
element
Quality &
word
Quality &
title
Quality &
image
Quality &
colour
0.010

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us, H2 is supported. is is consistent with
Nowghabi and Talebzadeh (9102), Zekiri (2019),
Taylor et al. (2006), Everlin and Erlyana (2020),
Akhtar (2019), Hussain and Nizamani (2011), Ara
et al. (2015), and Khan et al. (2016).
Furthermore, H3 and H4 predicted that pictures/
images and words/letters in the billboard adver-
tisement signicantly aect the advertisement ob-
jectives. e result fails to conrm this prediction.
us, H3 and H4 were rejected. Regarding imag-
es, this is inconsistent with Zekiri (2019), Akhtar
(2019), Hussain and Nizamani (2011), Anani
(2020), and Khan et al. (2016). For the words/let-
ters, unfortunately, this variable was not studied
independently of the title or text variable. e nd-
ings also represent that the advertisement number
of elements has a signicant impact on advertise-
ment objectives (t = 2.418, p ≤ 0.05). us, H5 is
supported. is is consistent with Hussain and
Nizamani (2011) and Khan et al. (2016).
One explanation for the above-unexpected re-
sult might be that most billboards in Amman
revolve around advertisements for services sec-
tors (banks, telecommunications companies,
restaurants, and hotels). On the one hand, their
topic focuses on getting people’s attention about
a new service or new offers or prizes. Therefore,
the most important element is the title, as well as
the colors related to the words compared to the
background color, which helps in reading the ti-
tle from a suitable distance. Moreover, the use
of colors indicates the personality of the brand/
service company. In addition, it has an essential
role in attracting attention to the advertisement
from the farthest distance through which it is
seen on the billboard. As for the advertisement
number of elements, they are important so as
not to confuse them in understanding the news-
letter’s content to be delivered and what the ad-
vertised company is.
Finally, the analysis fails to conrm the moderation
impact of billboard locations and quality between
headline, color, images, words, and the number of
billboard advertisement elements and advertisement
objectives. However, the location of the billboard
(when studied as an independent variable) directly
aects the achievement of advertising objectives.
is study set out to investigate a conceptual model
of the mechanism through which the advertising ef-
fectiveness of billboards is aected by the moderat-
ing eect of billboard location and quality. It is the
rst study to investigate such a mechanism. e re-
sults conrm the relevance of the research hypothe-
ses and the literature that guided their formulation.
eoretically, this paper has sought to enhance the
nuanced understanding of the advertising eective-
ness of billboards. e research results shed light on
both the theory and practice of billboards advertis-
ing. Specically, the analysis revealed some basic in-
dependent advertising elements that play important
roles inuencing the eectiveness of billboard adver-
tising and achieving its objectives, namely, the head-
line, color, and the number of billboard advertising
elements.
On the other hand, the other main independent ele-
ments, namely words/letters and picture/images did
not have any statistically signicant eect on achiev-
ing advertising objectives. As for the answer to the
second part of the purpose of this paper, the analysis
revealed that the two variables modifying the rela-
tionship between the elements of advertising and the
eectiveness of the advertisement that no statistically
signicant eects were found. However, the location
of the billboard as an independent variable impacts
the objectives of the advertisement.
CONCLUSION
e study emphasizes the need for advertisers in the Jordanian capital, Amman, to focus on improving
the wording of the billboard advertisement headline by successfully communicating the advertisement
claim in the fewest number of words and in a creative and readable manner from the farthest possible
distance. e study also emphasized the importance of the colors used because of their strong impact
on the knowledge of the advertiser’s brand. In addition, it helps draw attention to the headline of the
advertisement and enhances the ability to read and understand it from the farthest possible distance.
Furthermore, the study also emphasized the importance of not confusing the billboard viewers with

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Innovative Marketing, Volume 18, Issue 2, 2022
http://dx.doi.org/10.21511/im.18(2).2022.03
many advertising elements, but rather placing only the number needed to focus their attention on the
content of the message displayed in the advertisement title, taking into consideration the short time
available to absorb the advertisement, especially when many other confusing elements surround the
billboards. Finally, advertisers should also focus heavily on the location of the billboard as it is placed
in the right place, which allows the viewers to pay attention to the advertisement and give them enough
time to absorb the content. All this would help increase the eectiveness of advertising by creating the
desired eect and achieving its goals.
It is recommended that future studies focus on applying the proposed study model in dierent working
environments and conditions than those in the Jordanian capital, Amman. It is necessary to discover
the advertising elements that most aect the eectiveness of advertising. Furthermore, it is interesting
to nd whether the location and quality of the billboard modify the impact of the basic advertising ele-
ments on the eectiveness of advertising.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Conceptualization: Ghaiath Altrjman, Asaad Hameed Al-Ali.
Data curation: Khaleel Al-Daoud.
Formal analysis: Ghaiath Altrjman, Asaad Hameed Al-Ali, Raed Ahmad Momni, Khaleel Al-Daoud.
Funding acquisition: Ghaiath Altrjman, Asaad Hameed Al-Ali, Raed Ahmad Momni, Khaleel
Al-Daoud.
Investigation: Ghaiath Altrjman, Asaad Hameed Al-Ali, Raed Ahmad Momni.
Methodology: Asaad Hameed Al-Ali.
Project administration: Ghaiath Altrjman.
Resources: Ghaiath Altrjman, Asaad Hameed Al-Ali, Raed Ahmad Momni, Khaleel Al-Daoud.
Supervision: Ghaiath Altrjman.
Validation: Asaad Hameed Al-Ali, Raed Ahmad Momni.
Visualization: Ghaiath Altrjman.
Writing – original dra: Ghaiath Altrjman.
Writing – review & editing: Ghaiath Altrjman, Asaad Hameed Al-Ali, Raed Ahmad Momni, Khaleel
Al-Daoud.
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