An Empirical Study on the Cognitive Impacts of Music across different Generations…

Abstract

The efficacy of music in therapeutically influencing human lifestyle can be broadly classified. Music is known to relieve stress and anxiety (Meyers et al., 2021). The influence of music in the cognitive regions of the brain and its ability to stimulate the body"s reward centers is considered a powerful tool to enhance and flourish human life. What makes music different from other mediums of stress relief is that the music industry is backed by variety. Individuals have the freedom to choose from different genres and select what best suits their personality. All humans share this cross-culturally existing feature called "music" which is customizable and universal by nature (CROSS, 2001). Data was collected from 100 healthy respondents. Results showed that 83% of the participants chose music as the main source of distraction during stressful conditions. Pop and hip-hop was found to be the most preferred music genre for people in the age group of 15-35 years whereas classical music genre was the most preferred choice for individuals above 35 years of age. Another important observation in this paper was that the majority of the respondents increase their duration of listening to music during stressful situations, thus showing the significance of music as a solitary source in overcoming stress. In this paper, we aim to gauge the role of stress and the influence of music in positively mediating anxiety and stress issues in common individuals across different generations.

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ABSTRACT:
The efficacy of music in therapeutically influencing human lifestyle can be broadly classified. Music
is known to relieve stress and anxiety (Meyers et al., 2021). The influence of music in the cognitive regions
of the brain and its ability to stimulate the body‟s reward centers is considered a powerful tool to enhance
and flourish human life. What makes music different from other mediums of stress relief is that the music
industry is backed by variety. Individuals have the freedom to choose from different genres and select what
best suits their personality. All humans share this cross-culturally existing feature called „music‟ which is
customizable and universal by nature (CROSS, 2001). Data was collected from 100 healthy respondents.
Results showed that 83% of the participants chose music as the main source of distraction during stressful
conditions. Pop and hip-hop was found to be the most preferred music genre for people in the age group of
15-35 years whereas classical music genre was the most preferred choice for individuals above 35 years of
age. Another important observation in this paper was that the majority of the respondents increase their
duration of listening to music during stressful situations, thus showing the significance of music as a solitary
source in overcoming stress. In this paper, we aim to gauge the role of stress and the influence of music in
positively mediating anxiety and stress issues in common individuals across different generations.
Keywords: Music, genres, stress, psychoacoustics, adolescents.
Introduction:
“Music is the cheapest mind-altering drug. It boosts dopamine, lowers cortisol, and makes
you feel great. Your brain is better at music.” Owing to the recent empirical research connecting
human behavior and music, it is no longer considered only as a form of entertainment but is also
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR:
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Mr. Kyle Meyers
Assistant Professor, Departent of Chemestry
St. Xavier’s College(Autonomous), Mumbai, Maharashtra
Email: kyle.meyers@xaviers.edu.in
AN EMPIRICAL STUDY ON THE COGNITIVE IMPACTS OF MUSIC ACROSS DIFFERENT
GENERATIONS OF INDIVIDUALS IN MITIGATING STRESS
Meyers K.*1, Bhattacharjee P.2, Khan M. A.3, Yadav D.4
1Mr. Kyle J. Meyers, Asst. Professor, Dept. of Chemistry, St. Xavier‟s College (Autonomous), Mumbai
2Ms, Propali Bhattacharjee, Research Student, St. Xavier‟s College (Autonomous), Mumbai
3Ms. Mahek Anmber Khan, Research Student, St. Xavier‟s College (Autonomous), Mumbai
4Mr. Devesh Yadav, Research Student, St. Xavier‟s College (Autonomous), Mumbai

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Volume 03  Issue 03 April 2022 www.agpegondwanajournal.co.in  Page No. 19-31

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known to significantly influence human lifestyle physiologically and psychologically. Almost two
decades ago musicologist Ian Cross defined music as temporally patterned human tasks, carried out
at social and individual levels, that consist of generation and understanding of sound and have no
instantaneous effect which is noted in his works Cross, (2001).
Individuals encode structural attributes of music such as pitch interval and pitch contour
automatically, which is suggestive of the fact that the human mind has evolved to process musical
signals and humans have found a companion in music for quite some time (Peretz, 2001). It became
evident when 35,000 – year – old music instruments were found by Conard et al., (2009) that the
human engagement with music has been an abiding one, and that music was an essential part of the
human race earlier than first interpreted. The discovery of 35,000 – year – old music instruments by
Conard et al., (2009) shed light on the fact that the human relation with music has been harmonious
and it has been an integral part of the human lifestyle earlier than thought.
Stress often is a major issue affecting our lives. Anxiety and stress are widely known to be
detrimental to human behavior. It is estimated that up to 75% of medical illnesses are directly
associated with stress (Hughes et al., 1984). Thus, stress management and relief is a crucial subject
of research and music proves to be a universally available and economical aide. It is therefore
important to have a background knowledge about the multidimensional aspects of music with
respect to the human mind and body. In this section of the paper, we shall explore the work of
previous studies on how music can influence the physiological and psychological parameters of an
individual and how personality traits are characterized by different music genres.
1. Effect of music on stress, anxiety, and mood
Several studies have suggested that it improves health outcomes and music therapy can lower
cortisol levels in the body which is the primary stress hormone (KHALFA et al., 2003). The theory
of music, mood, and movement asserts that the role of music in enhanced health outcomes is due to
the psychological response of the altered mood which can also be studied in the works of Meyers et
al., (2021). Music goes from the auditory cortex of the brain to the limbic system which brings out
emotional and behavioral changes through association with the amygdala.
The Covid-19 situation has created problematic stressful situations and music is being sought
by many as a source of relief and to bring calmness as it is an effective tool and more economical
way to manage stress. Music can be an effective tool to intervene in depression levels in graduate
students (Pan et al., 2021). Another important role of music suggests (Chang et al., 2015) is in
reducing pregnancy-related stress in pregnant women as this provides a much more economical and
cost-effective alternative with hardly any side effects. For patients undergoing surgery, a
considerable amount of evidence supports the anxiolytic effects of music. Patients exposed to
relaxing music experienced a lowering in physiological stress reactivity and subjective anxiety
levels in various clinical fields (Knight & Rickard, 2001).
2. The physiological and cognitive aspects of music

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Stress activates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis to release cortisol which affects the
sympathetic nervous system causing an increase in heart rate and blood pressure. Prolonged
exposure to cortisol may cause serious health complications (Walcott, 1999). We emotionally react
to music because it affects the limbic system which is the center of emotional feelings and
sensations. The TLS with amygdala and hippocampus being the central structures, reacts strongly to
vocal and musical expressions of emotion. Using several pathways and loops, emotional cues in
voices and music might be conveyed to, exchanged with, and decoded by the TLS in the works by
Frühholz et al., (2014).
The Limbic system is influenced by the psychological response of music and is affected by
musical pitch and rhythm. It decreases cortisol levels and activates the reward pathways and
serotonin levels and also increases the recovery rate of the autonomic nervous system when it is
exposed to stressful conditions. The downregulation of the sympathetic nervous system and
upregulation of the parasympathetic nervous system has been proposed as the most probable
mechanism (Ebrahimi & Tan, 2018). Peaceful music reduces beta-endorphin, an opioid peptide
neurotransmitter identified in the works of McKinney et al., (1997). Endorphin levels rise on
listening to classical music whereas the levels go down by listening to upbeat or „Techno-music‟.
Cortisol levels are higher for upbeat and stimulating music (Gerra et al., 1998) and lower for
relaxing music (Yamamoto et al., 2007). This finding was aided by the explanation from Fancourt
et al., (2014) that epinephrine and adrenocorticotropic hormone levels increase due to upbeat music.
Music also improves neurogenesis and increases the activity of neuronal structures like the
amygdala, cortex, hypothalamus, and hippocampus(Boso et al., 2006; Fukui & Toyoshima, 2008).
The ventral tegmental region and the nucleus accumbens are two key brain areas involved in
autonomic response regulation. This is due to dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens on
exposure to relaxing music(Menon & Levitin, 2005; Meyers et al., 2021; Sutoo & Akiyama, 2004).
Medications such as opioids and benzodiazepines are commonly used as analgesics to reduce
anxiety levels in patients undergoing invasive cardiac catheterization (ICC). It was then found that
music can be used as an effective adjunct to these standard methods. It creates positive and pleasant
feelings thus bringing relaxation to an individual. Blood clots in the circulatory system are majorly
caused by excess fibrinogen. People with greater positive emotion have a lower fibrinogen response
to stress than those with lesser positive emotion. Musical engagement is found to induce positive
emotions and thus, has been implemented to achieve positive physiological states as noted in the
Bookseller, (2011).
3. Association of music genres with personality traits
The anxiolytic role of music in reducing anxiety has been studied by many researchers over the past
years. Listening to self-selected and classical music brings out positive, relaxing states and increases
in parasympathetic system arousal as compared to heavy metal music (Labbé et al., 2007). Some of
us tend to listen to particular music while working or studying to improve our concentration but

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those who listen to hip-hop and rap while studying had poorer performance than those who
preferred classical and relaxing music. Malakoutikhah et al., (2020) suggest that listening to
traditional, pop, and classical music caused increased relaxation whereas rock-type music didn't
have a significant impact while sedative music (slow and soft tempo) reduces tension more often
than stimulative music which has a hard tempo and loud volume but it depends on musical
preference by an individual. To this Jiang et al., (2013) adds that individuals are more accustomed
to music preference than music type in stressful conditions.
Additionally, if a person has some past experiences associated with a particular kind of
music, then it can further increase the effect of inducing positive behavior change (Davis & Thaut,
1989). The preference of any particular music genre or kind has been closely associated with the
personality traits of an individual and which soothes them or can distract them from their stress the
most. Results have shown more preference towards energetic or upbeat music for socialites. On the
other hand suggests Saarikallio & Erkkilä, (2007) that individuals with greater candidness and
forthrightness have a greater preference for complex and rebellious music and people who remain
frequently stressed spend more time listening to religious, pop, or country music (van Goethem &
Sloboda, 2011).
Materials and Methods:
An empirical survey-based google form was first created consisting of a total of twenty-one
questions reflecting only on the quantitative outcomes of this research (Newby, 2010). Questions
gauging the respondents' relation with stress, their music taste, involvement of music in stress relief,
and sleep patterns were included in the survey. For some of the questions, a five-point Likert Scale
was used to measure and assess the perceptions of the respondents. Prior consent was taken from all
the respondents and data was collected from 100 healthy individuals belonging to a range of 15
years to above 55 years of age. The survey was conducted using a convenience sampling technique.
The responses were collected over a span of two weeks.
Discussion and Results:
The survey indicated that individuals from both generations felt equally stressed but there
was a section of respondents(n=14) who 'always' felt stressed and all of them belonged to the age
group 15-35. These individuals were more inclined towards hard-tempo stimulative music. Several
studies in the past have concluded that fast tempo music stimulates the systolic and diastolic blood
pressure level and heart rate thus causing anxiety.
The primitive stress-causing factors among individuals (>45 years) were found to be health-
related problems and exhaustive office work. Since most of the respondents in the age group (15-25
years) were either school or college students, exams and assignments (n=63) were an obvious
reason for their stress level. Relations with peers and loved ones were observed to be the second
most stress-causing factor overall (n=49).

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Fig 1: The frequency of the different alternatives used for distraction under stressful situations
Listening to music (n=83) and YouTube/binge-watching (n=60) are most commonly used for
distraction purposes during stress conditions. The possible reason for this is their easy accessibility
and availability. Several studies involving psychological criteria of music therapy and
psychoacoustics have asserted that people largely find music as an effective tool to bring calmness
and peace. It acts as a mediating stimulus because of its structural organization and helps in
modulating perception, attention, etc. among individuals (Meyers et al., 2021).
The survey questionnaire was drafted on the basis of a five-point Likert scale as 'Likert
Scale items have the inherent advantage of not expecting a simple yes / no answer from the
respondent, but rather allow for degrees of opinion, and even no opinion at all (Burns & Burns,
2005; Marazban S. Kotwal et al., 2020; Meyers et al., 2021; Meyers K., 2021). The format used for
the questionnaire had 5 Likert items, and was scaled from 1 to 5 to assess the therapeutic effect of
music (Layder, 2014a). On a five-point Likert scale, 50% of individuals chose 5 and 34% chose 4
while considering the therapeutic effects of music which signifies the effectiveness of music in
relieving stress in a given population.
Some of the respondents (n=79) agreed that music helps them to have a better sleep when
they are stressed whereas the remaining did not (n=21). It was further observed that few of them
(n=13) do not usually have a habit of listening to music before going to sleep. However, they use
music as a source to relieve stress and improve the quality of their sleep. The usage of music to
overcome stressful situations has been most predominantly seen in individuals belonging to the age
group 15 to 25 years. A possible explanation for this can be given based on the primary stress-
causing factors chosen by each of the respondents belonging to different age groups. Stress due to
exams, and job-related tasks, which could be considered as a continuous source of stress in day-to-

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day life, was observed to be the most prevalent factor for the 15 to 35 age group people. Whereas
for individuals above 45 years of age, stress due to health issues and relations with peers and loved
ones were most predominant. These could be considered as intermittent stress-causing factors.
People who often remain stressed have a higher tendency to develop chronic stress which in
turn leads to an adverse effect on the prefrontal cortex of the brain which is instrumental in memory
and learning. An added consequence during such circumstances is the increase in the size of the
amygdala which enhances the receptiveness to stress. All these factors also contribute to the
stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system, increased levels of epinephrine and norepinephrine,
and increased secretion of cortisol which is the major stress hormone (Goy & McEwen, 1980;
McEwen et al., 2016).
A difference has been observed in the preferences of listening to music actively and playing
music in the background. The majority of the respondents (n=42) belonging to the age group of 15
to 35 years of age prefer actively listening to music whereas there was an equal response for both
active listening as well as background music in the case of people above that age group.
Background music influences cognitive parameters like visuospatial memory, episodic memory,
attention span as well as verbal and visual processing speed. This is, however, closely related to the
kind of music. Listening to joyful and fast tempo music can increase the cerebral arousal levels of
the listeners which in turn strengthens memory encoding capacity. On the other hand, soft and slow
tempo music tends to lower arousal levels. Music related to someone‟s past can also bring in an
element of nostalgia which significantly improves the episodic memory has been identified by
Mado Proverbio et al., (2015).
Past studies have also shown a positive effect on both episodic memories as well as semantic
memory under the influence of both „negative‟ and „positive‟ background music (Bottiroli et al.,
2014). The genre of music also interferes with the attention span. Upbeat music like hip hop and
rock is more distracting and therefore reduces concentration and attention span while performing
tasks. Chou, (2010) notes that light music like classical music also leads to a decrease in attention
span but the effect is much less compared to hard music. Therefore, individuals who preferred
actively listening to music have mostly chosen pop, hip-hop, indie rock as their most preferred
music genres since these are upbeat, fast tempo, and „hard‟ music which usually people don‟t listen
to while working. Whereas classical music and jazz have been opted by individuals who play
background music more often. This observation was however different in the case of those who sing
or play any musical instrument since they are much more aware of the technicalities of music and
pay greater attention to the various elements of music like beat, timbre, pitch, harmony, texture,
expression, etc. This can be related to the past findings that musical training increases the volume of
gray matter in the brain which facilitates stronger long-range connections and enhanced auditory
encoding.

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Fig 2(a). Preferences of different music genres in respondents from 15-35 years of age.
Fig 2(b). Preferences of different music genres in respondents above 35 years of age.
A major variation was found in the preference of a particular music genre among different age
groups. Classical music was found to be the most preferred genre for most of the respondents
(n=34), followed by pop (n=18), country, jazz, and hip-hop. Other genres which were opted for
included folk, indie rock, alternative, and dance. In the past, the choice of any particular music
genre has been closely associated with the personality traits of an individual. Most of the

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respondents who opted for the classical music genre were also the ones who sing or play musical
instruments and have a background in musical training. This can be easily correlated to the results
of past studies which categorize classical music under complex forms of music. When later in the
survey, the reason for their music preference was asked, a maximum of them (n= 80) agreed that it
was best suited for their mood enhancement and regulation. Therefore, it is important to consider
that the release of dopamine and reduction in cortisol levels for an individual is not only dependent
on the tempo of the music but is also dependent on how an individual perceives any particular kind
of music and hence it is difficult to give common reasoning for the musical choices.
In the age group 15-35 (n=34), a shift is observed towards classical music from their
previously preferred genres of pop, K-pop and rock, etc. A similar trend is observed in the age
group 35 and above. It is questionable whether this reflects the evolution in the taste of the music of
these individuals. This shift could be attributed to the slow tunes and structure of classical music.
While listening to classical music, a calm environment is created due to the release of dopamine,
known as the feel-good hormone which is a vital component of the brain‟s reward system.
Dopamine blocks stress and enhances a person‟s mood. Only 11% of the people preferred listening
to music from any genre when stressed. While the rest choose to stick to their preferred genre. This
could be due to greater emotional involvement, understanding, and comfort level with the music.
People who have responded to being stressed often show a mixed trend in their duration of music
listening at regular times.
Fig 3. Comparison of the change in the duration of listening to music under stressful conditions.

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However, 87% of these people have reported an increase in their music listening duration when
they feel stressed. It decreases cortisol levels and activates the reward pathways and serotonin levels
and also increases the recovery rate of the autonomic nervous system when it is exposed to stressful
conditions (Malakoutikhah et al., 2020). The survey conducted reports that 19% preferred slow-
tempo music while working. A majority of the individuals voted for a fast tempo. Whereas, a study
conducted on a group of individuals who were exposed to musical stimuli, after analyzing fMRI
scans of the participants it was concluded that fast-tempo music activated bilateral STG more than
slow music. The highest ratings of pleasantness were also recorded during fast tempo music. (Liu,
Y. et al.,2018). Participants who listened to a preferred tempo reported larger activation patterns as
opposed to those who did not. Beta wave activation in the brain can be cited as the cause of this
increased arousal (Hunter Gentry et al., 2013).
Limitations of the study:
It was a survey-based study and no clinical examinations were done to affirm the stress level
of participants and the effect of music for the same (Bazeley & Brindle, 2015). Equal representation
from all age groups could not be obtained during data collection (Curry et al., 2009; Shorten &
Smith, 2017). The study thus suffered from a lack of generalizability as all age groups could not be
uniformly analyzed (Layder, 2014). Since the subjects of the study were not interviewed personally,
the study lacks a custom touch and is narrowed only to questions provided. Responses from around
100 participants were received which is a rather small sample size and increases the margin of error
in the study (Newby, 2010). Further, a proper justification for the various musical preferences of
individuals belonging to different age groups could not be established.
Conclusion:
Different stress-causing factors are prevalent in society. Stress is known to influence an
individual‟s performance in everyday life, sleeping patterns, and behavior. Participants of the
survey have responded to being benefitted through music in areas of sleep, coping with anxiety, and
enhancement in their concentration. A majority of the participants have reported an increase in the
music listening duration during stressful conditions.
From this we conclude that although there are various stress relieving tools available today,
the music's varied, dynamic and ever evolving nature make it the most viable and inexpensive
option for stress relief. Participants have also reported that music helped them relax by ushering in a
sense of equanimity and tranquility. Participants belonging to the young age group mostly prefer the
hip-hop music genre, they also prefer listening to music actively and a significant increase is
observed in their music listening duration under stressful conditions. Whereas the old age group opt
for classical music, passive listening and slight increase in duration under stressful conditions.
These differences could be attributed to the variation in stress causing factors reported by the two
age groups. However, the customizable characteristics of music bridges the gap across generations
and helps them to achieve the ultimate and common goal of stress relief.

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Acknowledgment:
We would like to thank the Department of Chemistry and its faculty, St. Xavier‟s College,
Mumbai for their constant support throughout the research project. We would also like to extend a
special gratitude to all the participants who submitted their responses for this study. A special
thanks to Ms. Neha S. Kapadia (a faculty with the department) for her constant support, reviews and
guidance.
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