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University of Southampton
Faculty of Arts and Humanities
Modern Languages and Linguistics
The Use of a Process Model to Introduce and Develop Autonomous Learning among
Mexican University Students
By
Secundino Isabeles Flores
ORCID ID 0000-0001-5293-3783
Thesis for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
February 2022
University of Southampton
Abstract
Faculty of Humanities
Modern Languages
Thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
The Use of a Process Model to Introduce and Develop Autonomous Learning among
Mexican University Students
by
Secundino Isabeles Flores
The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact an adapted model, designed
according to levels of implementation, has on the fostering of autonomous learning
among a group of Mexican university students who have been taught with teacher-
centred methods through their academic life. This research was conducted to have a
better understanding of how to introduce and develop this approach among learners who
have been teacher-dependent in their learning.
Although autonomous learning has been explored extensively in different educational
settings, this has not happened in Mexico. Some studies regarding this approach to
learning have been conducted in this country; however, few have been done in relation to
its introduction and promotion. Existing literature indicates that the previous has been achieved
by different researchers around the world through the use process models. Considering the
previous, an existing model was adapted to implement during this investigation to foster
autonomous learning among students who had previously learnt with teacher-centred methods.
The main research questions of this research are: what evidence indicates that there has been a
development of autonomous learning among participants? And, what are the opinions of
participants about learning autonomously? To answer these questions action research was
conducted during one semester in one of the classes taught by the teacher/researcher at a public
Mexican university. Qualitative data was collected through three instruments: learner diary, a
questionnaire, and participant interviews. This information was organized and analysed by using
N-vivo 12, coding and thematic analysis.
The results showed that participants developed autonomous learning skills and adopted learning
practices which are common in this approach. Furthermore, it was found that the levels of
implementation included in the model made relevant contributions to foster autonomous
learning. Moreover, it was discovered that the participants had positive opinions regarding the
introduction and development of this approach to learning.
The findings obtained led to several conclusions. First, process models can be employed to foster
autonomous learning among Mexican university students who are accustomed to learning with
teacher-centred methods. Although this involved a drastic change for many subjects, they were
able to adapt to the new approach to learning at some point during the treatment. Second,
autonomous learning needs to be introduced gradually when it is implemented with learners who
are used to being teacher-dependent in their learning. The use of this strategy gives learners the
opportunity to develop the skills needed and adopt the learning practices this approach requires.
Third, the levels of implementation provide some steps that guide the introduction of
autonomous learning, lead learners to acquire the knowledge they need, and provide
opportunities for students to exercise their autonomy along the learning process. Finally, once
subjects had adapted to learning autonomously, they welcomed this approach and preferred it
over teacher-centred methods.
The significance of this study is that it increases our understanding of how to introduce and
develop autonomous learning among learners who are used to learning with teacher-centred
methods. In addition, more knowledge was generated regarding how different components that
have been used in models contribute to promote this approach. Finally, it was possible to learn
about the perceptions Mexican university students have about autonomous learning and the
suggestions they give to foster this approach to learning.
Table of Contents
i
Table o f Co ntent s
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................ i
Table of Tables .............................................................................................................. ix
Table of Figures ............................................................................................................. xi
Research Thesis: Declaration of Authorship ................................................................. xiii
Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................... xv
Chapter 1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 1
Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1
Background to the study ............................................................................................. 2
Context of the study ................................................................................................... 4
1.2.1 The School ................................................................................................................................... 4
1.2.2 The BA Program ........................................................................................................................... 5
1.2.3 The Class ...................................................................................................................................... 5
1.2.4 The Learners ................................................................................................................................ 6
1.2.5 The Facilities ................................................................................................................................ 7
Theoretical background .............................................................................................. 7
Research rationale ...................................................................................................... 9
Aims and research questions ..................................................................................... 11
1.5.1 Aim 1: To explore for evidence that indicates there has been a development of autonomous
learning among participants ........................................................................................................ 11
1.5.1.1 Subsidiary Aim 1: To investigate how the elements of the model contribute to introduce
autonomous learning. ......................................................................................................... 11
1.5.1.2 Subsidiary Aim 2: To investigate how the levels of implementation contribute to foster
autonomous learning. ......................................................................................................... 12
1.5.2 Aim 2: To explore the opinions of participants about learning autonomously. ....................... 12
1.5.2.1 Subsidiary Aim 1: To investigate the perceptions of subjects about the fostering of
autonomous learning in this study. ..................................................................................... 13
1.5.2.2 Subsidiary Aim 2: To explore the opinions of participants about autonomous learning and
how these developed along the treatment. ........................................................................ 13
1.5.3 Main Research Question 1: What evidence indicates that there has been a development of
autonomous learning among participants? .............................................................................. 13
Table of Contents
ii
1.5.3.1 Subsidiary Research Question 1: How do the elements of the treatment contribute to the
development of autonomous learning? .............................................................................. 14
1.5.3.2 Subsidiary Research Question 2: How do the levels of implementation contribute to foster
autonomous learning? ........................................................................................................ 14
1.5.4 Main Research Question 2: What are the opinions of the participants about learning
autonomously? ............................................................................................................................ 14
1.5.4.1 Subsidiary Question 1: What are the views of the subjects about the fostering of
autonomous learning in this study? .................................................................................... 15
1.5.4.2 Subsidiary Question 2: What are the opinions of the participants about autonomous
learning and how these developed along the treatment? .................................................. 15
Thesis layout ............................................................................................................. 16
Chapter 2 Autonomous Learning ............................................................................. 18
Introduction .............................................................................................................. 18
From language learning to teacher education ........................................................... 18
Defining autonomous learning .................................................................................. 19
2.2.1 Autonomous learning definition ................................................................................................ 19
Rationale for fostering autonomous learning ............................................................ 21
2.3.1 Changes in society ..................................................................................................................... 22
2.3.2 Lack of time to learn .................................................................................................................. 22
2.3.3 Learning improvement .............................................................................................................. 23
2.3.4 Fostering of lifelong learning ..................................................................................................... 23
2.3.5 Motivation to learn increases .................................................................................................... 24
2.3.6 Enhance learner responsibility .................................................................................................. 24
2.3.7 Learners become independent .................................................................................................. 25
2.3.8 Learning skills are developed ..................................................................................................... 25
Criticism to the development of learner autonomy. .................................................. 26
Challenges in the introduction of autonomous learning ............................................ 28
2.5.1 Resistance to change ................................................................................................................. 28
2.5.2 Teacher beliefs and context limitations ..................................................................................... 29
2.5.3 Learner beliefs and cultural background ................................................................................... 30
Factors to consider in the implementation process ................................................... 31
2.6.1 The context ................................................................................................................................ 31
2.6.2 Learner readiness ...................................................................................................................... 31
2.6.3 The knowledge and experience of the teacher ......................................................................... 32
Guidelines to implement autonomous learning ......................................................... 33
Table of Contents
iii
2.7.1 Gradual introduction ................................................................................................................. 34
2.7.2 Training learners ........................................................................................................................ 34
2.7.3 Support ...................................................................................................................................... 34
2.7.4 Planning the implementation process ....................................................................................... 35
Approaches to fostering autonomous learning ........................................................... 36
2.8.1 Teaching approaches ................................................................................................................. 36
2.8.1.1 Cooperative learning ......................................................................................................... 37
2.8.1.2 Task-based learning .......................................................................................................... 38
2.8.1.3 Student-centred learning .................................................................................................. 39
2.8.2 Process models .......................................................................................................................... 40
2.8.2.1 Definition of process models ............................................................................................ 40
2.8.2.2 Analysis of process models ............................................................................................... 42
2.8.2.2.1 Learner support ........................................................................................................... 42
2.8.2.2.2 Student involvement in the decisions made about learning ....................................... 42
2.8.2.2.3 Use of resources available ........................................................................................... 44
2.8.2.2.4 Levels of implementation ............................................................................................ 45
Overview ................................................................................................................... 50
Selection of the model to be adopted ........................................................................ 50
2.10.1 Reasons for not adopting any of the models analysed ......................................................... 51
2.10.2 Selection of the model to be adapted ................................................................................... 53
2.10.3 Adaptations made to the model selected ............................................................................. 54
Chapter 3 Methodology .......................................................................................... 57
Introduction ............................................................................................................... 57
Description of the program used. ............................................................................... 57
Objective ................................................................................................................... 61
Research questions .................................................................................................... 62
3.3.1 Main research question 1 .......................................................................................................... 62
3.3.1.1 Subsidiary question 1 ........................................................................................................ 62
3.3.1.2 Subsidiary question 2 ........................................................................................................ 62
3.3.2 Main research question 2 .......................................................................................................... 62
3.3.2.1 Subsidiary question 1 ........................................................................................................ 62
3.3.2.2 Subsidiary question 2 ........................................................................................................ 63
Qualitative research ................................................................................................... 64
Action research .......................................................................................................... 66
Intervention ............................................................................................................... 67
Table of Contents
iv
3.6.1 Description of the intervention ................................................................................................. 69
Data collection instruments ...................................................................................... 71
3.7.1 Questionnaire ............................................................................................................................ 71
3.7.2 Semi-structured interviews ....................................................................................................... 73
3.7.3 Learner diary .............................................................................................................................. 75
3.7.4 Researcher diary ........................................................................................................................ 77
3.7.5 Research process summary ....................................................................................................... 78
Awareness statement by the researcher ................................................................... 80
Data collection process ............................................................................................. 81
3.9.1 Learner diaries ........................................................................................................................... 81
3.9.2 Researcher diary ........................................................................................................................ 82
3.9.3 Questionnaire ............................................................................................................................ 83
3.9.4 Semi-structured interviews ....................................................................................................... 83
Data analysis methods .............................................................................................. 84
3.10.1 Data analysis methods used .................................................................................................. 84
3.10.1.1 Coding ........................................................................................................................... 85
3.10.1.2 Thematic analysis .......................................................................................................... 85
Data analysis process ................................................................................................ 87
Overview .................................................................................................................. 93
Chapter 4 Results .................................................................................................... 95
Introduction .............................................................................................................. 95
Generation of themes ............................................................................................... 95
Learner Diaries ......................................................................................................... 100
4.2.1 Changes learners considered to make at the beginning of the intervention .......................... 100
4.2.2 Changes students made to adapt to autonomous learning .................................................... 101
4.2.3 Opinions about the decisions made at the beginning of the study ......................................... 102
4.2.4 Outcomes from participating in the decisions made regarding learning ................................ 104
4.2.5 Self-study guides ...................................................................................................................... 105
4.2.5.1 Positive aspects of self-study guides ............................................................................... 105
4.2.5.2 Problems related to learning with self-study guides ...................................................... 107
Questionnaire .......................................................................................................... 110
4.3.1 Development of opinions about autonomous learning ........................................................... 110
4.3.2 Learning in collaboration ......................................................................................................... 111
4.3.3 Becoming autonomous learners .............................................................................................. 112
4.3.4 Opinions regarding whether training was needed to make decisions ..................................... 112
Table of Contents
v
4.3.5 The views of students about making their own decisions ....................................................... 113
4.3.6 The contribution making decisions made to foster autonomous learning .............................. 114
4.3.7 Aspects participants raised their awareness of ....................................................................... 116
4.3.8 Monitoring of learning ............................................................................................................. 117
4.3.9 Benefits of reflecting on learning ............................................................................................ 118
Interviews ................................................................................................................ 119
4.4.1 Opinions about the introduction of autonomous learning ...................................................... 119
4.4.2 Reasons why learners had positive opinions about autonomous learning ............................. 120
4.4.3 The role the teacher played in fostering autonomous learning .............................................. 121
4.4.4 Becoming autonomous learners .............................................................................................. 122
4.4.5 Autonomous learning or teacher-centred learning ................................................................. 124
4.4.6 Opinions about being involved in the decisions made regarding learning .............................. 125
4.4.7 Reasons why making decisions was easier during the second part of the intervention ......... 126
4.4.8 Suggestions made to facilitate making decisions .................................................................... 128
4.4.9 Aspects learners became conscious of during the intervention .............................................. 130
Overview ................................................................................................................. 132
Chapter 5 Discussion of findings ............................................................................ 133
Introduction ............................................................................................................. 133
Raising awareness .................................................................................................... 133
5.1.1 Weaknesses ............................................................................................................................. 133
5.1.2 Strengths .................................................................................................................................. 135
Participants making decisions about their learning .................................................. 136
5.2.1 Negative opinions about this practice ..................................................................................... 136
5.2.2 Effects of having participants make their own decisions about their learning ........................ 137
5.2.3 Factors that facilitated the decision-making process .............................................................. 138
5.2.4 The impact of reflection on making decisions ......................................................................... 140
Autonomous learning .............................................................................................. 141
5.3.1 The opinions of the participants about autonomous learning ................................................ 142
5.3.2 The opinions of the participants about autonomous learning ................................................ 142
5.3.3 Factors that contributed to the development of autonomous learning ................................. 142
5.3.4 Participants becoming more autonomous in their learning .................................................... 143
Research questions .................................................................................................. 145
5.4.1 Main research question 1: What evidence indicates that there has been a development of
autonomous learning among participants? ............................................................................ 145
5.4.1.1 Subsidiary question 1: How do the elements of the treatment contribute to the
development of autonomous learning? ......................................................................... 148
Table of Contents
vi
5.4.1.2 Subsidiary question 2: How do the levels of implementation contribute to foster
autonomous learning? .................................................................................................... 150
5.4.2 Main research question 2: What are the opinions of the participants about learning
autonomously? ....................................................................................................................... 152
5.4.2.1 Subsidiary question 1: What are the views of the subjects about the fostering of
autonomous learning in this study? ............................................................................... 153
5.4.2.2 Subsidiary research question 2: What are the opinions of the participants about
autonomous learning and how these developed along the treatment? ........................ 153
Overview ................................................................................................................. 154
Chapter 6 Conclusions ........................................................................................... 155
Introduction ............................................................................................................. 155
Conclusions .............................................................................................................. 155
Limitations ............................................................................................................... 158
Future research ........................................................................................................ 159
Practical outcomes ................................................................................................... 161
Reflection of the teacher/researcher regarding implementing the model and
conducting the investigation .................................................................................... 164
: Intervention .................................................................................... 166
Description of the model used ................................................................................. 166
Course Outlines ........................................................................................................ 174
Work plan ................................................................................................................ 182
Rubrics ..................................................................................................................... 183
Reflection questions ................................................................................................ 185
BA Programme ......................................................................................................... 186
Teaching Methods I syllabus .................................................................................... 187
Ethics Committee Approval ...................................................................................... 191
: Data Collection Instruments ............................................................. 192
Learner Diary Questions ........................................................................................... 192
Questionnaire .......................................................................................................... 193
Interview questions ................................................................................................. 194
vii
Researcher diary ...................................................................................................... 196
Consent form for students ....................................................................................... 197
List of References ....................................................................................................... 199
Table of Tables
ix
Table of Tables
Table 1: Relationship between research questions and data collection instruments ...... 64
Table 2: Research process summary ................................................................................. 80
Table 3: Summary of data sets .......................................................................................... 84
Table 4: Questionnaire thematic table ............................................................................. 96
Table 5: Interviews thematic table ................................................................................... 97
Table 6: Diaries of learners thematic table ....................................................................... 97
Table of Figures
xi
Table of Figures
Figure 1: NVivo Project ..................................................................................................... 88
Figure 2: Sample codes ..................................................................................................... 88
Figure 3: Quotes from participants ................................................................................... 89
Figure 4: Codes from questionnaire A .............................................................................. 90
Figure 5: Codes from questionnaire B .............................................................................. 90
Figure 6: Codes from interviews A .................................................................................... 91
Figure 7: Codes from interviews B .................................................................................... 91
Figure 8: Codes from the diaries of learners A ................................................................. 92
Figure 9: Codes from the diaries of learners B .................................................................. 92
Figure 10: Questionnaire thematic map ........................................................................... 98
Figure 11: Interviews thematic map ................................................................................. 99
Figure 12: Diaries of learners thematic map ..................................................................... 99
Research Thesis: Declaration of Authorship
xiii
Research Thesis: Declaration of Authorship
Print name: Secundino Isabeles Flores
Title of thesis: The Use of a Process Model to Introduce and Develop Autonomous
Learning among Mexican University Students
I declare that this thesis and the work presented in it are my own and has been generated by me
as the result of my own original research.
I confirm that:
1. This work was done wholly or mainly while in candidature for a research degree at this
University;
2. Where any part of this thesis has previously been submitted for a degree or any other
qualification at this University or any other institution, this has been clearly stated;
3. Where I have consulted the published work of others, this is always clearly attributed;
4. Where I have quoted from the work of others, the source is always given. With the exception
of such quotations, this thesis is entirely my own work;
5. I have acknowledged all main sources of help;
6. Where the thesis is based on work done by myself jointly with others, I have made clear
exactly what was done by others and what I have contributed myself;
7. None of this work has been published before submission.
Signature: ...................................................... Date: 8 of February 2022
Acknowledgements
xv
Acknowledgements
There are several people I want to thank because they somehow gave me the support I needed
throughout this long but pleasant journey. First of all, I want to thank my tutor Alasdair Archibald
not only for guiding me through my research and the writing of my dissertation, but also for
helping me to become more critical, analytical, and reflective; as well as to develop other
academic skills. Without a doubt, his patience and support were crucial for me to finish this
project.
I also want to thank Maria for all her support. Not only was she willing to assist me whenever I
asked her to help me with something related to my research, she also took care of everything that
was needed at home and the kids during those moments when I was lost in my thoughts, my
research, or the writing of my thesis. Furthermore, I thank Santiago and Nicolas for understanding
that I could not spend as much time as they wanted me to with them because I was working on
my research project. They were very patient and tried their best to be quiet whenever they saw
me working. I love you, thank you for being so good.
There were other people who also assisted me somehow along this process: Raphael, Damara,
Marcela, Elizabeth, Paulina, and Jessica. Their encouragement, advice, and chats motivated me to
get to the finish line. Finally, I want to say that I am grateful with my family because they taught
me during my upbringing through example that I could reach any goals I set for myself as long as I
was determined and work hard.
I dedicate this work to my father, who passed away while I was doing my PhD studies, because he
has always been an inspiration to me to be better and work hard at whatever I do. Moreover, this
is to my children Santiago and Nicolas who I love more than anything in the world and gave me
the energy and desire to keep working to reach this personal goal.
Secundino Isabeles Flores Chapter 1
1
Chapter 1 Introduction
Introduction
The interest in autonomous learning has increased considerably in the past decades. This has
occurred in the field of education (Pershukova, Nikolska and Vasiukovych, 2020), although it has
been more prominent in language learning (Al-Busaidi and Al-Maamari, 2014; Yildirim, 2012). Al-
Saadi (2011) explains that since Holec introduced the concept of autonomy in language learning in
1981 in his report Autonomy and Foreign language learning, autonomous learning has gained a
great deal of attention from scholars. In addition, the implementation of learner-centred
approaches in language learning has contributed to the growth of interest in this approach
(Benson, 2001). Since its introduction, many scholars have researched it (Finch, 2002). According
to Bajrami (2015) and Yagcioglu (2015), the number of studies conducted on autonomous learning
has escalated substantially in universities and schools in the last decades. The acceptance of this
approach has made its introduction one of the primary objectives of education (Pershukova,
Nikolska, and Vasiukovych, 2020). Benson (2016) contends that it is necessary to promote
autonomous learning to have students learn how to learn and develop the skills needed to
become lifelong learners. Al-Busaidi and Al-Maamari (2014) argues that autonomous learning
enables learners to take responsibility of their learning in and outside the classroom. These trends
have also impacted the education system in Mexico. The Ministry of Education in this country
currently encourages the use of learning approaches that focus on increasing learner
responsibility and developing lifelong learners in all schools in Mexico (Azamar-Alonso, 2015). The
same phenomenon has occurred at the University of Colima where this study took place. Its latest
educational policies highly recommend the employment of approaches that help students
become lifelong learners, construct their own knowledge, and learn how to learn in all its high
schools, undergraduate, and graduate programs (Universidad de Colima, 2017).
Although autonomous learning has been employed for many years, researchers and teachers are
still trying to find appropriate ways to implement it in the classroom. Warni & Supraptiningsih
(2019) affirm that one of the main issues teachers and researchers are concerned about is
learning how to foster autonomous learning among students from different settings, and distinct
social and cultural backgrounds. This concern was shared by the author of this study and led to
the conduction of this investigation. The objective of this study was to learn how to introduce and
develop autonomous learning among a group of Mexican university students who were being
trained to be language teachers. This investigation was conducted in one of their pedagogical
courses in which they learnt about teaching approaches and methods that can be employed to
Secundino Isabeles Flores Chapter 1
2
teach English. Most of the literature reviewed for this research belongs to the field of language
learning. This is because more knowledge has been generated regarding the promotion of
autonomous learning from the studies that have been conducted in this area than in any other
one (Al-Busaidi and Al-Maamari, 2014). The results obtained provide useful information regarding
the implementation process, what was necessary to do so, and what has helped the fostering of
this approach. Although these findings belong to a different area, many of them can be used to
promote autonomous learning in adult education. Reviewing what had been done in language
learning was useful to introduce and develop autonomous learning among the participants of this
study. In addition, any knowledge regarding language learning obtained from this investigation
would be beneficial for the researcher and learners since they are involved in this area. A more
thorough explanation regarding why this type of literature was used in this study is included in the
next chapter. Through this research it is expected to learn more about what helps the fostering of
autonomous learning among Mexican university students, as well as how they feel about the
implementation process and learning with this approach.
Background to the study
The University of Colima established in 2013 that the teaching approaches to be employed at this
institution should be student-centred oriented (Universidad de Colima, 2013). Consequently,
some of the teachers from the School of Languages; the institution where the researcher works,
received training regarding how to use some of these approaches: cooperative leaning, task-
based learning, and learner-centred learning. After some time, they started to employ these
approaches in their classes. However, they had no guidance or feedback during the planning or
implementation process. Through informal conversations the author of this study had with
students, he learnt that it was complicated to adapt to these approaches that involved
autonomous learning because throughout their academic life they had been taught with teacher-
centred methods. They found it difficult to make the transition from teacher-centred to student-
centred learning. This led them to have negative feelings towards learning with the approaches
their teachers were using and their class performance and scores declined. Although they
eventually adapted to learning with such approaches, some students struggled considerably and
took a long time and effort do so.
I considered it was necessary to explore how to appropriately introduce and foster autonomous
learning in my teaching context to prevent negative feelings among learners, improve their class
performance, and increase their willingness to learn with student-centred learning approaches. I
was also interested in promoting autonomous learning because I believed that learning can be
enhanced when students develop the abilities needed to do it autonomously. My educational
Secundino Isabeles Flores Chapter 1
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background, as well as my learning and teaching experiences have made me conclude that
students who are autonomous are better learners, can learn more than what is expected, and
develop the capacity to learn what they need to in and out of school. I have identified the
previous from my learning and teaching experiences; however, I had never done any formal
studies to support these observations. My graduate studies gave me the opportunity to formally
explore the fostering of autonomous learning in my context.
The strategy used to create the program implemented involved the review of existing literature
on how to foster autonomous learning. This initially resulted in a collection of different ideas, tips,
suggestions, and guidelines. Nevertheless, I was looking for an organized and comprehensive
system that could guide me along the introduction and development of this approach. I had
already implemented some of such suggestions in some of the classes I had taught; nevertheless, I
felt that using them in isolation was not enough to promote autonomous learning. Another
reason to employ a comprehensive and systematic method was the fact that I intended to create
a program that could be used by other teachers to foster autonomous learning.
Different scholars affirm that the promotion of autonomous learning depends considerably on the
context and the learners where this happens. Hu & Zhang (2017) and Yildirim (2012) affirm that
the cultural background, instrumental motivation, and the education system of the learning
context has a significant impact on the promotion of this approach to learning. Considering this, I
searched for literature regarding how to foster autonomous learning among Mexican university
students. I found that little research had been done regarding the promotion of this approach in
Mexico, and no studies have been conducted on this issue at the university where I worked. This
led me to explore how autonomous learning had been fostered in other parts of the world, the
strategies, processes, and methods that have been employed, as well as any information related
to the promotion of this approach to learning.
The results of some studies conducted by several researchers showed they had been successful at
fostering autonomous learning among students with process models (Iimuro & Berger, 2010;
Reinders, 2010; Murray, 2006; St. Louis, 2006; Nordlund, 2001; Scharle and Szabo, 2000;
Bertonldi, Kollar & Ricard, 1988; Nunan, 1997). These findings made me decide to select this
approach. I analysed these models to have a better understanding of them, as well as how they
worked, their components, how they sequenced the implementation process, how they were
implemented, the resources that were required to do so, the context in which they were used,
and the characteristics of the students these models have been implemented with. A second goal
of this analysis was to select a model that would be the basis for the program to be implemented
in this study to foster autonomous learning. Due to the limitations and features of the context and
Secundino Isabeles Flores Chapter 1
4
the researcher, it was necessary to adapt the model chosen. The selection of the model was
based on two main aspects. First, it had to include as many of the elements the analysis had
shown were relevant for the promotion of autonomous learning. Second, it had to be a model
that were appropriate to the learners and the context where the study was conducted, while
doing as few changes as possible so that its essence would not be lost. The adaptations made to it
are found at the end of chapter three, and a full description of the model in appendix A1.
In conclusion, this investigation emerged from the interest I had to solve a problem the students
at the school where I worked reported having, as well as my personal interest. This led to reading
and researching about autonomous learning; what it is, how it works, as well as how to introduce
it and foster it. This evolved into creating a program used in this study which had as a goal to
generate more knowledge about how to implement and develop autonomous learning among
Mexican university.
Context of the study
1.2.1 The School
This study was conducted at the School of Languages from the University of Colima in Mexico.
This school is in the City of Villa de Alvarez in the state of Colima. The school offers a BA in
language teaching. Its purpose is to help students acquire the knowledge and develop the skills
needed to teach English or French as foreign languages. This is done by having teacher trainees
take the classes included in the program, participate in local and national language teacher
conferences, and have students do their practicum in local public elementary schools during their
junior and senior years. The school encourages teachers to use student-centred teaching
approaches. Trainees are asked to work individually, in pairs, or small teams. In addition, it is
common to see them doing projects, creating materials, playing games, oral presentations, doing
microteaching, singing songs, and participating in other events like plays, musicals, and
demonstrations, the school or teachers organize to have students apply the knowledge they have
acquired in their classes. The school is known for the implementation of current teaching
practices and that are different from the ones employed in other schools.
Secundino Isabeles Flores Chapter 1
5
1.2.2 The BA Program
The program has three main areas of knowledge: linguistics, pedagogy, and research in language
teaching. All the classes are face-to-face. It is a four-year program that includes mandatory classes
through the whole program and offers some electives in the last two years. Students are required
to take English and French as foreign language classes while they are enrolled and are expected to
graduate with at least a B2 level in English and B1 in French; according to the Common European
Framework of Reference for Languages. English classes are taken according to learners’ language
level. These go from A2 to C1. French classes are given to the whole class. These start at an A1
level and increase to B1 in the senior year.
The classes related to language teaching begin in the second year and continue until the end of
the program (see appendix A.6). In these, students learn about teaching methods and approaches
for language teaching, teaching materials design, language assessment, and the like. During the
third year, students take Practicum, which requires them to teach in a local public elementary
school in the afternoons. They teach three one-hour classes per week during the fall and spring
semesters. Prior to start teaching students are given the syllabus for the class they are going to
teach so that they can create the lesson plans and teaching materials needed. These are revised
by the teachers in charge of Practicum and corrections are made if necessary. By the time
students start teaching all the lesson plans and materials are ready to do so. Teachers observe
some of the lessons taught by students and give them feedback to improve their teaching
practices.
During the last two years of the program, students take a research class every semester (see
appendix A.6). In addition to learning about this topic, students are guided to organize, create,
and conduct a study on a topic they are interested related to language teaching and learning.
They are expected to finish their research project during their senior year and present the findings
of their investigation at a teachers’ conference organized by the school. Researchers from other
universities and speakers are also invited to give talks, workshops, and present the results of their
investigations at the event.
1.2.3 The Class
This study was conducted in one of the classes taught by the researcher: Teaching Methods I. It is
a compulsory class learners take during the third semester. In this class students learn relevant
information regarding language learning theories, lesson planning, as well as different teaching
methods and approaches for language teaching (see appendix A.7 for the Syllabus and A.2 for the
Course Outline). This class was taught in English in three face-to-face classes a week. It was
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mandatory for learners to attend at least 80 percent of the face-to-face sessions each term to be
able to take the final exam. The class is taught during the Fall semester from mid-August to mid-
December. The course book used was Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching by Jack
Richards and Theodore Rodgers. There were other articles and readings students were given to
read and discuss in class. The syllabus for the class was reviewed by the teacher who was going to
teach the class some weeks before classes began. This is done with all the classes to suggest some
changes if they believe are necessary. These are presented to a committee of teachers appointed
by the school to be considered for approval. This committee decides whether such changes are
made or not. After this period, teachers cannot make any changes regarding the content to be
learnt; however, they are allowed to decide how students learn and how they are assessed, if
they follow the guidelines provided by the school.
1.2.4 The Learners
Most students attending the BA at the time this investigation took place were from public high
schools from the state of Colima, few from other states in Mexico, and few from local private
schools. They were between 18 and 25 years old. Most of them were native Spanish speakers.
Their EFL levels ranged from A2 to C1. Students from private schools usually have a higher English
level (B1 or B2) than those from public ones (A2). This is because the former take more EFL classes
and some content classes in English. The participants of the study had similar characteristics. In
addition, they were used to learning with teacher-centred methods; this was stated by them
during informal conversations and the interviews. It is common for students from this context to
have been taught through their academic life with this type of methods. They were accustomed
to being teacher-dependent and having their learning controlled by their teachers. Most students
had a low socioeconomical level. Few of them had a laptop or desktop computer at home, and
often this was usually shared with the rest of the family members and only some had internet
access at home. This information was relevant for the researcher because it let him know that it
was not advisable to ask students to conduct many activities that required the use of internet at
home, this was because many of them lacked the tools to complete this type of tasks. When these
were assigned, some learners had to stay at school when classes were over to use the computer
lab.
There were 27 students enrolled in the class where this investigation was conducted; however,
only 13 accepted to participate in the study and signed the consent forms (See appendix B.5). The
program created was implemented as part of the teaching practices selected for this class.
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Therefore, all the students were asked to complete the same tasks, learn with the same approach,
and comply with the same requirements, whether they had accepted to participate in the study
or not. Nevertheless, only the information from those who signed the consent forms was used in
this investigation. There was not a control and experimental group because the researcher was
teaching the class Teaching Methods I to only one group. Had he taught it to the two groups
enrolled in the BA, the previous would have been possible. In addition, the class could not be
divided in two groups because the school would not allow it. Most participants were interested in
teaching EFL once they graduated from the program. Moreover, the majority of them wanted to
become language teachers, although some wanted to become translators.
1.2.5 The Facilities
The School of Languages has eight classrooms, a language laboratory, a self-access centre, and a
computer laboratory. Classrooms have a basic standard set up for classes to be taught with a
classroom focused rather than a technology one. There is wireless internet connection on
campus; however, it is not powerful enough for all students to use it. When they need to use the
Internet, they must go to the language or the computer laboratory. Nevertheless, these rooms are
used to teach classes; therefore, internet access on campus is sometimes limited. The self-access
centre offers language learning services to students from all the university, while the computer
lab is used by the students from the Schools of Languages, Tourism, Economics, Philosophy.
Therefore, having access to these facilities is often limited or restricted. The humanities library is
located on this campus and offers services to students from all the university, especially to the
ones attending the schools previously mentioned. Books are lent for no more than three days,
and some of them are kept on reserve. Students are required to buy the coursebooks for most of
their classes, and most teachers provide them with additional bibliography needed for their
classes electronically. The school offers students the opportunity to learn with the facilities of a
standard set up.
Theoretical background
Process models have been used for over two decades to promote autonomous language learning
in different contexts (Iimuro & Berger, 2010; Reinders, 2010; Murray, 2006; St. Louis, 2006;
Nordlund, 2001; Scharle and Szabo, 2000; Bertonldi, Kollar & Ricard, 1988; Nunan, 1997). An
analysis of these models showed that they include levels of implementation. This approach was
suggested by Nunan (1997). He believed it was best to introduce autonomous learning gradually
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through stages (Egel, 2009) or levels of implementation (Onozowa, 2010). These help to introduce
and develop autonomous learning because they give learners time to adapt to the new learning
approach and progressively develop the skills needed to be able to learn accordingly (Spiro,
Henderson, and Clifford, 2012). Although Nunan did not do a study to apply this approach to
promote autonomous learning and explore how effective it was, other researchers have done it
(Iimuro & Berger, 2010; Murray, 2006; St. Louis, 2006; Nordlund, 2001; Bertonldi, Kollar & Ricard,
1988) and have obtained results which indicate that this structure contributes to promote
autonomous learning.
The analysis conducted to the models that have been used to promote autonomous showed that
they included the following levels of implementation: awareness raising, establishing learning
goals, planning learning, monitoring learning, assessing learning, and reflecting on learning
practices. Regarding awareness raising, scholars agree that learners need to be conscious of what
autonomous learning is and what this implies to their learning practices (Abdelrazeq, 2018;
Darsih, 2018). Students also need to be conscious of their strengths, weaknesses (Cohen, 2003),
their needs (Iimuro & Berger, 2010), the roles they and their teachers play in this approach
(Cotterall, 1995; Ajideh, 2009), and other aspects such as the methods, resources, and strategies
that help them learn (Azin, Biria & Golestan, 2018; Zulaihah & Harida, 2017). The second level
involves students in taking part in the selection of their learning objectives (Boggu & Sundarsingh,
2019). In language learning, it is suggested to consider students’ needs to improve the skills they
need to develop. Learners may not select all their learning goals; however, involving them in this
decision-making process somehow contributes to foster autonomous learning. In the next level,
students are asked to participate in the planning of their learning. Learners make choices
regarding how they are going to learn (Reinders, 2010), when, as well as which learning materials,
strategies, tasks, and techniques are going to be used during the learning process (Warni &
Supraptiningsih, 2019). In the fourth level, students are required to monitor their learning. The
purpose of the previous is to identify the problems they had during their learning process; which
helps them make changes and take the necessary actions to avoid in future learning endeavours
(Ajideh, 2009; Nunan, 1997), to regulate their learning, notice what assisted their learning and
what did not, and increase their commitment and persistence to learn (Hu & Zhang; 2017).
The last two levels of implementation happen at the end of the learning process. In the
assessment of learning level, students can participate in the decisions made regarding the
selection of the assessment instruments to be employed, when the assessment periods are going
to be, the deadlines for assignments, whether the expected content was learnt, among other
aspects. The results of a study conducted by Warni & Supraptiningsih (2019) led them to conclude
that it is possible to involve students in the decisions made regarding their learning. The last level
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of implementation demands from students to reflect about their learning. Reflection is defined in
this study as a thinking process which makes students review their learning, analyse it, evaluate it,
and draw conclusions about it. This definition takes elements from the ones provided by Clara
(2015), Illeris (2007), Learning Development Unit (2004), and Boud, Keogh, & Walker (1985).
Reflection involves reviewing what learners did to learn. This type of reflection is called on-action,
which means it take place after a learning experience has occurred (Ottesen, 2006). In the next
step, learners analyse what worked well and what did not. This includes learning strategies,
practices, activities, materials, resources, modes of working (individually or with somebody else),
and anything else relevant to the learning process. Next comes evaluating the learning
experience. This is concerned with deducing why some things worked and why some did not,
what caused them to have positive, average, or negative results. The last step are the conclusions.
Here students summarize what they learnt from the experience and reflecting on it. Conclusions
are drawn to be considered the next time students take part in a similar learning experience to
apply what they learnt and improve the learning process.
Based on the results obtained from the use of process models to promote of autonomous
learning in language learning, it was decided to employ a process model to foster this approach in
this study. Because of the limitations of the research context, it was not possible to adopt any of
the models that were examined. Instead, an existing model was adapted to match characteristics
of the setting where the research took place. The model selected to be adapted was the one
created by Reinders (2010). Two criteria led to its selection. First, it included most of the levels of
implementation the analysis done to the models showed were necessary for the introduction and
development of autonomous learning. Second, it required few adaptations to make it suitable for
the research context. A more elaborate explanation for the selection of Reinders’ model is
included in the next chapter.
Research rationale
The researcher discovered through informal talks with his students that they were having
difficulty learning with the student-centred approaches their teachers were using. These were
cooperative learning, task-based learning, and learner-centred learning. Students also expressed
that they were used to learning with teacher-centred methods. Nevertheless, the approaches
they had to learn with included learning practices which were very different from what they were
accustomed to. Moreover, they mentioned that teachers did not inform them what the
approaches they were using were about, what these required them to do, or how to adapt to the
new learning practices. Consequently, the use of student-centred learning approaches produced
negative feelings among students. They informed the researcher they were stressed, anxious, and
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upset because they felt lost through their learning process; they were unsure about what they
had to do, how, and what role they and their teachers played in their learning. They were not
given enough time or assistance to learn how to learn according to the approaches involved
autonomous learning. Therefore, students’ performance in class worsened and their scores
lowered considerably.
The researcher hypothesized that if students were able to learn autonomously, they would adapt
more easily to learning with any of the student-centred approaches their teachers were using.
Achieving this goal involved finding a suitable way to introduce and develop autonomous learning
among the students. Literature indicates that the previous has been achieved through the
employment of process models in different learning contexts (Iimuro & Berger, 2010; Reinders,
2010; Murray, 2006; St. Louis, 2006; Nordlund, 2001; Scharle and Szabo, 2000; Bertonldi, Kollar &
Ricard, 1988; Nunan, 1997). Although this has been done in language learning, the researcher
believed that it was likely that similar results could be obtained when employed in teacher
education. Therefore, it was decided to use the same strategy to foster autonomous learning
among the participants of the study and apply the findings form fostering autonomy in language
learning to this study which involved autonomy in adult education. To reach this goal, Reinders’
model was adapted taking into consideration the suggestions given in existing literature, the
characteristics of the learning environment, and those of the participants.
It was necessary to carry out an investigation to determine whether the model adapted and
employed in this study successfully introduces and develops autonomous learning among the
participants. There were different reasons for this. First, the model adapted was created to
promote autonomous language learning; however, in this study the goal was to foster
autonomous learning in adult education. By conducting this research, data was going to be
collected to establish if the previous was possible. This could also increase our understanding of
how to foster this approach in a different type of context, which is a major concern among
scholars nowadays (Pershukova, Nikolska, and Vasiukovych, 2020). In addition, the results of this
investigation can generate knowledge regarding how the levels of implementation and the
elements of the treatment assist in the promotion of this approach to learning. This research can
also increase our understanding of how to foster autonomous learning among a group of learners
from a context where little research on this issue has been conducted. This is a topic that
concerns scholars. Warni & Supraptiningsih (2019) contend that learning how to introduce and
develop autonomous learning among students from different learning settings, social and ethnical
backgrounds is one of the principal objectives of researchers and scholars have nowadays. Finally,
because the participants of the study have been taught with teacher-centred methods throughout
their academic life and they must adapt to being more autonomous in their learning, more can be
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learnt about what can help students during the transition from teacher-centred to autonomous
learning.
Aims and research questions
The main objective of this study is to investigate the impact an adapted process model, designed
according to levels of implementation, has on the fostering of autonomous learning among a
group of Mexican university students who are used to learning with teacher-centred methods. To
achieve the previous two aims and research questions were created; each of these with two
subsidiary aims or questions. These will guide this investigation, the data collection, and the data
analysis. In this section, the previous are included and short descriptions of their purposes are
described.
1.5.1 Aim 1: To explore for evidence that indicates there has been a development of
autonomous learning among participants
One of the main purposes of this investigation is to establish the extent to which the model used
contributes to the fostering of autonomous learning among the participants of the study. The
model employed in this study is different to any other because it is an adaptation of a theoretical
framework that has been used a reference by scholars, due to its solid structure and components.
Furthermore, the model was designed to be implemented among a group of learners who have
been taught with teacher-centred methods through their academic life; therefore, learning
autonomously involves a significant change in their learning; from teacher-centred to learner-
centred. These features resulted in a new model that requires the examination of its impact to
establish how suitable it is to introduce and promote autonomous learning among a group of
learners who are used to learning through teacher-centred methods. Achieving this aim would
make it possible to bridge theory and practice because it would generate evidence regarding
whether a model that is theoretically sound to promote autonomous learning is as solid when it is
implemented among a group of learners.
1.5.1.1 Subsidiary Aim 1: To investigate how the elements of the model contribute to
introduce autonomous learning.
The model used in this investigation was designed including different components; some can be
found in models that have been employed by researchers to introduce autonomous learning in
the past, others emerged from the theoretical frameworks, and few derived from the adaptations
made to make the model appropriate to the context where the study was conducted. Learning
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about how each element of the model contributed to promote autonomous learning get help to
have a better understanding of the impact it has on this issue. Therefore, it is necessary to know
how each level of implementation assisted to reach the goal of this model, or how useful were the
materials used to help students take control of their learning and monitor this process such as the
self-study guides, the action plan, the course outline, and assessing rubrics. Furthermore, it is
essential to examine if the support given to participants was appropriate and enough to guide
them during the adaptation process, to answer any questions they had or when needed advice, as
well as to develop the skills and acquire the knowledge needed to be more autonomous in their
learning. This knowledge is useful because it would increase the understanding regarding what is
essential for the fostering of autonomous learning.
1.5.1.2 Subsidiary Aim 2: To investigate how the levels of implementation contribute to
foster autonomous learning.
Structuring a model to introduce autonomous learning using levels of implementation is an
approach that has been employed by several researchers who have successfully introduced
autonomous learning in the past two decades. Although positive results have been obtained from
the employment of this approach, little research has been conducted to examine the contribution
each level makes in the promotion of this approach to learning. Due to the fact that such design is
used in this study, it will be possible to explore the contribution each level makes in the
promotion of autonomous learning. Examining this issue can help us learn more about why
structuring a model considering the levels of implementation is advisable.
1.5.2 Aim 2: To explore the opinions of participants about learning autonomously.
It is essential to know participants’ opinions regarding learning with the approach introduced to
know how they feel about it, as well as whether they acknowledge they benefits this approach to
learning offers. Participants are the best source of information regarding the usefulness of the
approach in their learning. In addition, collecting subjects’ opinions about this approach can help
to notice any other issues they believe are relevant but were not considered by the researcher.
The collection of participants’ perceptions about learning autonomously can help to establish if
they eventually welcomed learning in this way, and if they became more autonomous in their
learning.
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1.5.2.1 Subsidiary Aim 1: To investigate the perceptions of subjects about the fostering of
autonomous learning in this study.
The introduction of autonomous learning was planned considering existing literature on this issue:
guidelines, suggestions from researchers who investigated this topic, as well as anything else that
was found relevant for the introduction of autonomous learning. This resulted in an
implementation process created for the context where this investigation takes place.
Nevertheless, it is necessary to gather participants’ opinion about the appropriateness of such
process to established how suitable the process employed to introduce autonomous learning is.
Furthermore, information can be generated regarding what helped to introduce this approach to
learning and what did not according to the perceptions of participants. These findings can help to
have a better understanding regarding how to introduce autonomous learning in a context.
1.5.2.2 Subsidiary Aim 2: To explore the opinions of participants about autonomous
learning and how these developed along the treatment.
Subjects were used to learning with teacher-centred methods prior to their participation in this
study. Because of this, adapting to learning autonomously can be a drastic change which they may
not easily accept. Therefore, it is likely they will not welcome this change at first. However, it is
possible that as they learn about autonomous learning, how it works, the benefits it brings, and
they experience learning with this approach, they may change their perceptions about learning
with this approach. Consequently, it is necessary to examine what their opinions about
autonomous learning are at the beginning of the treatment, if they change throughout, and what
they are like at the end of it. Such exploration can show if there is a development in their
opinions, if they remain the same, and how they feel about it after learning in this way for one
semester. This information can help to get a better understanding regarding how students feel
through the adaption process to learning autonomously.
1.5.3 Main Research Question 1: What evidence indicates that there has been a
development of autonomous learning among participants?
Autonomous learning is going to be fostered by using a process model that was adapted to make
it suitable for the setting where the study is going to be conducted. This resulted in a model that
has never been implemented; therefore, it is unknown whether it helps to introduce and develop
autonomous learning, how, why, to what extent, and which aspects of this approach fosters.
Answering this question can generate information regarding these issues and about the impact
the model used in this research has on the promotion of autonomous learning overall.
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1.5.3.1 Subsidiary Research Question 1: How do the elements of the treatment contribute
to the development of autonomous learning?
The model was designed considering the aspects of the original model, those included in other
models that have been used for the same purpose, as well as the guidelines and suggestions
found in existing literature regarding the fostering of autonomous learning. Because elements
from different sources were grouped to create the model used in this investigation, it is necessary
to know which elements contributed to foster autonomous learning among the participants of the
study, how they did, why, and to what extent they helped to reach this goal. By answering this
question, more insights can be obtained regarding what helps to promote this approach to
learning, as well as to discover which components are essential to reach this objective.
1.5.3.2 Subsidiary Research Question 2: How do the levels of implementation contribute to
foster autonomous learning?
Using levels of implementation to structure models for the fostering of autonomous learning is a
principle that has been employed by different researchers. Although there is no general
agreement regarding which levels have to be employed, researchers seem to share the opinion
that using levels of implementation assists the introduction and development of autonomous
learning. What has not been researched enough is the contribution each level makes to reach
such aim. This research will explore this issue to get a better understanding of how each level
helps students to adapt to autonomous learning.
1.5.4 Main Research Question 2: What are the opinions of the participants about learning
autonomously?
Autonomous learning is going to be a new approach for participants, it is the opposite to the
teaching methods they are used to learning with. In addition, it involves a drastic change in their
learning practices. Because of this, it is essential to know how students feel about learning
through this approach. By asking participants’ opinions, it will be possible to know if they
accepted this way of learning, how difficult it was do adapt to it, what helped them to do so,
whether they believe it helps them learn and why, if they would like to continue learning with this
approach, as well as any other benefits they may acknowledge from learning autonomously. In
addition, it might be possible to learn more about how appropriate the implementation process
actually was. Based on his observations, the researcher can have an opinion about the suitability
of this process; nevertheless, the subjects’ comments can generate more reliable data about this
issue. Gathering participants’ opinions about this approach can generate useful findings about the
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topics this investigation is going to explore, as well as other ones which were not considered by
the researcher but are relevant to the subjects.
1.5.4.1 Subsidiary Question 1: What are the views of the subjects about the fostering of
autonomous learning in this study?
One of the main concerns of this investigation is to ensure that autonomous learning is
introduced appropriately. This is because learning according to this approach involves a drastic
change for most participants. If this change is not implemented properly, it can cause a negative
reaction among participants and even rejection. Asking participants how they felt about the
introduction of autonomous learning can help to establish if this process was appropriate; if they
were given enough time to adapt to it, if the pace with which different aspects of autonomous
learning were introduced was correct, if enough assistance was provided during the transition
period, as well as any other issue related to the introduction of this approach that can inform the
researcher how to improve this process. These findings can further our understanding about what
needs to be done to and how to introduce autonomous learning among participants who are used
to learning with teacher-centred methods.
1.5.4.2 Subsidiary Question 2: What are the opinions of the participants about
autonomous learning and how these developed along the
treatment?
Fostering and adapting to autonomous learning takes time. If participants were used to learning
through methods that were opposite to learning autonomously, it is likely that at the beginning of
the treatment their opinions are going to be different to what they express at the end of it; if
subjects adapted to this approach to learning and welcomed it. Therefore, it is necessary to ask
participants their opinions about autonomous learning at different stages of the treatment to
establish if these changed along the way. If they did, it would be necessary to explore why this
happened and what caused these modifications in their points of view. Furthermore, by
answering it would be possible to know if they would like to continue learning with this approach,
why, as well as anything they have to say about autonomous learning. If their responses are
positive, these could be used to establish the appropriateness of the model employed in this
investigation. If they were negative, useful information could be generated to make
improvements to the treatment. Therefore, whichever they opinions are, these will be useful
some way or another.
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Thesis layout
This thesis includes six chapters. The first one is the introduction. The second chapter includes
relevant information about autonomous learning found in existing literature. The third one is the
methodology. The results obtained in each data collection instrument are included in the fourth
chapter. The fifth discussed the findings and provides the answers to the research questions. The
conclusions, practical implications and suggestions for further research are found in the sixth
chapter.
The introduction includes a description of the background and the context of the study, the
theoretical background, it discusses the rationale for conducting this investigation, and provides
the aims and research questions.
Chapter two discusses autonomous learning and relevant issues related to the fostering of this
approach. Autonomous learning is defined first. Secondly the reasons for introducing and
rejecting autonomy are explored. Next, the factors to consider when introducing autonomous
learning and guidelines to do so are examined. After that the levels of implementation to
introduce this approach to learner. Then, different approaches to foster autonomous learning are
discussed. Finally, the reasons for using a process model in this study are provided and the
adaptations made to Reinders’ model are described.
Chapter three describes the model implemented and the methodology selected for this study.
Moreover, it presents the research questions that guided this investigation. Each question
includes a short discussion about why they were selected for this study. After that, the researcher
explains why qualitative research and action researched were used in this investigation. The data
collection instruments are discussed next, along with an explanation of how they help to collect
the data needed to answer the research questions. Finally, the researcher describes the data
collection process and explains the reasons for selecting the data analysis methods employed in
this study.
Chapter four includes all the findings obtained from each data collection instrument. These are
presented one instrument at a time, whether they were used to answer the research questions or
not to have full perspective of all the results found. Those that were useful to answer the research
questions were selected and used in the next chapter. Quotes from participants are provided to
support the findings included here.
Chapter five presents the findings obtained in this investigation. Here the themes found across
instruments are examined and discussed. In addition, this chapter includes the answers to each of
the research questions that guided this research.
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Chapter six addresses the conclusions reached in this investigation, the limitations of the study, it
discusses topics for future research and explains the practical outcomes that emerge from this
study.
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Chapter 2 Autonomous Learning
Introduction
Autonomous learning has been studied extensively in the past decades (Bajrami, 2015; Yagcioglu,
2015). Researchers have explored its meaning, components, effects, requirements, implications,
learning practices, and everything else related to it. Although this approach has been used for
some time, one issue that scholars are still interested in is how to foster it (Warni &
Supraptiningsih, 2019). This is the main issue this investigation explored. Most of the literature
included in this chapter was taken from autonomous language learning, although this
investigation is related to adult education. An explanation of this discrepancy is included next, as
well as the discussion of topics related to autonomous learning.
From language learning to teacher education
Most of the literature about autonomous learning emerged from autonomous language learning
because this approach has been employed and researched in language learning more than in any
other area (Yildirim, 2012). Consequently, more is known about how to introduce it and develop it
from the studies conducted in this field than in any other one. When literature was reviewed for
this study, plenty was found regarding autonomous language learning. The author considered this
knowledge could not be ignored because; although it belonged to a different area, it provided
useful information related to how autonomous learning has been introduced, what has helped
and hindered this process, and what the results have been of its introduction. This knowledge
could be used or adapted to design the program to implement autonomous learning in this study.
The discrepancy between the purpose of the study and the literature reviewed had some
benefits. First, it gave the researcher the opportunity to apply what has been done in language
learning to teacher education. Prior to this study, no research had been conducted at the research
site to examine if the findings from autonomous language learning could be used to foster this
approach among language student-teachers. Although this was not the purpose of the
investigation, the results could be employed to establish if what has helped to promote
autonomous learning in EFL had similar effects among would-be language teachers.
In addition, because the participants were student-teachers receiving training, any information
they received about language learning was helpful for their teacher development. By participating
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in this study students learnt about autonomous learning and experienced learning with it. The
latter helps to understand its principles and why this approach should be implemented (Kelly,
2012). This contributes to have student-teachers employ this approach when they start teaching
(Öztürk, 2019). Fabela-Cárdenas (2012) suggests providing student-teachers with the knowledge
and the abilities necessary to promote autonomous learning and create autonomous learning
experiences during their training to increase the likelihood of using this approach when they begin
to teach. This can be achieved in teacher training programs since the role would-be teachers play
here resembles that of learners (Kelley, 2012). Therefore, using EFL literature with language
student-teachers contributed somehow to their teacher development either by learning about
autonomous learning, experiencing it, or through any findings about this approach presented to
them during the intervention.
Defining autonomous learning
Autonomous learning became more known with the report done by Holec in 1981: Autonomy and
Foreign Language Learning. Nevertheless, this approach did not originate then. Personal
autonomy is a concept that Kant developed in the 1930’s to refer to the capacity people have to
make rational decisions on their own (Schmenk, 2005). Dearden (1972) also explored this concept
and defined it as an intrinsic capacity that anyone can exercise when they make decisions, reflect,
judge, plan, reason, and explain their thoughts or actions. Furthermore, John Dewey established
the groundwork for learner autonomy (Benson, 2001). He argued that the purpose of learning
should be not only the transmission of knowledge but the creation of a learning environment
where students can learn in collaboration and a continuous growth in learning is promoted. Freire
(1970) affirmed that learning is done by learners not provided to them. He added that reflection is
vital in learning because it leads to raising awareness about actions and their consequences. Holec
(1981) used what had been done in this area and transferred it to language learning. Learner
autonomy in foreign language learning emerged from the work he and other researchers did
(Schmenk, 2005). The following section explains how autonomous learning has been defined.
2.2.1 Autonomous learning definition
Autonomous learning has been defined as taking charge of one’s learning at every stage of this
process (Lengkanawati, 2017). Holec (1981) explained that this is achieved by having students
make their own decisions about their learning. Such decisions are setting their learning objectives,
creating their own learning plans according to their needs and abilities, selecting the content and
progressions, choosing learning materials, selecting methods and techniques, monitoring the
procedure, and evaluating their learning (Wejira, 2019; Zulaihah & Harida, 2017; Islam, 2011).
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Allowing students to make these decisions is vital for students to become autonomous learners
(Lengkanawati, 2017; Bhattacharya and Chauhan, 2010; St. Louis, 2006; Ho and Crookall, 1995).
Nunan (1997) and Littlewood (1996) explain that in autonomous learning students are not only in
charge of the decisions made, but they are also responsible for performing the actions that
emerge from such decisions. This indicates that autonomous learning happens when students
perform the actions that result from the decisions they made, not just from making their own
decisions. When autonomous learning is a novel approach to learners and it is first introduced,
learners are not expected to take full control of their learning immediately. This is done gradually
to give them time to adapt to it (Bocos, Radut-Taciu & Chis, 2015). Cotterall (2000) defines this
approach as taking responsibility of certain features of one’s learning, at different moments of
this process. This implies that students may take charge of some aspects of their learning during
the early stages of implementation and increase these as they gain experience and adapt to this
approach. Autonomous learning is a process not a product (Hand, 2006; Thanasoulas, 2000), one
in which learners take charge of their learning gradually.
There are misconceptions regarding what autonomous learning is. Some believe it means learning
in isolation (Littlewood, 1996), without the guidance, and giving students complete freedom in
their learning (Thanasoulas, 2000). This has caused some people to criticize learner autonomy
because, based on such misconceptions, it is argued it promotes individualization, meaning
students learning by themselves (Benson, 2001). Learning is individualized in the sense that it is
adapted to the characteristics of learners (Nunan, 1997); when they make decisions and consider
their strengths; but does not remove the guidance and assistance from the teacher (Abdelrazeq,
2018). In addition, cooperation is common in this approach (Hu and Zhang, 2017; Islam, 2011).
Cabrera-Ruiz (2009) explains that it has a collectivist culture; learners can work together to
complete difficult tasks, help one other, as well as interact and encourage each other in or outside
the classroom (Zulaihah & Harida, 2017). Moreover, in autonomous learning students can make
decisions about their learning individually or collaboration (Karababa, Eker, & Arik, 2010), and
work in either way to achieve their learning goals. This is a relevant aspect of this approach to
learning that is often unknown or misunderstood.
All the definitions reviewed were but most of them were not appropriate to the context of this
study. This was because they stated that autonomous learning means students taking control of
their learning by making all the decisions about it, except for Cotterall’s (2000). This was not
possible in this study because of the school policies of the setting where the study was conducted.
Moreover, making decisions about their learning was a practice learners had not done before.
This led the researcher to create a definition of autonomous learning for this study. Considering
the literature reviewed, the features of participants, and the context where the study was
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conducted; autonomous learning in this study was defined as students taking control of their
learning by being involved in the decisions made about it and performing the actions that resulted
from these choices by working individually or in collaboration with others.
It was established that learners would take charge of their learning through their involvement in
the decisions made because they were asked to gradually make their own decisions. Students
made few and simple decisions (see appendix A1) at the beginning of the intervention, and the
rest were made by the teacher. The number of decisions made by students and their difficulty
increased as the intervention progressed. This is the reason why it is said that learners were
involved in the decisions made. They did not make all the decisions about their learning, as
mentioned in the definitions reviewed. Learners had little or no experience in making decisions
about their learning. Therefore, by making few and simple decisions at the beginning of the study,
learners began to develop their decisions-making skills. As these improved and learners gained
experience, they were asked to decide more aspects of their learning. Towards the end of the
intervention, learners made most of the decisions about their learning. However, there were
certain aspects students were not able to choose such as learning objectives, content, some rules,
and some deadlines. Therefore, because during the intervention some decisions were made by
the school, some by learners, and some by the teacher, the definition states that students were
involved in the decisions made.
The definition used in this study is connected to the psychological perspective because the
learning practices performed by students were identified (Oxford, 2003). In addition, it shares
with Lengkanawati (2017) and Holec (1981) the principle of taking charge of one’s learning by
having students making their own decisions, and with Cotterall’s (2000) in relation to taking
control of some aspects of learning at some stages of this process. Furthermore, the definition
shares with Wejira (2019), Zulaihah & Harida (2017) and Holec, (1981) the type of decisions
learners can make, and with Nunan (1997) and Littlewood (1996) the idea that students must
perform the actions that result from their decisions. Finally, it matches the definitions by Hu and
Zhang (2017) and Cabrera-Ruiz (2009) which state that student can learn by themselves or in
collaboration.
Rationale for fostering autonomous learning
Changes in education have resulted in a greater effort to foster autonomous learning among
students (Hermagustiana & Anggriyani, 2019; Benson, 2016). Moreover, researchers have found
different reasons which indicate that having students learn with this approach benefits them in
different ways in and outside the classroom. This has been found mainly in language learning;
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nevertheless, these findings can be applied to other areas as well. The reasons to promote
autonomous learning are discussed next.
2.3.1 Changes in society
Modern life requires people to acquire new knowledge frequently to overcome the changes in
society (Onozawa, 2010). However, it is not always possible to be taught what is needed to adapt
to such changes for different reasons (Chia, 2005). According to Trim (1976), new skills need to be
developed to adapt quickly to changing circumstances. The recent and numerous changes that
have occurred lately have made it essential to develop independent learning skills in life in
general (Manzano-Vázquez, 2018; Lamb & Reinders, 2005). Autonomous learning helps to
develop these skills (Wejira, 2019; Karababa, Eker, & Arik, 2010; Holec, 1981) and become lifelong
learners (Benson, 2016). Once students have developed the abilities to learn on their own inside
the classroom, they should be able to transfer this knowledge to learning what life demands from
them. Darsih (2018) argues that it is possible to use the independent learning skills developed in
the classroom to cope with the challenges students face in life. This suggests that fostering
autonomous learning in the classroom can help people deal with the changes in society because it
provides them with the skills needed to learn something on their own whenever innovations in
life demand it.
2.3.2 Lack of time to learn
As time passes by, new findings emerge and the amount of knowledge needed to learn increases
in all areas; nevertheless, class time remains the same. Consequently, there is not enough time to
learn everything that is needed. Pershukova, Nikolska, and Vasiukovych (2020) affirm that there is
a mismatch between what needs to be learnt and the time allotted to do so inside the classroom
nowadays, this requires students to learn on their own. These researchers state that such
discrepancy has made education shift towards the fostering of autonomous learning. Therefore,
to overcome time limitations, learners need become autonomous, use their own strategies (Hu &
Zhang, 2017), and work independently outside the classroom to learn what they need
(Abdelrazeq, 2018). Because new knowledge emerges constantly in all fields, but class time
remains the same, it is necessary to promote autonomous learning so that students can learn
without depending on a teacher to do so.
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2.3.3 Learning improvement
It has been suggested to employ autonomous learning because it enhances learning. There is a
connection between academic success and how autonomous students are (Confessore &
Abdullah, 2012; Oxford, 2003). Autonomous learning has shown to help students to reach their
goals in language learning. Al-Busaidi (2012) contends that students who make their own
decisions regarding their language learning improve their language development considerably.
Dam & Legenhausen (2010) affirm that success in foreign language learning depends, to some
extent, on the promotion of autonomous learning. Moreover, students who are more
autonomous are also more successful in their learning (Sakrak-Ekin & Balçıkanlı, 2019; Lowe,
2009). In a study by Hu and Zhang (2017) as participants became more autonomous their EFL
development increased. Although these findings refer to language learning, it is likely that similar
results could be obtained in other areas if autonomous learning were introduced. The endless
access students have to learning activities online contribute to learning autonomously
(Abdelrazeq, 2018), and this can be done in any field of knowledge. Wejira (2019) explains that
learning is enhanced because students participate in the establishment of learning goals, their
preferences are considered, and they are involved in the decisions made regarding their learning
process. These practices contribute to develop a sense of ownership and commitment to learning,
which makes learning more meaningful and improves classroom performance regardless of what
students are learning.
2.3.4 Fostering of lifelong learning
In 1998, UNESCO highlighted the importance of fostering lifelong learning (Cabrera-Ruiz, 2009).
This trend in education requires students to be more autonomous to learn, study, read, and
reflect. There is a connection between autonomous learning and lifelong learning. Dam (2011)
explains that this approach contributes to embed in learners the desire to continue learning for
the rest of their lives. It gives them the opportunity to learn in and outside the classroom (Al-
Busaidi, 2012). Moreover, it helps students to learn how to learn and assists them in the
acquisition of useful strategies for planning, organizing, and monitoring their own learning
(Cabrera-Ruiz, 2009). In language learning, fostering lifelong learning is essential because it causes
students to continue improving their foreign language skills when they are no longer inside the
classroom (Abdelrazeq, 2018). Nevertheless, it is very likely that the skills learners develop and
the knowledge they acquire through autonomous learning can contribute to make students
lifelong learners in any area of knowledge.
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2.3.5 Motivation to learn increases
Autonomous learning enhances learners’ motivation to learn (Shawwa, 2010; Ryan and Deci,
2000). Such phenomenon is the result of different factors. One is the involvement of students in
the decisions made regarding their learning. When learners can decide how to learn, it is likely
they select something they like or are competent at doing. This increases their interest in their
work because they feel confident to perform well and it is more pleasant (Dörnyeri, 2001;
Littlejohn, 2001). In other words, learners become motivated to work and learn. The results of a
study by Hsu & Wang (2011) indicated that learners’ motivation enhanced from learning at their
own pace and having freedom in the learning process. Üstünlüoglu (2009) found in the study he
conducted that respecting students’ ideas, involving them in the decision-making process,
learning to set goals, and showing students how to take responsibility of their learning played a
crucial role in effective learning and increased learner motivation.
The support learners receive in autonomous learning is another factor that positively impacts
motivation. Constant assistance and encouragement increase students’ desire to learn (Nunan,
1997). In the study conducted by Iimuro & Berger (2010), they discovered that monitoring
learners’ work and giving them feedback periodically motivated them to complete their work
every week. They concluded that these two aspects benefit especially low-level students because
it encourages them to study consistently and continuously. Motivation also increases because
autonomous learning improves learners’ academic performance (Hu and Zhang, 2017; Siew,
Confessore & Abdullah, 2012). The success learners obtain motivates them to continue working
and trying to learn. When students’ academic performance improves, their intrinsic motivation to
learn increases (Lamb 2004). It works in both directions; success increases motivation, and the
latter also enhances the former.
2.3.6 Enhance learner responsibility
In the past decade, trends in education have strived to have students take responsibility of their
learning (Borg and Alrabai, 2017) because when they do so, they can reach their learning
objectives more easily (Morrell & Scott, 2018; Chan, 2016; Henri, Nguyen, 2014). Students
become more responsible when they learn through autonomous learning (Zulaihah & Harida,
2017; Dam, 2011; Karababa, Eker, & Arik, 2010). This has gained a great deal of attention from
scholars (Al-Busaidi and Al-Maamari, 2014) who have become more interested in implementing
and studying this approach (Hermagustiana & Anggriyani, 2020; Morbedadze, 2015). Students
become responsible learners when they are given freedom to organize their learning (Darsih,
2018). However, this is not enough, after students have made their decisions, they must conduct
the practices that emerged from such decisions. They must do the actions needed to complete
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tasks, monitor their work to meet the deadlines, comply with task requirements, and assess their
learning (Al-Saadi, 2011). Therefore, giving learners the opportunity to control their learning can
make students more responsible of it.
2.3.7 Learners become independent
Giving students control of their learning leads to learners becoming independent and building
self-reliance (Ajideh, 2009). Wang and Peverly (1986) stated that autonomous learners have the
capacity to learn independently and assume an active role in their learning. The results of a study
conducted by Boggu & Sundarsingh (2019) showed that after using autonomous learning during
the intervention, subjects felt more independent and took ownership of their learning.
Independence in learning has several advantages. It can save time because students do not have
to wait until they are provided with the knowledge or the solutions to problems (Cotterall, 1995).
A teacher may not always be available to help students learn what they need; nevertheless, if
they have developed the abilities to acquire new knowledge on their own, they can learn in
advance any topics they are interested in, expand on the topics to be learnt, investigate other
topics, finish their work earlier, and manage their time better (Chia, 2005). Furthermore,
autonomous learning promotes learning independence because it allows students to become
aware of the pace they work well at, and do it at such speed (Shawwa, 2010). In a study done by
Murray (1999), it was found that using autonomous learning resulted in students learning at their
own pace, making the learning process more enjoyable, and decreasing the level of anxiety while
learning. Autonomous learning gives learners independence in the pace they learn at; some may
do it faster than others, but they are all able to learn (Zulaihah & Harida, 2017). These findings
emerged from autonomous language learning; however, independence in learning can be
developed regardless the topics students are learning.
2.3.8 Learning skills are developed
Autonomous learning helps learners to develop the abilities they need to learn on their own. One
of these is being able to make appropriate decisions about learning (Bhattacharya & Chauhan,
2010). In this approach students are required and assisted to establish the learning goals, choose
the content, tasks, and learning procedures (Yamashita, 2015; Nunan, 1997), how they are going
to learn, when, whether they do so individually, in pairs or small teams; the learning resources,
techniques, methods, pace and strategies they use (Al-Saadi, 2011). Students become competent
at making their own decisions about their learning from performing this practice frequently
(Nunan, 1997) and develop the ability to monitor their progress (Yamashita, 2015; Holec, 1981).
This enables learners to be aware of how much work they have completed, what they still need to
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do to reach their goals and identify the difficulties they have had along their learning process
(Ajideh, 2009).
Students also develop the ability to assess their progress and learning in general (Dam, 1995;
Holec, 1981). This can be done individually or with a partner, although it is suggested to use the
latter when learners have no experience with self-assessment (Tassinari, 2018). By conducting
self-assessment learners become conscious of how well they learnt the expected content and
what they need to reinforce (Al-Saadi, 2011). Moreover, autonomous learning helps students to
develop thinking skills. Autonomous learners can think critically (Wejira, 2019; Little, 1991), reflect
critically about their learning (Bhattacharya & Chauhan, 2010), develop analytical skills
(Morbedadze, 2015), as well as notice and discovery abilities (St. Louis, 2006). The development
of these skills contributes to managing learning efforts more properly (Karababa, Eker, & Arik,
2010), establish the changes needed to improve learning (Barcelos & Kalaya, 2011), rationalize
actions, become aware of other learning strategies students can employ, transfer what they
learnt in the classroom to real-life settings, appreciate their learning efforts (Al-Saadi, 2011) and
change their attitude towards autonomous learning (Cotterall, 2000). These skills are developed
gradually and are independent of the content students learn through autonomous learning.
Criticism to the development of learner autonomy.
There are some views that oppose the notion that developing learner autonomy produces
positive outcomes. Fostering learner autonomy in schools and in the educational field has been
questioned (Vazquez, 2015). Llaven-Nucamendi (2014) asserts that criticism comes from
psychology, the educational field, and from those who suggest that it is pedagogically
inappropriate in certain cultures. Hibbs (2017) criticizes it from a theological standpoint and
explains why promoting autonomy means rebelling against God. The latter is farfetched for the
author; therefore, it will not be addressed in this section, only the former ones will be discussed.
Behaviourists have objected learner autonomy because behaviourism does not acknowledge the
existence of self-determination (Llaven-Nucamendi, 2015). According to Ryan and Deci (2006) this
is an internal process that leads to making decisions on our own, which results in the completion
of actions. This goes against the belief that behaviours are the result of inner mechanisms
produced in the brain, not by our will (Pinker, 2002). However, studies have shown that people
are not always aware of what makes them act in a certain way (Wilson, 2002). This may suggest
that self-determination does not exist. Nevertheless, Llaven-Nucamendi (2014) asserts that
autonomous and controlled behaviours can result from implicit and non-conscious reasons and
that these are not the same when reference is made to autonomous and controlled motivation.
Ryan and Deci (2006) explain that autonomy of actions cannot be fully explained by analysing
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conscious and non-conscious deliberateness. They contend that some behaviours can be
considered autonomous while others imposed or unwanted; nevertheless, autonomy is present
when people use their capacity to reflect, accept or reject an urge or any other unwanted
behaviour and they decide to perform it or not.
Learner autonomy has also received criticism because some believe that some learners may get
overwhelmed when they are provided with too many choices (Schwartz, 2000). However, giving
learners options is vital when learners cannot make their own decisions or do not know what to
choose. The number of choices given depends on different factors such as the learner, the
context, and the learning task (Llaven-Nucamendi, 2014). These elements can be considered to
prevent the provision of too many choices that can overwhelm learners.
Another argument against learner autonomy is the belief that it cannot be the goal of education
(Hand, 2006; Laurillard, 2002). Researchers are not against it as an approach to learning, but to
having it as the goal of education. Hand (2006) gives two arguments to support this view. First, he
contends that autonomy is a process and is achieved when different factors combine, but it
should not be the goal of education. Second, this author disputes whether it is appropriate to help
learners make their own decisions and have them depend on their own judgement rather than
the expertise of a teacher. Researchers agree that learner autonomy is a process and that because
learners may not get to be fully autonomous, it is not the goal of education. In this study, learners
are not given full control of their learning because of the school limitations, and they are not
expected to become fully autonomous.
Criticism to learner autonomy has also emerged from the misconception that it involves the
withdrawal of teachers and their support. This relates to the idea that autonomous learning is
teacher-less learning. Nevertheless, it is not possible to replace the teacher with anything (Milton,
1997) because they provide the support and guidance learners need during this process (Farmer,
2006; Laurillard, 2002; Pennycook, 1997). Llaven-Nucamendi (2014) explains that rather than
opposing having a teacher, there is a concern about teachers providing the appropriate and
enough support when autonomous learning is implemented.
Objection to autonomy is also based on cultural appropriateness (Vazquez, 2015). Adopting
autonomous learning may be more difficult for some students due to their ethnic and educational
background (Riley, 1988). This author argues that learners from cultures that are not familiar with
learner-centred practices will likely find it more difficult to adapt to this way of learning. In
addition, some consider that autonomy, independence and individualism are values from
Western cultures; therefore, it is problematic to implement them in non-Western educational
settings (Cross and Gore 2003). However, the results of studies conducted in different non-
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Western countries have shown that learners from these countries appreciate freedom and the
opportunity to take charge of their learning (Ruan, 2006; Littlewood, 2000). Three points need to
be addressed in relation to this issue (Llaven-Nucamendi, 2014). First, fostering learner autonomy
does not mean teachers will leave behind their professionalism and values. Second, autonomy
can be adapted to the culture where it is introduced. Finally, teachers may already be using
teaching practices that promote learner autonomy unintentionally. Cultures perceive autonomy in
different ways. They seem to value independence and individualism in their own ways; therefore,
it is possible to introduce this approach in different learning contexts. Studies have shown that
autonomy is relevant in most cultures, and people from different cultures appear to have some
similarities in the way they understand autonomy (Kim, 2004; Chirkov, Ryan, Kim & Kaplan, 2003).
In addition to the criticism presented here, there are some difficulties when autonomous learning
is going to be introduced that need to be considered.
Challenges in the introduction of autonomous learning
There are some issues that make the introduction of this approach difficult. Al-Saadi (2011)
explains that, unfortunately, basic education often does not foster autonomous learning skills
among learners; which could lead them to take control of their learning. The following are some
factors that cause difficulty in the implementation of this approach.
2.5.1 Resistance to change
Autonomous learning may be rejected in contexts where students are used to learning with
teacher-centred methods because it involves a new way of learning. Teacher-centred is defined as
a learning environment where the teacher controls learning, explains everything to learners,
pinpoint mistakes and corrects them, instructs students how to learn and which resources to use
to do so, checks and marks learners’ work (Alrabai, 2017). Students in these settings are used to
an unbalanced power relationship, with little involvement in what, how, when, or even why they
learn (Nordlund, 2001). Because of this, the transition from teacher-dependent to learning
autonomously may be troublesome for some. St. Louis (2006) argues that going “from teacher-
dependent to teacher-independent is sometimes difficult for students who have been immersed
in an educational system which has been predominately controlled by the teacher, who must now
give up control and help these students become independent, self-sufficient, individuals” (p. 2).
Therefore, autonomous learning represents a drastic change for students in nearly every aspect of
their learning. Clarke (1994) defines change as going from the known to the unknown. In this case,
learners stop doing what they have done in the past to learn (the known) to do something
considerably different (the unknown).
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Most people reject accepting and adapting to a change because they are creatures of habit, they
prefer familiar patters, stability, predictability, doing the same things they have done for years
(Yılmaz & Kılıçoğlu, 2013; Kanter, 2012; Clarke, 1994). Change involves doubt, uncertainty, and
walking into the unknown. Autonomous learning requires learners to move out of their comfort
zone, to play new roles, to use different learning strategies, tasks and activities. Al-Saadi (2011)
asserts that most students dislike the idea of overseeing their own learning. The process to
develop autonomous learners is not easy because teachers and learners exchange roles
(Pershukova, Nikolska, and Vasiukovych, 2020), and it is uncommon to find students who are
willing to take responsibility of their learning easily (Little, 1995). Yılmaz & Kılıçoğlu (2013) explain
that it is natural to experience negative feelings such as fear and anxiety when a change is
introduced, and things must be done differently. Boohene & Williams (2012) state that although
changes are implemented to generate an improvement, a negative reaction and resistance to
change is natural to emerge. Teachers who introduce autonomous learning are likely to face
resistance from learners if these are used to learning with more teacher-centred approaches.
2.5.2 Teacher beliefs and context limitations
The implementation of autonomous learning relies considerably on the teacher and their beliefs
about learning. The latter impact what they do in the classroom; therefore, whether learner
autonomy is fostered depends on the perceptions teachers have regarding how desirable and
feasible is to implement it (Alibakhshi, 2015). Phipps and Borg (2009) explain that teachers’ beliefs
are influenced by their past experiences and can impact what they do in the classroom more than
their teacher training courses, and their pedagogical decisions. Teacher readiness is crucial for the
implementation of this approach (Lin & Reinders, 2018) because they need to change their roles
drastically if they are used to teacher-centred teaching. This can be problematic for many
(Djiwandono, 2015) because instead of being the main source of knowledge and a figure of
authority, they become facilitators that guide students throughout their learning (Yan, 2012). If
teachers are not willing or ready to adopt this role, they will put little effort into it (Lin & Reinders,
2018) and the implementation of autonomous learning may fail. To avoid this, teachers need to
be willing to change the roles they play, know how to foster it, and have the skills needed to
overcome all the difficulties that are faced during the implementation process (Barfield et al.,
2001; Camilleri, 1999).
There are other problems teachers face while introducing autonomous learning. In a study
conducted by Alibakhshi (2015), it was found that two thirds of teachers mentioned that it was
difficulty to promote autonomous learning because they lacked the resources they needed. More
than half of them mentioned they did not have autonomy in the design of the course,
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establishment of the course objectives, and the selection of the learning materials. Furthermore,
half the teachers expressed they did not have the experience needed to introduce this approach.
These factors caused to have a low number of teachers who attempted to implement
autonomous learning in their classrooms. Teachers will likely face these and other obstacles when
trying to introduce this approach. If this is the case, they will have to find a way to overcome
these problems to reach their goals.
2.5.3 Learner beliefs and cultural background
Learner beliefs can cause difficulty in the promotion of autonomous learning (Al Ghazali, 2020;
Alibakhshi, 2015). Cotterall (1995) affirms that beliefs have a significant impact in learning, that is
why they need to be considered when a new approach is going to be introduced. Negative beliefs
about autonomous learning can result in the use of inappropriate learning strategies and a
mismatch between what students expect and what teachers do in the classroom (Chan, 2001).
Learners may believe it is the teacher’s job to decide how they are going to learn, to transmit their
knowledge, to control learning, or question why they make decisions about their learning if there
are experts who can do them. These attitudes and beliefs can make learners reject the
implementation of autonomous learning.
Learners’ cultural background is another factor that may affect the implementation of
autonomous learning. This is because some cultures favour certain habits and behaviours which
contradict those needed in this approach to learning. For instance, studies have shown that
although Asian students are persistent, diligent, and motivated to learn, they are passive and
reluctant to work individually, which makes them depend on the teacher for their learning
(Permatasari & Arianti, 2016; Pham, 2016). Wiraningsih, & Santosa (2020) explain that in some
cultures the teacher is a central and powerful figure in the learning process. This prevents
students from asking questions when they have doubts, show themselves individually or take
control of their learning. Moreover, knowledge has been transmitted through generations from
teachers to students in some countries (Nunan, 2003; Hu, 2002); therefore, asking teachers and
learners to change the roles they play involves a change in their values and traditions (Lu, Jiang, &
Throssell, 2013). Promoting autonomous learning in these contexts involves a change in the
learning practices and cultural aspects of learners, this change increases the difficulty of reaching
such goal.
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Factors to consider in the implementation process
Fostering autonomous learning is complex. Sometimes teachers believe they have found a way to
introduce this approach; nevertheless, they encounter many problems during this process
(Everhard, 2016). Different factors affect the fostering of autonomous learning. Research in the
implementation of this approach in language learning have produced findings that should be
considered by anyone who intends to reach this goal. These factors are discussed next.
2.6.1 The context
The context and its characteristics need to be considered when autonomous learning is going to
be implemented. The results of a study conducted by Hu & Zhang (2017) found that the cultural
background, instrumental motivation, and the education system of the setting impact
considerably the promotion of this learning approach. Therefore, it is vital to acknowledge the
cultural background, socio-political and educational conditions of the environment, the needs of
the learners, and institutional limitations of the context when trying to promote this learning
approach (Yildirim, 2012; Larsen-Freeman & Cameron, 2008; Chan, 2001; Ho & Crookall, 1995).
Because the cultural context can shape the expectations and outcomes of this approach (Benson,
2001), it is possible that learners from different settings can be considered autonomous according
to their learning environment and conditions (Holliday, 2003). Therefore, the goal should not be
to have autonomous learners according to what Western cultures define them, but in agreement
with the perceptions and conditions of the context where the approach is implemented, even if it
is different from that of other cultures (Yildirim, 2012). The context, the resources available, and
limitations should be considered to establish what autonomous is and how to introduce this
approach to learning.
2.6.2 Learner readiness
Students’ readiness to learn through autonomous learning is an issue that needs to be considered
before this approach is introduced (Chan, 2001). Exploring learners’ readiness involves knowing
their beliefs and attitudes towards learning, how willing they are to change the former and their
learning practices (Abdelrazeq, 2018). Knowing this helps to determine how much support and
time students will need to adapt to a new way of learning. Some may not need much help;
nevertheless, the majority will if they are not used to making choices and taking responsibility of
their learning (Nordlund, 2001). In addition, teachers can know how practical the implementation
of autonomous learning is, and they can more appropriately select the strategies to be
implemented (Boggu & Sundarsingh, 2019). All learners can become autonomous (Yildirim, 2012),
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however, knowing their level of readiness would help teachers to establish the starting point to
introduce this approach.
2.6.3 The knowledge and experience of the teacher
Teachers play a vital role in the fostering of autonomous learning. The findings of the studies
conducted by Abdelrazeq (2018), Azin, Biria & Golestan (2018) and Darsih (2018) showed that
learners consider that teachers are essential to achieve the previous. Teachers should know how
to guide learners to become autonomous and create an appropriate classroom environment for
the implementation of this approach (Öztürk, 2019; Azin, Biria & Golestan, 2018). Moreover,
guidance and feedback from teachers are necessary to have students better organize their
learning (Hermagustiana & Anggriyani, 2019), to help them reflect on their learning (Nordlund,
2001; Dickinson, 1992), make informed decisions, and develop self-awareness (Abdelrazeq, 2018;
Tassinari, 2016;) once the approach has been introduced. Having experience learning
autonomously is also vital. Pershukova, Nikolska, and Vasiukovych (2020) argue that teachers
must be autonomous themselves to introduce this learning approach more efficiently because
when they are autonomous, they understand what it is like learning according to this approach
and have developed the abilities needed to learn accordingly (Alrabai, 2017; Borg &
Alshumaimeri, 2017). Knowledge, experience, and commitment in the teacher are important
factors to foster autonomous learning.
Teachers are essential, especially when autonomous learning is introduced among individuals
who are used to learning with teacher-centred methods, because they need the teachers’
guidance, assistance, and support to overcome the difficulties they encounter as they start to
implement independent learning practices, and to develop the skills needed to learn
autonomously (Hermagustiana & Anggriyani, 2019; Öztürk, 2019). In addition, teachers are
needed because they latter provide learners with structured tasks or research assignments and
suggest learning resources that can help them complete these independently (Darsih, 2018).
Moreover, because making decisions about their learning may be a new practice for many,
teachers are essential to provide them with choices, to assist, or advise them as they make them
(Yan, 2012). This researcher also affirms that students need teachers to help them raise
awareness about themselves and their learning, which can be useful to make better decisions.
Furthermore, when students have had no experience learning autonomously, they rely on the
teacher to help them set their learning goals, plan their learning, develop the necessary skills and
their own learning strategies, overcome difficulties, meet unexpected challenges, and interact
with learning materials to become self-directed (Zhao & Huang, 2019). The teacher is also vital to
provide learners with the required support to conduct their independent learning endeavours, to
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assist them during this process, and to self-evaluate their learning (Zhao & Huang 2019; Nguyen,
2012). Teachers do not solve students’ problems, or tell them which learning strategies they
should use, but guide them so that it is the students who do it. Finally, when necessary, teachers
can suggest learning materials, suggest organization, record-keeping and planning procedures,
self-assessment tools and techniques, give feedback, help to find solutions, and aid students with
anything they require it during their learning process (Alonazi, 2017). Learners depend on the
teacher when autonomous learning is first introduced to assist them in all the aspects of their
learning mentioned above. As students develop the skills needed and adapt to the new learning
practices, reliance on the teacher decreases, although this may not fully stop.
Because teachers provide students with choices to help them make decisions, to conduct learning
activities, to select learning materials, and the like; learner autonomy has received some criticism.
It has been argued that learners cannot be autonomous if the teachers select the choices the
former choose from (Schwartz, 2000). This is true, nevertheless, it is a strategy employed when
autonomous learning is first introduced to assist students in different aspects of their learning
(Little, 1999). Nunan (1997) contends that learner autonomy has degrees of realization because
students have different capacities regarding taking control of their learning. Moreover, Benson
(2001) affirms that learners should not be asked to take more responsibility they can cope with.
Because of this, it is natural that the teacher provides learners with choices during the first levels,
when they are not yet ready to make their own decisions about their learning. Autonomy in
learning involves teachers helping students learn how to learn, providing them with resources so
that they can learn on their own, assisting them to develop learning strategies, and anything they
need to become autonomous learners (Fedi & Bouhass, 2018; Thavenius, 1999). Little (1999)
argues that it is possible to promote autonomy in the classroom while the teacher maintains
control of different aspects of the learning process. Autonomy is a process (Thanasoulas, 2000);
therefore, it is possible that at the beginning some aspects are controlled by the teacher.
Guidelines to implement autonomous learning
There are no magic formulas, recipes, or set of instructions that explain how to promote
autonomous learning (Everhard, 2015) because of the differences found from one context to
another. Nevertheless, studies conducted in language learning have produced some guidelines
that should be considered when autonomous learning is implemented regardless of the area or
context it is implemented in. These are discussed next.
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2.7.1 Gradual introduction
Autonomous learning involves a change for learners, a drastic one for many. Changes are usually
not welcomed nor easy to adapt to because humans like stability and predictability to continue
performing the practices they are used to doing (Yılmaz & Kılıçoğlu, 2013; Kanter, 2012). It is not
advisable to implement autonomous learning quickly because learners need time to adapt to the
new learning practices and everything it involves (Bocos, Radut-Taciu & Chis, 2015; Martin, 1999).
The adaptation process is neither easy nor fast (Nordlund, 2001). Students cannot be expected to
take control of their learning in a short period of time. Radut-Taciu, & Chis (2015), Nordlund
(2001), Brajcich (2000), and Cotterall (1995) agree that autonomous learning should be
introduced gradually because this approach can be confusing and stressful. They suggest the
implementation of simple practices at the beginning of this process; then, gradually increase their
complexity. Reinders (2010) recommends to occasionally introduce practices peculiar of this
learning approach, and once learners have adapted to these, implement new ones. Yildirim (2012)
recommends continuing this process until the entire framework has been implemented.
Therefore, autonomous learning should be introduced gradually.
2.7.2 Training learners
Some researchers suggest training learners to help them develop the abilities they do not possess
to learn autonomously such as making their own decisions about their learning, monitoring their
progress, evaluating their learning outcomes, and thinking critically about their learning (Wejira,
2019; Hu & Zhang, 2017; Tassinari, 2016; Üstünlüoğlu, 2009). Based on the results of the study
done by Abdelrazeq (2018), it is recommended to have training sessions to help students learn
how to perform practices common in autonomous learning such as: monitoring learning, setting
objectives, and self-assessment. Cohen (2003) adds the following: awareness raising, problem
solving skills, and experimenting. It is important to emphasize that training learners does not
mean they are going to be trained to be autonomous. The purpose of learner training is to
develop or refine the skills they need in this approach (Cohen, 2003; Wenden, 1998; Gremmo &
Riley, 1995). This contributes to acquire the metacognitive and cognitive strategies that enable
students to learn autonomously (Deci and Ryan, 2000). Hu & Zhang (2017) suggests having
training sessions for both teachers and learners so that they all become aware of the roles they
are going to play in this learning approach.
2.7.3 Support
Learning autonomously represents a drastic change for many learners (Yılmaz & Kılıçoğlu, 2013;
Kanter, 2012). Clarke (1994) explains when a change is introduced people face ambiguity, stress,
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unfamiliarity, and they must take new risks; however, receiving assistance gives them
psychological comfort and makes them feel safe. Students need to know that they have someone
they can turn to if they need help, to motivate them during the learning process, and for
assurance that what they are doing is correct (Dickinson, 1995). Learners need support when
autonomous learning is implemented to understand this new way of learning and develop the
competencies this approach requires them to have (Reinders, 2010; Chia, 2005). The latter affirms
more help is needed at the beginning of the introduction process because it is then when learners
have the most questions. Reinders & Cotterall (2000) found from a factor analysis that the most
important determinant of success in a self-access centre was the degree of preparation and
assistance the students had received. According to the results of their study, Spiro, Henderson
and Clifford (2012) found that autonomous learning involves a balance between freedom and
support. Learners need to be freedom to learn but guided and provided with the assistance they
need to learn on their own.
2.7.4 Planning the implementation process
The implementation of autonomous learning needs to be planned carefully because it may
involve drastic a change for learners. It is possible to introduce a change if its introduction is
planned and organized well (Clarke, 1994). One suggestion Nordlund (2001) gives is providing
learners with frameworks, structures, and the scaffolding to motivate them to take control of
their learning. Martin (1999) recommends creating two plans to introduce this type of change.
One that includes the procedure, elements, learning practices, and every practical aspect of the
implementation process. A second plan should contain the changes learners are expected to
make to become autonomous, considering where they are when the introduction process begins,
then move forwards towards reaching the goal set. Morrish (1976) explains that plenty of time
should be spent planning the implementation because this type of change affects the organization
of the classroom, the roles teachers and learners play, the learning practices used and the
assessment process. Autonomous learning includes many elements to be considered during the
planning process. Teachers need to plan how each level of implementation is going to be
introduced (Nunan, 1997), the elements that are going to be part of in each level, whether
learners are going to be trained and how (Abdelrazeq, 2018), the support learners are going to be
provided with (Reinders, 2010), the learning resources students are going to have access to
(Cabreara-Ruiz, 2009), among other things. Therefore, planning is essential when autonomous
learning is considered to be introduced.
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Approaches to fostering autonomous learning
Fostering autonomous learning has become one of the central goals of education in the last
decades (Pershukova, Nikolska and Vasiukovych, 2020; Jing-yuan, 2007). Teachers and
researchers have implemented a variety of individual practices to reach the same goal such as self
and peer evaluation exercises, learning logs, diaries, project work and portfolios among others
(Murray, 2006). This researcher believes that it is necessary to move beyond implementing
isolated practices and find approaches that are more holistic. One of these has been the use of
learner-centred methods (Benson, 2011) which require students to take charge of their learning
to some extent. These teaching approaches include practices that contribute to the fostering of
autonomous learning. Although their main objective is to assist students to learn, they have also
helped to develop autonomous learning. Another approach that has been employed has been the
use of process models. These have been used to introduce and develop autonomous language
learning in different learning contexts (Iimuro & Berger, 2010; Murray, 2006; St. Louis, 2006;
Nordlund, 2001; Bertonldi, Kollar & Ricard, 1988), and have been successful at it. In this section,
these two approaches are discussed, as well as their appropriateness in this study.
2.8.1 Teaching approaches
Teaching approaches such as student-centred learning, cooperative learning, and task-based
learning foster autonomous learning by involving students in the decisions made regarding their
learning process, by having students interact with others to construct their knowledge, by asking
students to work independently using the materials and resources they are provided with or they
choose to use (Richards & Rodgers, 2001), and by involving them in the evaluation of their
learning (Wejira, 2019). The construction of their own knowledge is an aspect common in these
teaching approaches. They are constructivist-based. According to constructivism, knowledge is
acquired by generating it rather than through its transmission (Applefield, Huber, and Moallem,
2001). This is the main pillar of constructivism (Fernando & Marikar, 2017). These researchers
explain that knowledge is not passively received or imposed on the learner but actively
constructed by them. According to Christie (2005) construction of knowledge is achieved through
experience, problem solving, authentic tasks, and assessment or through exploring, questioning,
and analysing tasks and experiences (Applefield, Huber, and Moallem, 2001). Moreover, Sjøberg
(2010) affirms that although knowledge is personal, learners build it by interacting with the world
around them, as well as by communicating and collaborating with others, which is what
researchers called social constructivism (Amineh & Asl, 2015). These researchers also state that
social constructivists believe that learning is an active process which requires learners to discover
knowledge by themselves; therefore, guessing, intuitive thinking, problem solving and reflecting
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should be encouraged and promoted. By sharing, comparing, and debating with others, learners
can construct and refine their knowledge (Applefield, Huber, and Moallem, 2001).
Even though learners construct their own knowledge, the role of the teacher is essential in
constructivism. Teachers act as facilitators of learning helping and guiding students throughout
the learning process (Fernando & Marikar, 2017). In addition, teachers consider what students
already know and enable them to apply their knowledge, engage them in learning, provide
realistic and meaningful learning situations (Amineh & Asl, 2015). Thus, the teacher rather than
transmit knowledge guides learners to actively construct their knowledge. The previous requires
learner to be involved in their learning by choosing information, creating hypotheses, and making
decisions to connect prior with new experiences. These can be found in student-centred
approaches. Some of these are discussed next.
2.8.1.1 Cooperative learning
Cooperative learning requires students to work in small groups or pairs in order to reach their
learning objectives. Research indicates that there is a positive interdependence among students
in this approach which leads them to reach their goals by collaborating with each other (Johnson
& Johnson, 1989). Autonomous learning does not mean learning in isolation. From a sociocultural
perspective, it is a social agency which involves interaction among learners to help each other;
where more knowledgeable ones help others to learn (Little, 2000). Peer assistance and learning
in groups are elements of cooperative learning which contribute to have students manage their
learning (Nakai, 2016). There is an interdependence between cooperative learning and
autonomous learning. The latter involves collaboration in learning and the former fosters
independent learning (Wang, 2012). Students are not fully autonomous in cooperative learning.
Some of the activities they conduct may be teacher-led; nevertheless, students can oversee
making some decisions such as who they will work with, where they work to complete the task,
when, and whether they only use the resources and materials provided or look for more. If they
are given choices to show the product of their learning, they may choose which option they do.
Allowing learners to make these decisions helps them to begin to develop this skill and to give
them a small portion of the control of their learning; which are relevant features of autonomous
learning (Lengkanawati, 2017; Bhattacharya and Chauhan, 2010; Nunan, 1997).
The findings of an investigation conducted by Wang (2012) in which cooperative learning was
introduced in a classroom; showed that most learners enjoyed learning by interacting and helping
one another and appreciated the fact that the teacher rather than a teacher was a facilitator
during the learning process. According to the results of another study conducted by Hu and Zhang
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(2017), teamwork helped students become less teacher dependent to complete difficult tasks,
which motivated them to learn. They also found that collaboration helped to create a positive
learning environment and contributed to foster autonomous learning. Wejira (2019) explains that
cooperative learning activities allow learners to plan, monitor, and evaluate their learning.
Dickenson (1993) adds that this type of learning activities helps students to develop the capacity
to regulate their learning and take responsibility of it.
2.8.1.2 Task-based learning
Tasks-based learning (TBL) is an approach in which learners perform meaningful tasks to reach
their learning goals (Harmer, 2015; Richards & Rodgers, 2014; Van den Braden, 2006); learning by
doing as Skehan (2003) defined it. The tasks can be either pedagogical; performed inside the
classroom, or real-world related. This teaching approach has some features that contribute to the
fostering of autonomous learning. Structured tasks give students some control of their learning
(Darsih, 2018). This approach includes activities that allow learners to direct part of their learning
such as choosing learning materials, assisting others, making their own decisions, and keeping
time (Alrabai, 2017). Ghufron & Nurdianingsih (2019) add that TBL helps students to develop their
thinking skills and has students work in teams to reach their goals. These activities lead to having
students develop responsibility and become more autonomous in their learning gradually and
systematically (Wejira, 2019; Hu and Zhang, 2017; Morbedadze, 2015; Al-Saadi, 2011).
Research shows that TBL shares some practices with autonomous learning. Student involvement
is one of them. The results of a study carried out by Carless (2002) shows that a high degree of
student involvement took place when group activities were used in TBL. These findings resemble
those obtained by Ruso (2007), who found that task-based learning increased student
involvement and improved students’ learning. Another aspect TBL and autonomous learning have
in common is the role the teacher plays in these approaches. After the task is explained, the
teacher lets students manage their own interactions; nevertheless, teachers monitor learners and
intervene or help students when needed, as they perform their tasks in pairs or small teams
(Harmer, 2015; Richards & Rodgers, 2014). As it happens in autonomous learning, the role of the
teacher in TBL is that of a facilitator of learning (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2013). Finally, TBL
helps to raise learners’ awareness because it makes them analyse how they can apply what they
learnt inside the classroom in their lives (Larsen-Freeman, & Anderson, 2013; Robinson, 2011).
Awareness raising is a vital component of autonomous learning (Darsih, 2018; Tassinari, 2016).
Students become conscious of different aspects that are connected to their learning for instance
what this approach is about, their strengths, and weaknesses (Abdelrazeq, 2018; Cohen, 2003).
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2.8.1.3 Student-centred learning
Student-centred learning (SCL) has some elements in common with autonomous learning, which
contribute to foster the latter. Trinidad (2019) argues that in the former learners take control of
their own learning. They are actively involved at every stage of their learning process by
establishing their learning goals, identifying, and developing learning strategies that would help
them to reach their goals; selecting the content to be learnt, their learning materials, methods
and techniques; creating their study plans, as well as monitoring and assessing their progress
(Alrabai, 2017). In other words, they take control of their learning (Karababa, Eker, & Arik, 2010).
This does not make learners autonomous; nevertheless, by performing this practice, learners
experience one aspect of autonomous learning (Lengkanawati, 2017).
Another element from SCL that contributes to foster learning autonomously is the gradual
development of learner responsibility (Al-Saadi, 2011). Weimer (2002) affirms that in SCL students
become responsible of their own learning. This is achieved by replacing lectures for active
learning; having students participate in self-paced learning programs and working in cooperative
group (Nanney, 2004). In addition, the high level of learner involvement found in SCL (Jones,
2007; Huba & Freed, 2000) results in learners taking more responsibility of their learning (Slunt &
Giancario, 2004). A distinctive characteristic of student-centred learning is the fact that there is a
great interdependence and collaboration between the teacher and learner, and among learners
(Singh, 2012; Lea, Stephenson, & Troy, 2003; Huba & Freed, 2000). Jones (2007) explains in SCL
students share their learning experiences, brainstorm ideas, react to the comments of others,
work together to reach their goals, helping one another, collaborate, learn from each other,
consider others’ contributions, and ask for help when they need it. Huba & Freed (2000) contend
that in student-centred learning there is a culture of collaboration, cooperation and support; a
relationship of respect between teacher and learner develops which contributes to holistic
growth and development.
Independent learning is a feature from SCL that helps to promote autonomous learning. Jones
(2007) states that students become less teacher dependent in SCL because they are encouraged
to learn on their own and find solutions to the problems they encounter along their learning
process (Nanney, 2004). Regarding this issue, Signh (2012) explains that learners are provided
with opportunities for independent learning, working, and learning from one another, and with
the help of the teacher. This is not done without support. Teachers make sure learners have
access to what they need to learn in this fashion. Students are provided with the conditions and
resources they need to construct their own knowledge through inquiry, communication, critical
thinking and problem solving (Huba & Freed, 2000). Although students are not autonomous in
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SCL, these practices contribute to make students less teacher dependent, which is a feature found
in autonomous learning that introduces them to learning according to this approach.
Finally, learner assessment in SCL resembles that of autonomous learning. Students are assessed
individually according to their learning goals and levels of knowledge or proficiency; using
different assignments, tasks, resources, considering students’ strengths, needs and interests in
SCL (Andrade, Kristen, & Brooke, 2012). This is what Andrade & Valtcheva (2009) refer to as
individualized assessment. Some other assessment practices used in autonomous learning and
SCL are self-assessment, peer assessment, formative tests, and portfolios (Andrade, Kristen, &
Brooke, 2012). These contribute to foster autonomous learning because it gets students familiar
with the type of assessment employed in autonomous learning.
These three teaching approaches include elements from autonomous learning which contribute
to develop it among learners (Alrabai, 2017; Hu and Zhang, 2017). However, because they were
causing negative reactions among the participants, as mentioned in the Background of the Study
and Research Rationale, it was necessary to look for another option to introduce and develop
autonomous learning among participants. Existing literature indicates models have been used to
reach this goal. These will be discussed next.
2.8.2 Process models
Process models have successfully foster autonomous learning in a variety of educational settings
(Iimuro & Berger, 2010; Murray, 2006; St. Louis, 2006; Nordlund, 2001; Bertonldi, Kollar & Ricard,
1988). They are both process models and models of teaching. This means they were created to
introduce autonomous learning and help students learn content. In the following section these
are defined.
2.8.2.1 Definition of process models
In this study, a process model refers to a model of teaching that helps to teach something and
includes the sequence to be followed to foster autonomous learning. According to Eggen &
Kauchak (2006), a model of teaching describes how teachers structure their teaching to make it
more systematic and efficient. It is a plan created to guide teachers’ instruction in the classroom
(Joyce, Weil, & Calhoun, 2014). This includes teaching strategies and materials employed
systematically to reach the target objectives. Wilson & Cole (1996) contend that models of
teaching help to create, organize, arrange, and deliver teaching and learning experiences. This
researcher adds that they include theoretical or instructional frameworks regarding teaching
techniques, group work, classroom management, content development, the role of the learner
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and teacher, the design of learning materials, the teaching-learning process, and guidelines to
develop educational experiences. Teaching models guide instruction from beginning to end,
according to specific theoretical and philosophical principles, and include a description of all the
elements needed to make teaching efficient.
Models of teaching have several components. They have an objective that gives direction to what
is done in the classroom and how (Joyce, Weil, & Calhoun, 2014). The objective also defines the
type learning experiences to be created and employed, the materials selected, the teaching and
learning strategies to be used, as well as other essential aspects of the teaching process. Another
component is the description of the conditions needed to successfully implement it (Pateliya,
2013). This refers to the resources usually found in a school, as well as any other requirements
such as special skills teachers should have, equipment, media, learning materials, and facilities.
The lack of the appropriate conditions required by the model can decrease its efficiency. They also
have syntax. This is the sequence of steps to be followed to organize it, and a description of how
the model progresses (Maheshwari & Maheshwari, 2013). This element informs the teacher how
the model was put together, what the model is like, and the path that must be taken to
implement it. The social system is another component of this type of models. Joyce, Weil &
Calhoun (2014) explain that this system specifies the rules of engagement of the model as if it
were a mini society. The social system is concerned with how the interactions between students
and teachers should be conducted, the relationship between them, the rules of the classroom,
and the behaviours expected from students. Finally, each model has what Maheshwari &
Maheshwari (2013) refer to as application. This is a description of how students can transfer what
was learnt inside the classroom to other life experiences.
On the other hand, process models explain the process to be followed to implement something
and how it should be done (Rolland, 1998; Sommerville, 1996). They have been used because they
provide a roadmap which gives teachers stability, control, organization, and guidance to reach the
established goal (Tsui & Karam, 2006). They provide instructions, suggestions, and other relevant
information regarding how to implement a change. In addition, process models inform the
teacher the resources and conditions required, was well as any other special materials that may
be needed to successfully implement a change (Davis, 2009). Finally, these models explain the
norms and behaviour patterns expected from students while the model is implemented (Rolland,
1998). In other words, a code of conduct is created to inform learners about the desired
behaviours from them and their consequences. In conclusion, a process model in this
investigation includes the steps to be taken to reach a goal, their sequence, the guidelines to be
considered during the implementation process, the behaviours expected from students, the
resources and conditions the setting needs to have so that the objective of the model can be
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achieved. In the next section, the results of the analysis conducted to models that have been
created to foster autonomous learning are presented.
2.8.2.2 Analysis of process models
Process models have been used to promote autonomous learning in different settings; although
this has been done in language learning, the results were analysed to get a greater understanding
of how they have helped to achieve their objective. Eight models were examined; five were part
of studies done by researchers who explored their effectiveness to promote autonomous
language learning in the contexts where they were conducted (Iimuro & Berger, 2010; Murray,
2006; St. Louis, 2006; Nordlund, 2001; Bertonldi, Kollar & Ricard, 1988), and three that have been
used as references to promote autonomous language learning but have not been implemented
(Reinders, 2010; Scharle and Szabo, 2000; Nunan, 1997). The results of this analysis are presented
next.
2.8.2.2.1 Learner support
It was found that most of the models provided learners with some type of support during the
introduction of autonomous learning. Chia (2005) asserts that assistance is especially necessary at
the beginning because it is when learners have the most questions and need the most help. This
was given through personal tutors who met with learners individually and regularly to help them
in their learning and during the transition to motivate, to encourage them to use new learning
strategies, and to receive feedback during the tutorials (Iimuro & Berger, 2010; Nordlund, 2001;
Bertoldi, Kollar & Ricard, 1988). In addition, some students were able to attend resource centres
where they had access to a large assortment of learning materials that helped them during their
learning process. The tutors from the centre also assisted learners by suggesting resources,
learning strategies, explaining how they could use them, and answering any questions they had
about the work they did there or anything else students requested assistance with (Iimuro &
Berger, 2010; Reinders, 2010; St. Louis, 2006; Nordlund, 2001; Bertonldi, Kollar & Ricard, 1988).
Nordlund (2001) offered further assistance by creating different support groups students could
join to receive extra help in the development of certain aspects of their learning. Here, learners
received feedback from peers and counsels regarding their learning, resources and strategy use.
2.8.2.2.2 Student involvement in the decisions made about learning
Learners were involved in the decisions made regarding their learning in all the models analysed.
During the planning stage, students established their learning needs, selected strategies,
materials, learning activities, and tasks they chose to complete, and decided whether they wanted
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to attend the resource centre or join the discussion groups created (Iimuro & Berger, 2010;
Reinders, 2010; Murray, 2006; St. Louis, 2006; Nordlund, 2001; Scharle and Szabo, 2000;
Bertonldi, Kollar & Ricard, 1988; Nunan, 1997;). According to Wejira (2019) and Holec (1981)
defining content and progression, determining objectives, selecting methods and techniques,
monitoring the learning process are essential in autonomous learning. Reinders (2010) suggests
giving learners options to choose from whenever they make decisions about their learning, and
have students gradually decide what, when, and how they want to learn. Nevertheless, this is not
enough to make informed choices (Lengkanawati, 2017). To achieve this, learners need to be
provided with relevant information and choices consistent with their values (Marteau, Dormandy,
& Michie, 2001). Chi (2016) argues that informed decisions are made when students know all the
options available, become aware of the advantages and disadvantages of each choice, consider all
the alternatives they have, and use this knowledge to make their final decisions. This is how
learners should make decisions; nevertheless, this is not how decisions are usually made (Bekker,
Thornton, Airey, Connelly, et al., 1999).
One reason why people have difficulty making informed choices is not being allowed to make
their own decisions in the past (Ahmed, 2012), so they do not know how. This can result in being
afraid to make incorrect decisions or take risks. Moreover, sometimes learners are not given
enough time to decide, which can lead to making inappropriate decisions that produce negative
results (Chi, 2016). In addition, students may not have enough information and select based on
what they know, which may not be the best option. The opposite may happen as well. People
may be provided with too much information, which they cannot understand or process and
choose something without really considering its implications (Bekker, Thornton, Airey, Connelly,
et al., 1999). Furthermore, it is possible that individuals get overwhelmed by the number of
choices provided or the complexity of the decision to be made, they simply do not want to
participate in the process, or they do not like any of the choices. Whichever may be the reason, it
seems safe to say that making informed choices goes beyond just providing learners options to
choose from.
Choice selection depends on having access to information and can considerably affect the
decisions made (Chi, 2016). Lack of information can result in not knowing all the options learners
have or their implications; consequently, they are not able to make informed choices. Not
possessing the capacity needed to compute and process all the information available is another
factor (Baxter, Glendinning, and Clarke, 2008). These researchers comment that this overload of
information for some people leads to making decisions without considering it, thus informed
choices are not made. The way information is presented is also relevant (Long and Curtis, 2015). If
it is not clear, people will not use it to make choices or wrong decisions may be made because
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they are based on misunderstood data. People also make decisions based on the benefits and
drawbacks they think the options available have (Chi, 2016). Two choices may be very similar;
nevertheless, if people believe one has more advantages that the other, they will likely choose it
even though there are the same. Finally, people’s emotions; tiredness and stress, as well as
aspects of the choice to be made such as type of decision, seriousness of the outcome, familiarity
with the decision, and level of certainty, play an important role in choice selection (Bekker,
Thornton, Airey, Connelly, et al., 1999).
One suggestion to help individuals make informed choices is to clearly explain the information
people need, providing appropriate choices and informing people about the implications of each
option (Chi, 2016). Baxter, Glendinning, and Clarke (2008) explain that there is no point in
increasing the number of options if not enough information is given about these. People need to
compare the advantages and disadvantages of each choice to make informed decisions. Another
recommendation is to divide the decision-making process into a series of steps learners can follow
more easily but lead to the same outcome (Chi, 2016). The purpose of this is to prevent
overwhelming learners with information by having them take gradual steps to reach their goals.
Ahmed (2012) suggests two steps to make informed choices. The first is to select the option that
seems to be the best. This involves evaluating all the options then choose the best alternative.
The second step is to check the choice made to make sure its implications and conditions have
been considered and such option is the best. Since making decisions is a skill, it can be improved;
nevertheless, it is necessary that individuals analyse the outcomes of their choices to establish
how appropriate they were (Ahmed, 2012). This author suggests that the previous decreases the
fear to take risks and increases confidence to make informed choices.
2.8.2.2.3 Use of resources available
The models were created considering the resources available in the contexts where they were
implemented. Some students used materials and received support from the self-access language
centres or resource centres (Iimuro & Berger, 2010; Nordlund, 2001; Bertonldi, Kollar & Ricard,
1988). Other facilities available were employed by students such as a computer laboratory to
work with certain software, web applications, or online resources to assist their learning
(Reinders, 2010; St. Louis, 2006); some of which were purchased by the researchers (St. Louis,
2006; Bertonldi, Kollar & Ricard, 1988). In some cases, researchers had the help of counsellors
that met with students in one-on-one sessions weekly to guide them, help them, and give them
feedback (Iimuro & Berger, 2010; Nordlund, 2001; Bertonldi, Kollar & Ricard, 1988). Nordlund
(2001) created different support groups according to the needs of the learners, which they could
join receive assistance to develop certain skills.
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2.8.2.2.4 Levels of implementation
One of the most relevant findings was the use of levels of implementation found in all the models
examined. Egel (2009) and Nunan (1997) suggested to introduce autonomous learning through
phases, or levels of implementation (Onozowa, 2010). They make learners to gradually acquire
the knowledge and skills they need and slowly adapt to this way of learning (Spiro, Henderson,
and Clifford, 2012). Dang (2012) and Onozowa (2010) explain that this structure results in learners
conducting behavioural and cognitive actions that lead them to reach their learning goals and
develop the competencies they need to be more autonomous at each stage of their learning
process. Each level of implementation found is discussed next.
2.8.2.2.4.1 Raising learners’ awareness
Learner awareness was raised in most of the models analysed. However, there was no agreement
regarding what learners became conscious of. Some focused on their strengths and weaknesses
(Reinders, 2010; St. Louis, 2006); learning styles, professional and linguistic needs, their past
learning experiences, and learning strategies employed (Bertonldi, Kollar & Ricard, 1988). Others
helped students to become aware of what autonomous learning was, how it worked, and what it
implied for them (Iimuro & Berger, 2010; Reinders, 2010; Nordlund, 2001); their learning strategy
use (Reinders, 2010; Murray, 2006; St. Louis, 2006;); autonomous learning behaviors, (St. Louis,
2006); pedagogical goals, and materials used (Nunan, 1997). However, there is a general
agreement that raising learners’ awareness is a key aspect of autonomous learning (Abdelrazeq,
2018; Darsih, 2018; Tassinari, 2016; Cotterall, 1995;).
It is necessary that learners become aware of what autonomous learning is, and what changes it
implies in their learning (Abdelrazeq, 2018; Ajideh, 2009). This concept may be given different
meanings; therefore, it is important to define it before it is applied in the classroom (Nguyen,
Tangen, & Beutel, 2014). Informing learners about what the change entails is vital because it can
decrease the level of uncertainty among learners, it helps them to get prepared for the new
learning practices, and it contributes to increase learners’ readiness for change (Darsih, 2018). It is
suggested to raise learners’ consciousness about their strengths and weaknesses to make better
choices about their learning (Cohen, 2003). For instance, if they discover they are competent at
working with others and this helps them learn, they will likely and easily select to work in pairs or
teams. Moreover, learners should gain awareness about the most appropriate methods,
resources, and strategies for them (Azin, Biria & Golestan, 2018; Zulaihah & Harida, 2017). When
this is achieved, learners can plan their learning more efficiently and quickly because they already
know what assists their learning. Furthermore, students need to know the roles they and their
teachers play in autonomous learning (Ajideh, 2009; Cotterall, 1995;). This knowledge enables
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them to know what is expected of them during the learning process, and how teachers can assist
them. Learners need to become conscious of several issues; however, not all of them must be
addressed at once. Cotterall (2000) explains that awareness raising will develop as students get
more experience learning with this approach.
2.8.2.2.4.2 Selecting learning objectives
In all the models, but one (Scharle and Szabo, 2000), learners were able to select or adapt their
learning goals. This was done considering their needs. Because the goals were linguistic, learners
had the opportunity to decide which language skills or areas of knowledge they wanted to focus
on to improve to increase their EFL proficiency. When learners determine their own objectives,
they get more motivated to work to achieve them because they chose what they intend to learn,
can select the learning strategies they prefer, and attempt to find their own means to reach the
goals they set (Boggu & Sundarsingh, 2019). When students are allowed to set their learning
objectives, they can learn what they need and expand or refine areas they need to improve
(Darsih, 2018). In addition, this practice contributes to sharing with learners the control of their
learning, which is one of the main pillars of autonomous learning (Zulaihah & Harida, 2017).
2.8.2.2.4.3 Planning learning
Learners were given the opportunity to plan their learning in five of the models examined. This
was done by having learners develop their study plans (Iimuro & Berger, 2010; Nordlund, 2001;),
and select learning materials (Iimuro & Berger, 2010; Reinders, 2010; Murray, 2006; St. Louis,
2006), learning activities (Murray, 2006), and learning strategies (Reinders, 2010). According to
Reinders (2010), planning learning means establishing what is going to be done to learn, how
learning is going to happen, and when. Learners may also select the learning materials, tasks,
strategies, methods, and techniques to be employed during the learning process (Warni &
Supraptiningsih, 2019). It is essential to allow students to participate during the planning of their
learning (Lengkanawati, 2017). Reinders (2010) suggests providing learners with choice to help
them make these decisions, which it is advisable when this approach is first introduced. Because
students may be permitted to make several decisions, it is suggested to have them make a few
choices at first, and as they gain experience, increase the number and complexity of decisions
they make (Yildirim, 2012). Wejira (2019) argues that involving learners in this type of decisions
means sharing with them the responsibility of their learning, which is what autonomous learning
is about.
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2.8.2.2.4.4 Monitoring learning
Students were asked to monitor their learning in all the models but two (Bertoldi, Kollar, & Ricard,
1988; Nunan, 1997). St. Louis (2006) and Nordlund (2001) explain that this practice involved
having students record anything they did during the learning process, state what they have learnt
and the areas they needed to improve. Ajideh (2009) and Nunan (1997) add that the purpose of
monitoring learning is to identify the problems students had during the learning process to make
changes and prevent them in the future. Different instruments were used for this purpose: report
sheets, learning logs or diaries, counselling sessions, progress reports, small support groups, and
study logs (Iimuro & Berger, 2010; St. Louis, 2006; Nordlund, 2001). Monitoring learning also
helps students to raise awareness about their learning choices and practices (Ajideh, 2009). It
enables students to be conscious regarding the activities they have completed from their learning
plan, those they still need to do, and how much time they have left to complete the unfinished
tasks. This contributes to have students regulate their work and learning, and it increases
motivation, commitment, and persistence to learn (Hu & Zhang, 2017). Because students have
different learning plans and they do different activities and tasks, they need to monitor their own
learning to make sure they will be able to reach their learning objectives.
2.8.2.2.4.5 Assessing learning
Learners were involved in the assessment process in three of the models examined. This included
the assessment of learning (Reinders, 2010) and external resources (Murray, 2006), and self-
evaluation (Nordlund, 2001). Students need to take control of their learning at every stage of this
process in autonomous learning (Lengkanawati, 2017; Karababa, Eker, & Arik, 2010). Assessment
is part of such process, that is why it is suggested to allow students to participate in the choices
made regarding their assessment. The results of a study by Warni & Supraptiningsih (2019)
revealed that teachers believed it is possible to involve learners in these decisions. This practice
contributes to have students take charge of their learning. Nunan (2003) contends that teachers
could share control of classroom by engaging learners in the evaluation process. Based on the
findings of the study conducted by St. Louis (2006), it was established that when students were
allowed to select the value of the areas they were going to work on and the deadlines for the
graded assignments, they managed their time more effectively and became more responsible of
their learning. These improvements resulted from the fact that learners were more careful with
the work they did and were more committed to their learning. Although this level was not found
in most of the models, some include it and literature indicates that it is relevant (Zulaihah &
Harida, 2017); therefore, it is important to consider it when fostering this approach.
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2.8.2.2.4.6 Reflecting on learning practices
Two models included reflection as the last level in their models (Reinders, 2010; Nordlund, 2001).
The former required students to assess the language learning strategies used and the learning
activities they did. The latter asked students to reflect on what they did to learn. In this
investigation, reflection is defined as a thinking process which makes students review their
learning, analyse it, evaluate it, and draw conclusions about it. This definition takes elements from
the definitions provided by Clara (2015), Illeris (2007), Learning Development Unit (2004) and
Boud, Keogh, & Walker (1985). This type of reflection is called on-action, which means it takes
place after a learning experience has occurred (Ottesen, 2006). It has four phases. In the first one
a learning experience is selected and revised. The next step involves analysing what worked well
and what did not. This includes learning strategies, practices, activities, materials, resources,
modes of working, and anything else relevant to the learning process. The third stage is about
evaluating the experience. This is concerned with deducing why some things worked and some
did not, as well as what caused them to have positive or negative results. The last step are the
conclusions. Here students summarize what they learnt from their experience and reflect on it.
Conclusions are drawn to be considered in future learning experiences, to apply what was learnt
and improve learning.
Although only reflection was included in only two models, existing literature highlights its
importance. Reflecting about every stage of the learning process is an essential aspect of
autonomous learning (Tassinari, 2016). This researcher states that the purpose of reflection is to
have students analyze their learning experiences, beliefs, and perceptions about learning. By
doing so, learners identify what helped them learn, what caused them problems in their learning
(Reinders, 2010; Scharle & Szabo, 2000), establish how effective were their learning practices,
strategies, and tasks; as well as to lead them to find solutions to the problems they encountered
and think of the changes they need to make in their learning practices to enhance them (Reinders,
2010; Nordlund, 2001). Tassinari (2012) explains that reflecting about different aspects of the
learning process leads to raising awareness about it, which is necessary to make informed
decisions and changes in the learning practices used.
2.8.2.2.4.6.1 Reflective learning
Reflective learning is defined as an ongoing process (Ashraf, 2017) that makes learners focus on
their learning experiences, analyse why they did what they did, what were the consequences of
their actions, and what they learnt from their learning experiences so that they make better and
more informed decisions in the future (King, 2002). Colomer, Pallisera, Fullana, Burriel, &
Fernandez (2013) state that this approach involves reflecting on all sources of knowledge
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available to get a better understanding of a situation. Gray (2021) explains that by having learners
reflect on their learning experiences, they can develop the ability to evaluate their learning and
find areas they need to develop. It is essential to develop the ability to reflect among learners, not
only about their actions but also their thoughts and emotions (Colomer, Serra, Cabanate, &
Bubnys, 2018). Reflection makes a significant difference in learning because it contributes to raise
awareness regarding different aspects of an experience; both positive and negative (Boyd & Fales,
1983). Becoming aware of what deters learning helps to prevent repeating such actions or
behaviours; thus, the learning process is improved.
Reflective learning promotes deep learning, connects theory and practice, expands students’
critical evaluation skills, increases their involvement in their learning, and contributes to develop
lifelong learners (Griggs, Holden, Lawless, and Rae, 2018; Henderson, Napan, and Monteiro,
2004). Moreover, students become more responsible of their learning, increase their personal
growth and metacognitive awareness, develop their thinking processes, notice the relation
between effort put in and results obtained, and become conscious of their motives and actions
(Gray, 2021). In addition, Colomer, Serra, Cabanate, & Bubnys (2018) affirm that reflective
learning makes students become aware of their mistakes and learn from them. These authors also
argue that students develop agency, higher cognitive processes and can determine problems, find
solutions, compare, and contrast. The results of a study conducted by Colomer, Pallisera, Fullana,
Burriel, & Fernandez (2013) showed that through reflective learning students were able to know
what they needed to learn, evaluate their learning plans and learning, raise awareness about their
learning process, as well as to find strategies to overcome difficulties while learning and to
improve this process. Overall, these researchers concluded that students had positive opinions
about the implementation of reflective learning.
Reflective learning includes six steps (Gibbs, 1988). The first one is description. Here learners are
asked to describe their learning experience. The second one is feelings. This step requires learners
to analyse how they felt and what their thoughts were like during their experience. The third step
is evaluation. Students determine what helped them learn and what did not. What comes next is
analysis. Here learners examine why some actions, strategies, activities, materials and resources
worked well and why some did not. In the fifth step students generate knowledge from their
experience, which is used to create conclusions about it, as well as to establish what can be done
to improve it. The last stage is called action plan. Here learners state what their learning is going
to be like from then on, considering what they learnt and concluded from their experience.
There is a clear connection between reflective learning and autonomous learning. Both
approaches favour the development of knowledge and have students reflect as part of the
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learning process (Boggu & Sundarsingh; 2019; Griggs, Holden, Lawless, and Rae, 2018; Henderson,
Napan, and Monteiro, 2004; Boyd & Fales, 1983). By reflecting on their learning, students become
aware of what helps them learn. When they apply such knowledge in other experiences, they
become more independent in their learning, which is a feature of autonomous learning (Shawwa,
2010). Another aspect these two approaches have in common is student involvement in their
learning and having them take more responsibility of it (Gray, 2021; Lawless, and Rae, 2018; Borg
and Alrabai, 2017; Griggs, Holden, Cabrera-Ruiz, 2009; Henderson, Napan, and Monteiro, 2004;).
These aspects are significant because they enable learners to make decisions about their learning.
Overview
The fostering of autonomous learning is one of the main concerns of education nowadays
(Pershukova, Nikolska, and Vasiukovych, 2020). Research has shown that this approach benefits
learners in different ways (Vasiukovych, 2020; Boggu & Sundarsingh, 2019; Wejira, 2019; Darsih,
2018; Tassinari, 2016; Pershukova, Nikolska, and Morbedadze, 2015; Al-Busaidi and Al-Maamari,
2014; Dam, 2011). However, there are also some challenges, aspects, and guidelines to consider
in the introduction of this approach (Abdelrazeq, 2018; Bocos, Radut-Taciu & Chis, 2015; Rajaee,
2013; Chia, 2005; Nunan, 1997). One strategy that has been used to achieve the previous in
language learning has been the use of models. The results of the studies which employed them
showed that they are useful to foster autonomous learning (Iimuro & Berger, 2010; Louis, 2006;
Murray, 2006; Nordlund, 2001; Bertonldi, Kollar & Ricard, 1988). One element found in these
models that has contributed to achieve their goals is the use of levels of implementation
(Onozowa, 2010; Reinders, 2010; Egel, 2009; Scharle & Szabo, 2000; Nunan, 1997). These levels
enabled a gradual introduction of autonomous learning, which allows students progressively
adapt to learning with this approach (Henderson and Clifford, 2012). Other useful elements were
the support students were given to adapt to the new way of learning, their involvement in the
decisions made about their learning, and the use of the resources available in each context. Based
on the findings from the studies that used models to promote autonomous learning and the
results of the analysis made to these models, it was concluded that the employment of a process
model was appropriate to use in this study to reach such goal. The next step was the selection,
creation, or adaptation of the model to be implemented. This issue is discussed next.
Selection of the model to be adopted
A second analysis was conducted to the models reviewed to select one that could be adopted in
this study. Adoption in this study means implementing the model as it was created, without
removing or adding anything. Two main criteria were considered for the selection of a model to
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be adopted: it included all or most of levels of implementation and whether the elements it
required were available at the setting where this research was going to be conducted. The former
was considered because the results of the first analysis and existing literature indicated the
relevance of each level to gradually foster autonomous learning. The latter was a criterion
because choosing a model that required something the researcher could not provide or was not
available for learners would significantly affect the introduction of this approach. This agrees with
what Warni & Supraptiningsih (2019) argue; the features of the setting and learners must be
considered whenever autonomous learning is going to be introduced in a classroom.
Each model had some advantages which helped them reach their goals in the settings they were
employed. They all included some or most of the levels of implementation that helped to
promote autonomous learning. Moreover, some of them employed different strategies to assist
students during their learning and the introduction process. This facilitated adapting to the new
way of learning and the development of skills needed to learn autonomously. Furthermore, every
model allowed students to make decisions about their learning, some more than others and at
different stages of their learning process. This contributed to give learners control of their
learning. Finally, researchers took advantage of the facilities and human resources available to
provide learners with support and guidance while autonomous learning was fostered.
Nevertheless, there were several factors which prevented the adoption of any of the models
examined.
2.10.1 Reasons for not adopting any of the models analysed
None of the models examined could be adopted because of the following reasons. The models by
Nunan, Bertoldi, Kollar & Ricard, St Louis, and Iimuro & Berger did not involve learners in the
assessment of their learning, nor made them reflect about it. Reinders (2010) affirms that when
the previous happens autonomous learning is not fully fostered. Involving learners in the
decisions made regarding the evaluation of their learning is essential to foster autonomous
learning (Tassinari, 2016; Yamashita, 2015). Assessing their learning is one of the responsibilities
learners need to assume (Holec, 1981). In addition, the researcher believed that reflection is
necessary because it helps students to notice what helped them learn, what did not, and what
changes they need to make to improve their learning. The knowledge that emerges from this
practice can be used to improve their decision-making and problem-solving, which can lead to
enhancing their learning (Boggu & Sundarsingh, 2019). These and other drawbacks found in these
models led the researcher not to adopt any of them.
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One reason not to use the models by Bertoldi, Kollar & Ricard, Nordlund, and Iimuro & Berger was
because they required the provision of different types of assistance the researcher could not
offer. One was the support from several tutors to meet with each learner weekly to help them
with anything related to their learning or adapting to autonomous learning. This investigation was
done by the researcher without the support of any colleagues; therefore, it was impossible to
assign tutors to each of the participants. It is true that learners need a great deal of support to
assume responsibility for their learning (Reinders, 2010); nevertheless, such support is given
according to what is possible in each learning setting (Yildirim, 2012). It was beyond the bounds of
possibility for the researcher to provide this type of assistance because he did not have a group of
tutors to help him, nor enough time to meet with each learner weekly because he was teaching
full-time while this investigation was done. Another type of support the models by Bertoldi, Kollar
& Ricard, Nordlund, Iimuro & Berger gave learners but was impossible for the researcher to
provide, was access to a wide assortment of learning materials from a resource centre. Although
one existed at the research setting, the request to allow participants to access it was denied by
the university. Adopting any of these models without providing the support they required could
hinder the possibility to reach their goals.
One major problem found in the models by Murray, St Louis, Nunan, and Scharle & Szabo was
that not enough support was given to learners. They were provided with little assistance or
guidance during some stages of the learning and implementation processes. They did not include
a well-planned support system that continuously guided, assisted, or provided learners with the
scaffolding needed. When autonomous learning is introduced, learner support is essential
because they are asked to carry out practices they likely had never done before. It is at the
beginning of the introduction process when support is needed the most (Clarke, 1994); however,
it is necessary throughout. Chia (2005) explains that when this approach is introduced, students
require help to understand how to learn according to it and develop the competencies it requires.
The participants of this study needed assistance to adapt to autonomous learning and during their
learning because this approach is new to them; however, none of these models provided learners
with enough support.
Some models required giving students access to software or online services that were purchased
by the researchers (St. Louis, 2006; Bertonldi, Kollar & Ricard, 1988), or continuous access to a
computer laboratory to use such software or apps (Reinders, 2010; St. Louis 2006). However, due
to the lack of financial resources for this project, the researcher was unable to buy the former.
Regarding the latter, students from three different schools regularly use such facilities during the
morning and some classes are taught there; thus, learners did not have free access to use its
resources. One could argue that the online tools and websites could be accessed via Wi-Fi;
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unfortunately, this type of internet connection is very slow and sometimes non-existent;
therefore, the researcher did not consider using it.
The models by Nunan, Scharle & Szabo, and Reinders had never been implemented in a learning
setting to introduce autonomous learning. They include elements that are appropriate to reach
their goals and have been referenced in some of the literature published on this topic; however,
there are no studies that indicate how effective they are at promoting autonomous learning. This
prevented the adoption of any of them to be implemented in this study. In addition, Zorro,
Baracaldo, & Benjumea (2006) instead of adopting Nunan’s model created their own, suggested
that it was best to adapt one. Adapting a model leads to making it appropriate to the learning
context and limitations of the context to be implemented. There is not a universal framework that
can be applied in any setting because each model is adapted to the context where it is going to be
introduced; its education system, characteristics, and the cultural background of the learners (Hu
& Zhang, 2017). Due to this principle and because none of the models analysed could be adopted
to be implemented as they were created, the researcher decided to adapt one of these models to
be used in this study.
2.10.2 Selection of the model to be adapted
The criteria employed for the selection of the model to be adapted was the same used before for
the selection of a model: it included all or most of the levels of implementation used to promote
autonomous learning and most of the elements required for this process were available at the
research setting. It is necessary to consider the cultural background, educational conditions of the
environment, the needs of the learners, and institutional limitations of the context autonomous
learning is going to be promoted (Warni & Supraptiningsih, 2019; Yildirim, 2012; Larsen-Freeman
& Cameron, 2008). The model selected to be adapted was the one created by Reinders because it
includes the six levels of implementation found: raising awareness, setting goals, planning
learning, monitoring progress, assessing learning, and reflecting about their learning. The only
other model with the same number of levels is the one by Nordlund (2001). They include
reflection as the last level of implementation; nevertheless, Reinders’ is the only one in which
reflection matches the definition of this concept used in this study - reflection is defined as a
thinking process that makes students review their learning, analyse it, evaluate it, and draw
conclusions about it. The inclusion of most of the levels contributes to gradually introduce
autonomous learning, which was a must considering learners’ educational background and
readiness. Furthermore, the focus of reflection in Reinders’ model and the researcher were
almost the same: learning practices, their success on the completion of tasks they did, the
learning problems they encountered and how they solved them, and what helped them learn.
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In addition, Reinders’ model was chosen because it did not require the assistance from
counsellors or tutors, access to a resource centre, or creating support groups as Nordlund’s does.
These could increase the amount of support given; nonetheless, it was not possible for the
researcher to provide these types of support. Less support is included in Reinders’ model;
however, it is enough to slowly introduce autonomous learning. Moreover, this model gives
learners options to choose from whenever they make decisions about their learning, which is a
useful strategy to introduce autonomous learning (Lengkanawati, 2017) the researcher wanted to
employ to make the decision-making process easier. Furthermore, Reinders’ model makes
students gradually decide what, when, and how they want to learn. This is one of the most
important guidelines in the introduction of autonomous learning (Radut-Taciu, & Chis, 2015;
Nordlund, 2001; Brajcich, 2000). The researcher considered that progressively asking learners to
make their own decisions would be helpful because it would prevent overwhelming learners, give
them time to adapt to the new way of learning, and develop the skills needed (Bocos, Radut-Taciu
& Chis, 2015; Martin, 1999).
Reinders’ model was selected to be adapted although it had not been implemented in a
classroom and it was created to develop autonomous language learning. Nevertheless, this gave
the researcher the opportunity to employ it and attempt to foster this approach in a different
area of knowledge and a new context. Moreover, changes were made to the model considering
what was needed to make it appropriate to foster autonomous learning in adult education, the
context, existing limitations, and learners. The changes made to the model selected are discussed
next.
2.10.3 Adaptations made to the model selected
One of the changes made was not allowing learners to select their learning goals. This was
because they were established in the course syllabus and could not be changed, adapted, or
ignored. Participants had to learn what was included in the program. This did not apply to
learning materials or resources. Although these had been selected by the school and the teacher,
students could use others, provided they helped to learn the expected content. Learners had
freedom regarding the learning materials they wanted to use.
Some changes were done in some of the levels of implementation. Reinders’ model required
raising awareness regarding needs, strengths, weaknesses, and strategy use. The model used in
this study removed needs because learners were not going to develop their language skills and
could not select their learning goals. However, it added becoming conscious of what autonomous
learning was, students’ learning styles, preferences, and preferred learning tasks. Moreover,
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learners participated more in the decisions made regarding the assessment of their learning. It
was planned to gradually involve them more in these decisions so that towards the end of the
intervention, they were able to select most of the previous. Finally, the model originally asked
students to reflect about their success in tasks and the problems they encountered. The current
model added reflecting to establish what helped them learn, what did not, why, and which
changes they needed to make to improve their learning (Yamashita, 2015). This was done to raise
awareness about their learning, the decisions they made, and helped them make better informed
decisions about their learning in future learning endeavours.
Reinders’ model required giving learners access to a computer laboratory to use online learning
materials and activities. Because access to such facilities was restricted, the researcher decided to
either book the computer lab so that students could use the facilities during such time or gave
students plenty of time to complete tasks that required access to internet. The latter gave
learners enough time and opportunities to find a computer with internet access on campus, use a
cybercafé, work at home, or anywhere else where they could do it online. A complete description
of the model is included in appendix A1 (Treatment: Description of the model used).
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Chapter 3 Methodology
Introduction
This chapter discusses the methodology used in this study. First, the researcher provides a
description of the program implemented. Second, the research questions that guided this
investigation are presented. This is followed by the rationale for using qualitative and action
research. After this, the data collection instruments employed by the researcher are described,
along with the rationale for selecting them. Next, the process followed to collect data is
explained. Finally, the methods selected to analyze data are discussed, as well as the reasons for
choosing these.
Description of the program used.
The purpose of the program was to have student-teachers acquire theoretical knowledge
regarding language teaching methods and approaches. This was planned to be accomplished by
using the teaching practices that had been selected by the teacher, which were connected to the
adapted model. The objective of the research was to explore the usefulness of such model to
foster autonomous learning. The implementation of the adapted model and guidelines found in
the literature regarding the fostering of this approach were conducted to reach the latter. The
program had two goals: to help students learn the content of the class and to foster autonomous
learning.
At the beginning of the semester everything about the class, where the study took place, was
presented to students. They were also explained that an investigation was going to be conducted,
what it involved, and were invited to participate. Those who accepted signed the consent forms.
Students were also told that they were all going to perform the same practices because these had
been selected to help them learn the class content. Because autonomous learning was new to
participants, the teacher explained what it was, how learning occurred, what their and the
teacher’s role were going to be, how assessment happens, and how it was going to be
implemented. In the next session, participants were given a link and some questions to answer
which intended to have them analyse their strengths and weaknesses, learning preferences and
styles, and the optimal conditions for them to learn. The purpose of these activities was to raise
awareness about these issues. Through these activities learners experienced the first level of
implementation of the model being used: raise awareness.
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In the following sessions students participated in the selection of some of the class rules, the
order in which they wanted to learn some topics, and the value of two graded assignments which
together were worth 25% of their final score. The first two were chosen by all the students in the
class while the last was selected by each one. During the first term the content of the class was
often learnt through activities that made students work independently. Cooperative learning,
task-based, and guided learning activities were employed. The teacher provided students with
learning materials, instructions, and the tasks to complete. Learners selected to work individually,
in pairs, or small groups, who they worked with, and whether they did it in or outside the
classroom. Sometimes they were allowed to make other choices like choose the materials they
wanted to use to present the work done, and to choose the task they wanted to complete. This is
congruent with the definition given by Cotterall (2000) of autonomous learning: taking control of
some aspects of their learning at some stages of the learning process. Similar learning activities
were conducted in the last two terms. They were intended to be less teacher-dependent every
time. Eventually, learners were told the topics they needed to learn and were provided with
learning materials to do so, although the latter optional to be used. Students decided how, when
to learn, and which resources they employed.
During the second and third term students participated more in the decisions made regarding
their learning (see appendix A.1). In addition to the ones from the first term, they chose whether
to attend face-to-face sessions, which assignments they submitted, when they worked on and
submitted them, among others. In addition, during the third term self-study guides were
implemented to help students learn the class content. Each one included the instructions, the
content to be learnt, and some options for tasks to be completed. Students could select any of
these or did any other they preferred. They could work at home, at school, individually, or
collaboratively. The purpose of using self-study guides was to give students more control of their
learning. Students were guided on what to learn, were given scaffolding to do it, but also freedom
to use anything other resources and selected how they were going to learn. The second level of
the model, planning learning, was implemented through having students make decisions about
their learning and assessment.
Because learners were often working independently, they were asked to monitor their work and
learning. When students worked inside the classroom the teacher was able to check their
progress. When they did it outside, students had to meet with the teacher before the session was
over to inform him about their progress. If necessary, learners were given more time in the next
sessions to complete their work. Sometimes they were asked to work at home to avoid being
behind schedule. At the beginning of each term, learners were provided with the course outline
(see appendix A.2) to let them know which topics were going to be learnt in each session. It also
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included the assigned readings, deadlines, instructions for graded assignments, rubrics, and
assessment period. The information included in the course outline was intended to help students
monitor their work. Learners monitored their learning more during the last two terms (see
appendix A.1). In addition to what they did during the first term, learners created a work plan in
which they established how and when they were going to complete the learning activities, tasks,
and assignments for each term. It also included the deadlines they set for themselves to submit
their work. Each week, the teacher asked students at random about their progress. They reported
what they had done, as well as their plans to be able to submit everything they wrote in their
work plan on time. These activities belonged to the third level of the model; monitoring learning.
After students completed some tasks; for example, an oral presentation, the teacher met with the
presenters to ask them how they did, and what they could do to enhance their performance the
next time they had to present. This was done with most of the assignments students submitted to
have them self-evaluate their work. In addition, learners were shown the rubrics that were going
to be used to assess them and were asked to self-assess their work using the rubrics before
submitting their final drafts. Moreover, students were asked to keep a diary to have them analyse
and self-evaluate the work they did. Students started to submit a weekly entry during the third
week. They were provided with some questions to help them write their entries (see appendix
B.1); in case they did not know what to write about. They could answer any of the questions given
or address any other issues they wanted to discuss. The teacher read the entries and sent
comments through email. These actions were done to have students self-assess their work and
learning during the intervention, which is the fourth level of implementation of the model used.
At the end of each term participants were asked to reflect about what they did, how they did it,
who they worked with, which practices were useful, and which were not to. They were given
some questions to help them reflect about these issues. Each term they were given more to
choose from (see appendix A.5). These questions also intended to have students analyse their
decisions, practices, and outcomes. The last level of the model, reflection, was implemented
through these activities. However, this was also connected with the first level because by
reflecting awareness was raised about learners’ decisions, learning practices, tasks they were
skilful at doing, and other aspects related to them and their learning. The last and first level of the
model were connected at the end of the first and second.
The model used in this study resembled the amount of support given in Reinders’. It provided
learners with choices to help decision-making, questions were answered, feedback was given
during face-to-face tutorials or email, students also received assistance from classmates and other
teachers. In addition, access was granted to the computer lab during some classes to enable
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learners to use online resources and materials necessary to complete tasks or anything else they
needed.
The pedagogical goals were achieved. Most students learnt the expected content and obtained
high marks in the class, between 8.5 and 10, out of 10. To assess whether autonomous learning
was fostered, data was gathered with the questionnaire and interviews at the end of the study. In
addition, because learners’ comments had been collected during the intervention through the
entries they wrote in their diaries, this information was also used for research purposes. The
researcher kept a diary, but its information was not used. The data collected from the learners’
diaries, the questionnaire, and interviews was analysed to report the findings and answer the
research questions of this investigation.
The program included the process model used to introduce autonomous learning. The latter was
implemented through its levels and the framework created to gradually institute it. The first level
was raising learners’ awareness about this approach, their strengths, weaknesses, and other
issues previously mentioned. The second step was involving students in the decisions made
regarding the planning of their learning. The next was having participants monitor their learning.
The fourth level was involving learners in the assessment of their learning. The last was having
them reflect about their learning practices. This process was coupled with a framework that was
part of the model and established how features of autonomous learning were introduced, as well
as other elements that can help reach such coal. Rolland (1998) and Sommerville (1996) explained
that a process model also contains instructions, suggestions, and other relevant information
regarding how to implement the change. Graduality was a key element of the process due to
learners’ educational background and their readiness to learn autonomously. Learners were not
expected to suddenly become aware of all the aspects they needed, make all the decisions about
their learning and their assessment, or reflect about every aspect related to their learning
practices. The framework created determined which decisions learners made in each term
regarding the planning and assessment of their learning, the issues they reflected about, what
learners became aware of, and which tools or scaffolding was used to promote autonomous
learning. In summary, the model employed in this investigation included the process to be
followed to implement autonomous learning and the framework that explained what had to be
done to make such implementation gradual.
The process model implemented is connected to action research because the latter intends to
cause a change in the context where it happens (Johnson, 2012; Manfra, 2009; Stringer, 2008).
Holter & Frabutt (2012). Hine & Lavery (2014), explains that this process includes the following
steps: planning a change, applying such change, monitoring the effects of such change, reflecting
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on its effects, planning further action: then, repeating the cycle again. These elements are found
in the model implemented. Its purpose was to introduce a change in learning. This was done by
following the process included in the model and other guidelines obtained from existing literature
about this issue. In addition, the introduction was planned, conducted, monitored, reflected
about, and planning for further action was as done by the researcher. Because he was concerned
with the fostering of autonomous learning in his teaching context, the previous cycle was
improved and repeated in the following years although no data about this was included in this
investigation.
Another aspect of action research found in this study is that this type of research is conducted in
real-world contexts (Baskerville & Wood-Harper, 2016; Denscombe, 2010) and it involves the
introduction of a treatment in a learning setting, not only to solve problems that emerge in the
classroom, but to improve learning, student behavior, or teaching practices (Johnson, 2012;
Singler, 2009; Nolen & Vander Putten, 2007; Tripp, 2005). The intervention was implemented in
the setting where the researcher worked. Furthermore, the purpose of this model was to foster
autonomous learning to solve a problem the researcher had identified through informal
conversations with learners, and improve students’ learning as it is suggested by literature.
Action research is conducted by a teacher, a tutor, a practitioner, or an educator (Nolen & Vander
Putten, 2007) in classrooms or schools (Mills, 2014; Hine, 2013; Deemer, 2009; Singler, 2009;
Stringer, 2008; Tomal, 2003; Ferrance, 2000). In this case the researcher was also the teacher, and
this investigation was conducted in one of the classes he taught at the school where he worked.
This enabled the researcher to observe what happened throughout the study and collect data
directly from participants. It is important to mention that the study was part of what he had
planned to do in such class during that school year. Therefore, all the students in the class
experienced what the teacher introduced; nevertheless, data was collected only from those who
had agreed to participate in the study.
Objective
The main objective of this study was to investigate the impact an adapted model had on the
fostering of autonomous learning among a group of Mexican university students who were used
to learning with teacher-centred methods.
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Research questions
This investigation was designed considering two main research questions, each included two
subsidiary questions. These are discussed next, as well as the instruments used to collect data to
answer each of them.
3.3.1 Main research question 1
What evidence indicates that there has been a development of autonomous learning among
participants?
Obtaining data that answered this question helped to establish if the purpose of the study was
reached. The opinions of participants were considered, as well as autonomous learning
participants conducted.
3.3.1.1 Subsidiary question 1
How do the elements of the treatment contribute to the development of autonomous learning?
The purpose of this question was to gather information to determine the contribution each
component of the intervention made to promote autonomous learning.
3.3.1.2 Subsidiary question 2
How do the levels of implementation contribute to foster autonomous learning?
The researcher wanted to know if and how each level helped to promote autonomous learning
because this is an issue that has not been explored enough, by answering this question more
could be learnt about this it.
3.3.2 Main research question 2
What are the opinions of the participants about learning autonomously?
The researcher wanted to know how participants felt about learning with the approach
introduced to establish if they welcomed or rejected it, and if they wanted to continue learning
with it.
3.3.2.1 Subsidiary question 1
What are the views of the subjects about the fostering of autonomous learning in this study?
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The information gathered to answer this question helped to establish if and how appropriate
were the process, strategies, and resources employed to introduce this approach to learning.
3.3.2.2 Subsidiary question 2
What are the opinions of the participants about autonomous learning and how these developed
along the treatment?
Data was collected to answer this question to know whether participants’ views about this
approach changed as the intervention progressed.
The following table shows the relationship between research questions and data collection
instruments.
Question
Instrument that collected data to answer the question
Main research question 1
What evidence indicates that
there has been a development
of autonomous learning among
participants?
Learners’ diaries. Through participants’ comments regarding
being more autonomous in their learning, adopting learning
practices from this approach, or performing actions that
indicate they have taken control of their learning.
Questionnaires and interviews. From participants responses
regarding whether they believed they became more
autonomous in their learning, and if so, why they have such
perception (actions, practices, and the like that indicate they
are more autonomous).
Subsidiary question 1
How do the elements of the
treatment contribute to the
development of autonomous
learning?
Questionnaire and interviews. They included items that
inquired about the usefulness of such elements to establish
whether and how these assisted the development of the
approach to learning.
Subsidiary question 2
How do the levels of
implementation contribute to
foster autonomous learning?
Questionnaire and interviews. They had questions that asked
students their opinions about each of the levels of
implementation, as well as how much they thought each one
helped to promote autonomous learning.
Main research question 2
What are the opinions of the
participants about learning
autonomously?
Questionnaire, interviews, and learners’ diaries. These
gathered participants’ opinions about autonomous learning,
and whether they wanted to continue learning with this
approach.
Subsidiary question 1
What are the views of the
subjects about the fostering of
autonomous learning in this
study?
Questionnaire, interviews, and learners’ diaries. The first two
included questions to collect participants’ opinions regarding
the introduction of autonomous learning, as well as the
usefulness of the strategies and scaffolding employed. Some
questions from the diary asked about the effectiveness of the
instruments used to promote this approach.
Subsidiary question 2
Questionnaire, interviews, and learners’ diaries. They included
questions to obtain participants’ opinions about this approach.
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What are the opinions of the
participants about autonomous
learning and how these
developed along the treatment?
Table 1: Relationship between research questions and data collection instruments
Qualitative research
Qualitative research was selected to be employed in this study because it investigates the
consequences that emerge from implementing a new program or intervention, how students feel
about taking part in such program, what happens as such program occurs, and find solutions to
social problems (Ritchie, Lewis, Nicholls, & Ormston, 2013). Most of these features are found in
this research. Its main goals were to explore the outcomes of the intervention implemented and
students’ opinions about it. Furthermore, the questions qualitative research intends to answer
are how? why? and what is? (Ritchie, Lewis, Nicholls, & Ormston, 2013). The main and subsidiary
questions are of this type. The aims and characteristics of qualitative research, as well as the types
of questions it intends to answer, are like those included in this study.
A useful aspect of qualitative research is that it tries to get a complex and detailed understanding
of what it investigates (Creswell, 2013). This researcher adds it is necessary to interact, observe,
question, and talk directly with the participants of the investigation to learn more about the
phenomena being studied and that this can be achieved by placing the observer where the
investigation occurs. Ritchie, Lewis, Nicholls, & Ormston (2013) state that this type of research
allows researchers to “'unpack' issues, to see what they are about or what lies inside, as well as to
explore how they are understood by those connected with them (p. 27)”. In this study, the
researcher was also the teacher; therefore, he was able to observe what happened as the
investigation was conducted. Moreover, he had the opportunity to talk to participants, ask them
questions, and converse about relevant issues of the study. Because the researcher was also the
teacher, it was possible to get a clear understanding of the phenomenon investigated. Denzin &
Lincoln (2011) assert that in qualitative research such understanding is vital to study and interpret
situations, problems, possible solutions, behaviors, attitudes, and interventions in their natural
settings.
Another reason why qualitative research was selected for this investigation was because it uses
instruments that enable researchers to gather information from different perspectives about the
phenomenon under investigation (Creswell, 2013). This was desired in this study to get a
thorough understanding of it. The instruments that are employed to achieve the previous are:
interviews, observations, and documents (Creswell, 2013; Orb, Eisenhauer, & Wynaden, 2001);
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fieldnotes, conversations, photographs, recordings and memos (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000);
observations, textual or visual analysis and individual or group interviews (Gill, Stewart, Treasure,
& Chadwick, 2008); focus groups, life histories, narratives, and analysis of documents and texts
(Ritchie, Lewis, Nicholls, & Ormston, 2013). In this research it was necessary to get a sound
understanding of how autonomous learning could be fostered in the target context, what was
needed, and whether the intervention introduced achieved its goal. These objectives could be
reached by gathering information using some of the data collection instruments from qualitative
research: Learner diaries, a questionnaire, and interviews.
Qualitative research was employed because the study was conducted in the type of the setting
where this type of research is usually conducted, in real-world contexts (Creswell, 2013; Ritchie,
Lewis, Nicholls, & Ormston, 2013; Draper, 2004; Malterud, 2001). This study was conducted in
one of the classes taught by the researcher and it allowed the researcher to examine what
participants thought about autonomous learning and its implementation process, as well as the
reasons for having such opinions. Finally, an aspect of qualitative research that led to its use was
that it has an open-ended and flexible plan, and the research questions can be changed as the
investigation progresses based on the data that is gathered and new findings emerge (Draper,
2004). Charmaz (2004) adds that in qualitative research the research questions created at the
beginning of the project may lead to new ones; in directions that were not expected but that are
worthwhile to take. These features of qualitative research happened in this investigation. As the
study was being implemented and some data was collected the goals of this study were modified
slightly and other unexpected issues that emerged were considered. This flexibility contributed to
get a better understanding of the issues under investigation and to discover others that were not
initially taken into consideration.
In summary, qualitative research was selected to be used in this study because many of its
features matched the ones found in the study and helped to explore the issues included in this
research. It was conducted in a real learning context (Creswell, 2013; Ritchie, Lewis, Nicholls, &
Ormston, 2013; Draper, 2004; Malterud, 2001) to thoroughly understand issues being studied, to
find explanations regarding the process participants go through, and to examine the impact
interventions have (Williams, 2011). This was achieved through the direct interaction,
observation, questioning, and talking to participants done by the researcher who was at the
research site (Creswell, 2013). Qualitative research contributed to learn how participants felt
about the treatments or process they went through and find solutions to problems (Ritchie, Lewis,
Nicholls, & Ormston, 2013). In addition, qualitative research provided the data collection
instruments that helped to answer the research questions; interviews, observations, (Creswell,
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2013; Orb, Eisenhauer, & Wynaden, 2001); fieldnotes, conversations, (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000);
observations, and individual interviews (Stewart, Treasure, & Chadwick, 2008).
Action research
Action research was selected because it is performed in real-world contexts (Baskerville & Wood-
Harper, 2016; Denscombe, 2010; Avison, Lau, Myers and Nielsen 1999), and it involves the
introduction of a treatment in a learning setting, not only to solve problems that emerge in the
classroom, but to improve learning, student behavior, or teaching practices (Johnson, 2012;
Singler, 2009; Nolen & Vander Putten, 2007; Tripp, 2005;). These aspects were present in the
current study. An intervention was implemented in a class taught by the researcher to deal with
an issue and try to improve learning. This is because if more is known about how to foster
autonomous learning, teachers could include some of these strategies in their teaching practices
to help students adapt to learning autonomously more easily.
An aspect of action research found in this research is being conducted in classrooms or schools
(Mills, 2014; Hine, 2013; Deemer, 2009; Singler, 2009; Stringer, 2008; Tomal, 2003; Ferrance,
2000); by a teacher, a tutor, a practitioner, or an educator (Nolen & Vander Putten, 2007). This
study was conducted at the school where the researcher/teacher worked. Ferrance (2000) states
that no one can better identify, examine, and solve teaching and learning problems than teachers
and principals; therefore, it is them who are in charge of doing action research. The researcher,
who was also the teacher, noticed a problem that learners were having, explored how to solve it;
then created a possible solution that needed to be tested to find out how useful it was at solving
the problem
Another distinctive feature of action research found in this study was the introduction of change.
According to Holter & Frabutt (2012), Johnson (2012), Manfra (2009), Stringer (2008) and one of
the main objectives of action research is to influence or cause a change in the context where it
takes place. The main purpose of this study was to introduce a change to modify participants’
learning practices. Hine & Lavery (2014), explains that this involves a process that includes the
following: planning a change, applying such change, monitoring the effects of such change,
reflecting on its effects, planning further action: then, repeating the cycle again. This is very
similar to the action research spiral proposed by Kemmis & McTaggart (Burns, 2010) which
includes four phases: plan, action, observe, and reflect. According to these researchers, after the
first cycle is completed, the plan is revised, changes are made to improve it, it is implemented
again, and the cycle is repeated. In other words, the change action research tries to cause is
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strategic, it does not happen by accident. In this investigation the process by Hine & Lavery (2014)
was implemented.
In conclusion, action research was selected because it shares several elements with the research
that could help to reach its goal. This investigation was conducted in a real-life context
(Baskerville & Wood-Harper, 2016; Denscombe, 2010), in schools and classrooms (Hine, 2013;
Mills, 2011; Stringer, 2008). In addition, the purpose of this type of research and the study was to
cause a change in the context where it was done (Hine & Lavery, 2014; Johnson, 2012; Stringer,
2008;). This was achieved by introducing an intervention to solve classroom problems, teaching
practices and improve learning (Johnson, 2012; Singler, 2009; Nolen & Vander Putten, 2007,). To
measure whether or not the model was useful data was collected using instruments that are
common in action research: questionnaires, interviews, focus groups, learners’ logs, and the
researcher log (Johnson, 2012). All of these factors made action research the most appropriate to
assist this investigation to reach its goals.
Intervention
Prior to conducting the intervention, the researcher followed the established process to obtained
approval from the university’s ethical committee (ERGO). All the forms required (see appendix A8)
were completed by the researcher then revised by his thesis advisor. Once they have been
approved by the latter, they were submitted via email to request approval from the university’s
ethical committee. Sometime later the researcher was informed via email that approval to
conduct the investigation had been granted (see appendix A8). The researcher then explained
learners what the investigation was about and what it involved. All the students registered in the
class were invited to participate; some accepted but others did not. The former were given the
consent form to read; if they still agreed to participate, they were asked to sign the form. After
this the intervention began. This happened at the beginning of the Fall semester 2016 and
continued until the semester ended. The intervention began in the second week of classes in late
August and ended in mid-December. There were three terms during the semester, each one was
approximately five weeks long. There were no classes during exams’ week, which happened at the
end of each term. A more detailed description of the model can be found in appendix A1.
A pilot study was not undertaken because the intervention was implemented in a class the
researcher had taught before, where he had employed some aspects of autonomous learning.
Having taught the class before gave the researcher a sound insight of the characteristics of the
learners, the learning the conditions, the content to be learnt, and the problems commonly
found. This knowledge and the teaching experience the researcher had enabled him to know
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what could be implemented, how, and what was needed to deal with the issues he wanted to
address. The intervention and its introduction were planned considering such information. It did
not involve the implementation of something alien to the researcher but adding, systematizing,
and enhancing what he had done.
In addition, the intervention included some elements from autonomous learning the researcher
had previously employed: learning in collaboration, guided learning activities, providing learners
with choice, involving them in some decisions made about their learning, assisting learners, and
having students reflect on their learning. Although these had been used at random, they helped
to gain some experience and knowledge regarding the introduction and development of
autonomous learning among the students from this context. This was supported and enriched
with reviewing existing literature on this topic. The difference was that conducting this study
made the researcher plan, organize, and systematize a formal investigation considering
everything this required. The intervention was constructed by acknowledging the experience the
researcher had regarding fostering autonomous learning, the characteristics of the learners,
features and limitations of the research context, and existing literature on this topic. It had some
elements the researcher had not considered before but were useful and appropriate to the
context and the learners, as well as some that he had used before, which were supported by
existing literature on this issue.
Pilot studies are conducted to identify possible problems the investigation can have, deficiencies
in the data collection instruments and research protocols, the recruitment of participants, and to
help members of a research team to know the procedures of the investigation (Hassan, Schattner,
and Mazza, 2006). Although it is impossible to prevent problems; because the researcher knew
the learners, the setting, and its limitations, and had already implemented some of the elements
of the intervention, the potential difficulties were few. Moreover, because the researcher was
also the teacher, it was possible for him to solve problems rapidly. The support given by the thesis
advisor helped to diminish and prevent any issues with research instruments and protocols. Any
problems with these during the research were solved with the assistance of the advisor.
Regarding the recruitment of participants, this was not necessary because the students enrolled
in the class who accepted to take part in the study were the participants. Finally, this investigation
was conducted by one person, he was the teacher and the researcher. Because of this, decisions
making was not difficult because he made them all, considering the advice and comments he
received from his advisor.
Moreover, this was an action research project that did not involve creating something new, which
would require conducting a pilot study. It considered the learning conditions, issues, learners, and
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existing knowledge to construct and implement a change intended to improve teaching and
learning where it was employed (Johnson, 2012; Singler, 2009; Nolen & Vander Putten, 2007;
Tripp, 2005), then analyze the outcomes of such change to establish if the intervention had
reached its goals. This was done by employing something different, elaborated, and improved to
what the researcher had done to solve a problem he had encountered. The intervention involved
implementing a change that included aspects that had been used before and new ones suggested
by the literature.
The researcher was aware of the consequences of not conducting a pilot study. He had little
experience doing this type of investigations, designing research instruments, and analyzing great
amounts of data. The pilot study could have given the researcher the opportunity to learn more
about these, to have a better understanding and practice in data analysis, as well as other
research protocols. This could have facilitated the conduction of the study. Nevertheless, the
guidance and assistance from his advisor and the software employed (Nvivo 10) played a major
role in overcoming the difficulties found and making the corrections and improvements needed to
conduct the investigation properly.
Moreover, because the researcher had previously employed some of the aspects included in the
intervention, it was likely that he expected to obtain similar results. Due to this, more attention
could have been paid to these aspects, or data could have been analyzed with certain
expectations. This would have skewed the results. Fortunately, the software employed helped to
organize and analyze the data more objectively, the triangulation of findings done, and the
revision and feedback by the thesis advisor contributed to obtain more reliable results.
3.6.1 Description of the intervention
Before the intervention began, students were informed about the study that was going to be
conducted, what it was about and implied for them. They also were explained that if they
accepted to do so, they would have to sign a consent form and any information collected from
them would be used for research purposes only. They were also told that their real names would
not be used, participants would be given alias so that it would be impossible for anyone to know
what they said about the issues they were asked about. All the data would be stored and locked in
the researcher’s personal computer, who no one had access to and only the researcher knew the
password of it. Learners who accepted, signed the consent forms, which were stored and locked
in the researcher’s desk.
The intervention began by raising participants’ awareness about autonomous learning and the
learners themselves. This was done with the help of the researcher explaining what the new
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learning approach involved, what implied to them in their learning habits, the roles they and the
teacher were going to play, and the gradual introduction of the learning approach. Furthermore,
the students were assisted to become conscious of some aspects related to their learning such as
learning preferences, learning styles, and strengths and weaknesses. Learners were also
presented the course outline and were explained they could use it to keep track of the topics that
had to be studied during the term, to remind themselves about the readings they had to do,
deadlines they had to meet, tasks they had to complete, instructions, and rubrics (see appendix
A.2). During the second term, students were explained what a work plan was, its purpose, what it
needed to include, and why they had to do one. They were asked to create their individual work
plan using the information they had been given in the course outline to plan the work they were
going to do each week during the second and third terms. They were asked to keep it nearby to
know where they were in the course.
The second phase included student involvement in some of the decisions made regarding their
learning. These were few and the easiest ones they were going to be asked to make (see appendix
A.1) during the first term to get them started in making their own decisions. At the beginning of
the second and third term students were allowed to make more decisions about their learning.
The complexity of the decisions participants made also increased as they got more experience
(see appendix A.1). The same was done with having participants decide some aspects of their
assessment. This was gradual as well, few and simple decisions during the first term and more and
more complex ones during the second and third terms (see appendix A.1). This was a new practice
for students that is why it was also introduced gradually. At the beginning of the assessment
period, learners were given the opportunity to change the decisions they had made about it if
they considered it was necessary. At the end of each term students were asked to reflect about
the decisions they had made during the previous term, as well as other aspects of their learning,
to raise awareness about these. Another purpose of such reflection was to have students become
conscious of the implications of their decisions and make informed decisions in the following
terms.
Learning was monitored by students by using the course outline, random meetings with the
teacher, and using the work plan they had created in the last two terms. The purpose of these
was to have students keep track of the topics that had learnt, be aware of the work they had
completed or needed to finish and remember the deadlines to try to have them regulate their
work to be able to learn everything they were required to within the time allotted. Each week,
during face-to-face sessions, at some point the teacher asked each student about their progress
and if they were complying with what they had included in their work plan. Learners informed the
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teacher about what they had done and explained their plans to learn what they still had not and
to submit assignments on time.
Learners were asked to assess their learning through the informal talks the teacher had with them
after they submitted their assignments, when learners used the rubrics given to self-assess their
work before submitting it, and through group discussions that sometimes were held in class.
At the end of each term students were asked to reflect about their learning, their decisions, the
tasks done, and their practices. The purpose here was to raise learners’ awareness about which
decisions had been appropriate, what had helped them learn, what did not, who they worked well
with, and what changes they needed to improve their learning.
Learners were given support through comments and feedback the researcher made to students
when they submitted a draft, when they asked questions, when their progress was checked, and
through other types of scaffolding such as the work plan, the course outline, access to the
computer lab, and choices given. Relevant aspects of autonomous learning were introduced
according to the schedule that had been created (A1) to gradually introduced these.
Data collection instruments
Three different data collection instruments were selected to be used in this research: a
questionnaire, a semi-structured interview, and learners’ diaries. It was established that to
discover the extent to which the intervention was effective, it was more appropriate to gather
information from participants. The researcher kept a diary; however, it was used to create a
description of what happened during the treatment, rather than to be employed as a data
collection instrument. Its content was used to corroborate findings that emerged from the three
instruments mentioned above if necessary. The rationale for the selection of each instrument is
presented below.
3.7.1 Questionnaire
A questionnaire was chosen because it helped to collect information directly from subjects about
specific issues the researcher wanted to explore (Brown, 2001). Through questionnaires,
participants can express their opinions, attitudes, beliefs, feelings, and preferences about crucial
issues related to the investigation the researcher wants to document (Descombe, 2014; Nunan, &
Bailey, 2009). The questionnaire used in this study gathered participants’ opinions about
autonomous learning, its introduction, and other aspects related to the fostering of this approach.
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Questionnaires were used in this research because they assisted to gather specific and more
general data. They can include two types of questions: closed-ended and open-ended (Descombe,
2014). This researcher explains that “The advantage of open questions is that the information
gathered by way of the responses is more likely to reflect the full richness and complexity of the
views held by the respondent” (p. 165). Furthermore, Dörnyei (2003) adds that open-ended
questions allow respondents to decide how long their answers are going to be, the words they are
going to use to respond, and the problems they want to address or points they wish to raise.
Open-ended questions (see appendix B.2) were used in the questionnaire employed in this
investigation to allow respondents to express their views about the issues they were asked.
Nunan & Bailey (2009) explain that open questions are more helpful to have students express, in
their own words, what they want to say. This investigation is based considerably on the opinions
of participants. Therefore, it is vital that they can freely discuss their views. Considering the
previous, it was decided to use and open-ended questionnaire to collect participants’ views about
the intervention and other relevant issues.
One of problem with using questionnaires is that they require more attention, time, and effort
from the respondents to answer them (Descombe, 2014). This researcher adds that when a
questionnaire is employed it is not possible for researchers to know if the information given by
respondents is true. When data is collected through an interview for instance, the researcher may
be able to use certain clues like body language, and facial expressions to know if the responses
given are genuine; however, the same is not possible when a questionnaire is employed. In
addition, long questionnaires decrease the probability of subjects answering the questions
truthfully and thoroughly because they may write whatever comes to mind or short meaningless
responses to be done with the questionnaire quickly. To prevent this, questionnaire should be as
short as possible and only collect data about crucial issues, not about non-essential topics
Descombe (2014).
Another problem of using questionnaires when the researcher is also the teacher is related to the
truthfulness of the responses obtained. It is likely that because of the power relations there are
between the researcher and participants, the latter may be inclined, consciously or unconsciously,
to answer questions according to what the former expects to obtain. Although the researcher
may ask participants to be honest to give their opinions and inform them that no matter what
their responses are these are not going to affect their class performance or scores, it is possible
that some responses may still be skewed to some degree. It is necessary to keep this in mind and
do something about it when the data is analyzed to try to identify any responses that may not be
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truthful. Triangulation can help in this regard, although it is impossible to fully overcome this
problem when teachers ask students.
The researcher was aware of these problems; therefore, the questionnaire included few
questions to try to prevent that writing extensively caused participants to get bored or tired,
which could result in getting responses that were not genuine or incomplete. It was believed that
if few questions were included, participants would probably provide insightful responses. In
addition, yes/no questions were included in this instrument. These had follow-up questions to
have students elaborate on the responses they provided to try to get insightful information.
Moreover, in some cases, examples were included after the questions to clarify aspects of the
intervention learners were being asked about or to remind them which the questions referred to.
Follow-up questions were not added to all the questions to prevent the instrument from being
too long. Nevertheless, the researcher paid attention to the responses obtained from these, if
they were short or needed elaboration, this could be done during the interview.
Open-ended questions were also used because they lead to collect information regarding
unexpected issues that were important to participants. If this happened, they could be explored
further during interviews. Nunan & Bailey (2009) suggest administering questionnaires first to get
general data or opinions, then use interviews to get more specific information about essential
issues for the research. This was done in this investigation. During the interviews, the researcher
explored further the opinions participants expressed about autonomous learning and the
practices implemented. The questions written for the questionnaire and the interview were
checked by a colleague of the researcher who had been previously informed about the study, its
purpose, and the intervention, and by the thesis advisor to assure validity and reliability in such
instruments. Both were familiar with the research as well as the profile of the participants and the
context. Some comments and suggestions were given to improve the questionnaire by both
parties. These were discussed individually with each of them. All the suggestions were considered
to improve the questionnaire and the questions for the interview. Changes were made until the
thesis advisor had approved these instruments.
3.7.2 Semi-structured interviews
Interviews collect people’s opinions, feelings, emotions, experiences, more detailed information,
and valuable insights about important topics related to the investigation, and explore more
complex and subtle phenomena (Descombe, 2014). Interviews helped in this regard because it
helped to gathered participants’ opinions, experiences and feelings about autonomous learning,
the fostering of this approach, and the intervention implemented to answer its research
questions. Furthermore, interviews can complement and support the information collected from
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the questionnaires or expand on any issues that emerged from the latter (Nunan & Bailey, 2009).
An advantage of this instrument was that the interviewer can check for accuracy by paying
attention to the interviewee’s body language and facial expression when they respond to the
questions posed (Descombe, 2014). These benefits from interviews led to its selection to collect
data in this investigation.
A semi-structured interview (appendix B.3) was used in this study. It was selected because it
helped the researcher to explore experiences, views, beliefs, or motivations from participants
regarding relevant research issues, as well as to get a deeper understanding of certain events that
occurred during the research process (Gill, Stewart, Treasure, & Chadwick; 2008). These
researchers add that semi-structured interviews are useful to learn about issues that are
important to participants but might not have been considered as relevant by researchers. Because
participants’ opinions were going to be gathered, unexpected issues could be obtained from this
instrument. In addition, this type of interviews make it possible to expand and elaborate on the
responses interviewees produce (Descombe, 2014; Nunan & Bailey, 2009). Semi-structured
interviews also gave the researcher the opportunity to expand on key topics that emerged from
the responses obtained from the questionnaire.
Interviews can also negatively affect the quality of the information collected. The power relation
between the interviewee and the interviewer, their preferences, the rapport and trust between
them are all factors that can influence the veracity of the information gathered. As Descombe
(2014) explains it; it is likely that interviewees’ responses fit with the researcher expectations. On
the other hand, the opposite may happen; researchers may get negative comments because the
participants dislike the interviewer and purposefully intend to skew the results. In either case,
getting biased information prevents achieving an appropriate understanding of the issue being
researched. It is perhaps impossible to control all the factors that can lead to collecting biased
information; nevertheless, some things can be done to try to prevent this problem.
The interviews were conducted in a comfortable room to try to have a pleasant environment and
create a good rapport with the interviewee so that they could feel confident to freely express
their opinions; as suggested by Gill, Stewart, Treasure, & Chadwick (2008). Moreover, to try to
prevent the interviewee from eliciting responses the researcher expected, the interviews took
place in a room where the former and latter did not interact as teacher and student (Descombe,
2014). This was done to make interviewees feel they did not need to say what the researcher
wanted to hear. Furthermore, prior to the beginning of the interview, the researcher reminded
participants classes were over; therefore, any responses they elicited would not benefit or
negatively affect their class scores in any way. To contribute to the the previous, interviews were
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conducted when classes were finished, and students had already been given their final scores. In
spite of all the previous, it was possible that some participants and their responses were still
affected by the power relationships between the teacher/researcher and participants. It might
have been impossible to prevent it, the researcher was conscious of it. This was why attention
was paid to students’ responses during the data analysis process and findings from this
instrument were compared with those obtained from other instruments.
Another problem with interviews was that the use of audio or video recorders may inhibit
interviewees to freely express themselves. Speaking in front of a microphone or camera recorder
may be daunting for some people (Descombe, 2014). Gill, Stewart, Treasure, & Chadwick (2008)
suggest creating a comfortable environment to make students feel more confident. This strategy
was implemented by the researcher to try to prevent interviewees from feeling shy in front of the
camera. The video camera was not placed directly in from of the interviewee to try to decrease
the fear this may cause. Moreover, the interviewer started the interview by asking random
questions about them, their plans, school, and the like. Afterwards, the interviewer began asking
easy questions so that the interviewee could feel confident to answer them; then, continued with
other questions that require more reflection and elaboration from them. All of this was done
having the interviewer listened attentively at all times to what the interviewees were saying,
having a neutral body language, nodding, smiling, looking interested, asking clarification questions
when necessary, avoiding interruptions, and letting students express themselves as suggested by
Gill, Stewart, Treasure, & Chadwick, (2008).
3.7.3 Learner diary
This instrument was created to be used as a classroom activity; however, because relevant
information was gathered with it, it was decided to use it as a data collection instrument for the
investigation. Lewis, Sligo, & Massey (2005) affirm that diaries contribute towards collecting data
that would have been impossible to collect through other means. They add that data diaries allow
the researcher to obtain a more comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon under
investigation. Diaries have been used for different purposes such as to provide suggestions to
overcome difficulties, to give feedback, to increase learners interest, to find out about learners’
feelings, to explore how different factors affect learning, to encourage self-assessment, to gather
information about what learners do; especially outside the class, to know their points of view
about their learning, and to explore how the activities and tasks done in class contribute to
success and learning (Helm, 2009; Howell-Richardson & Parkinson, 1988). In addition, Jacelon &
Imperio (2005) and Allison (1998) explain that asking students to write a diary is useful to have
students reflect about daily activities done in class, especially about the ones they consider
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important, and to have them talk about topics of interest for the researcher, to have them
express their opinions about events that took place in class, to learn about participants’ attitudes
and values.
Learner diaries were used as a data collection instrument because they had gathered data about
issues students considered relevant but were not considered by the researcher (Lewis, Sligo, &
Massey, 2005). In their diaries, participants addressed unexpected topics about the intervention
which required further investigation. During the interviews, participants were asked about these,
as suggested by Jacelon & Imperio (2005) to obtain richer data about such issues. Moreover,
diaries contributed to gather information about learners’ feelings, what they did, view about their
learning, the activities they did in class, and the practices they adopted (Helm, 2009 , Howell-
Richardson & Parkinson, 1988). Finally, they were used to have students reflect about their
learning practices, issues they considered relevant from the class and in relation to their learning
and have them express their opinions about any issues they believed were important (Imperio,
2005; Allison, 1998).
There are some problems with the use of learner diaries to collect data. According to Allison
(1998), participants sometimes do not know what to write about or do not have enough primary
data to discuss in their diaries. Another common problem is the unwillingness to write or comply
with the requirements of the diary (Lewis, Sligo, & Massey, 2005) or to write in their diary. In a
study conducted by Jacelon & Imperio (2005) in which participants were required to keep a diary;
students were more willing to write in their diaries than others. Some just made a list of activities
they had done in class while others asked questions and made comments to the researcher, few
actually reflected about the issues they were asked to. These issues were considered and
addressed in this study, what was done is discussed next.
The learner diary used in this investigation was simplified to motivate learners to write. There was
not a format learners had to use to write their entries. They could use any they wanted if it
included the information requested: their name, date, and the answers to the questions they
selected to answer or any other issues they wanted to address. To prevent not knowing what to
write about, learners were given some questions they could answer in their diaries (see appendix
B.1). These were checked by a colleague who knew the content of the class, the learners, the
competencies these were expected to develop, and the approach that was used to teach the
class. Providing guidance may prevent the researcher from collecting more natural,
uncontaminated raw data (Pearson-Evans, 2006). This is because subjects may focus on discussing
the issues they are given but do not address the ones they want. To prevent this, participants
were told they could answer any of the questions given or discuss any other issues they believed
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were relevant. Despite this, the researcher acknowledged that it was likely that learners included
opinions influenced by the researcher. Because it is almost impossible to prevent this, due to the
power relationships between the researcher and the participants, the former noted this down to
triangulate the data collected from the instruments used and try to obtain truthful information as
much as possible.
Writing in a diary was a practice participants were not used to doing. They had to learn how to do
it and get the habit of doing it regularly. To help them understand what diary writing was, they
were explained what they had to do, when, how many words, and how. To facilitate writing
regularly participants were asked to write a diary entry once a week. Asking them to do it more
often could negatively have affected the quality of the content they wrote because of the limited
amount of time they had due to the workload they had from all their classes. In addition, students
were given some time at the end of the last class each week to write in their diaries. If they did
not finish, they had two more days to do so and submit their entries. In addition, students were
informed that their entries were not going to be marked or corrected as suggested by Howell-
Richardson & Parkinson (1988). Diaries were read without being judgmental about what they
wrote or made any type of corrections. Some questions were asked based on what learners wrote
and comments were made to encourage them to keep writing. In addition, participants were told
they could write in Spanish (their mother tongue) or English, whichever language they felt most
comfortable to write their entries.
Writing diary entries was a class activity done regularly by all the students from the class, not only
by the participants of the study. It was worth a small percentage of the final score because the
school required that any practice learners did continuously had to be part of the assessment
criteria. Learner diaries was a pedagogical tool the teacher introduced because he wanted
students to reflect about their learning. However, because he noticed that relevant data was
being gathered through the entries students wrote, he decided to use it as a data collection
instrument. All the students registered in the class submitted their entries weekly; however, only
the information obtained from those who had agreed to participate in the study was used in this
investigation.
3.7.4 Researcher diary
A researcher diary was employed to collect data from the researcher’s perspective and record
how the treatment unfolded. The information obtained used only when it was necessary to
complement the findings that emerged from the other instruments. Data collected from this one
was not included in the data analysis if it was not needed. This instrument is employed in different
areas such as education, nursing, psychology, sociology, health care and marketing (Toms & Duff,
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2002; Platzer, Snelling, and Blake 1997). In research, diaries have been a useful tool to write down
observations researchers make as their investigations are in progress (Altrichter & Holly, 2005).
Altrichter & Holly, (2005) and Newbury (2001) explain that some of the issues that could be
included in diaries are: thoughts and reflections, comments, summaries, notes on methodology,
observations, problems, issues, questions, plans of action, and keywords. The researcher diary
was employed to write down comments, reflections, observations, problems, and suggestions the
researcher wrote as the intervention took place.
Diaries can include different types of information, can help to reach different objectives, and can
take different forms (Toms & Duff, 2002). The type of data included in a diary can be as varied as
the types of diaries there are (Lewis, Sligo, & Massey, 2005). This feature of this instrument makes
it suitable for this research because it helps to record different types of information that may
results when the process model is introduced; problems that arise, effects, and any interesting
and useful outcomes that can be explored further during the interviews. Altrichter & Holly (2005)
and Newbury (2001) argue that research diaries have a twofold purpose: an instrument to record
information to help memory and a process that can create new perspectives and make new
connections. These researchers explain that diaries enable the researcher to write down what
goes on in their minds as the investigation while one is collecting information and when the
analysis stage begins. The diary the researcher used had this doble purpose. It not only included
reflections, ideas, and thoughts in regard to what was observed, but also recorded what
happened and the changes and improvements to be made according to what was observed, so
that the next time the intervention was implemented better results could be obtained (Burns,
2010).
3.7.5 Research process summary
Week
Research actions
1
The purpose of the study, length, and implications were explained to learners. Then,
they were asked if they wanted to participate. Those who accepted were given the
consent forms, were asked to read them and sign them if they agreed to participate in
the investigation. The intervention began by introducing aspects of the first level of
implementation: awareness raising.
2
The intervention continued by implementing more aspects of the first level; raising
awareness, and some from the second level, planning learning (see appendix A1).
3
The intervention continued with the implementation of some more aspects from the
second level and adding some from the third: monitoring of learning (see appendix
A1). Participants were also involved in some of the decisions made regarding their and
the assessment of their learning (see appendix A1).
Learners were explained what a learner diary was, how to write their entries, when it
had to be submitted and how. Learners were asked to write the first entry in their
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diary answering any questions they wanted from the list given or discussing any other
issues they considered relevant.
4
Participants monitored their learning by reporting to the teacher what they had to and
were going to do to complete with tasks and assignments given and looking at the
course outline to be aware of the topics to be learnt each week.
Learners were asked to self-assess their work when they submitted some of their
assignments.
A diary entry was submitted.
5
Learners were asked to self-assess their work using the rubrics given before they
submitted their assignments.
A diary entry was submitted.
Exams’
week
Participants were given some questions to help them reflect about their learning (see
appendix A1) and raise awareness about it.
6
Students were involved in more decisions made regarding their learning as planned for
the second term, including the assessment of their learning (see appendix A1).
A diary entry was submitted.
7
Participants were asked to monitor their learning as planned for the second term using
the work plan and course outline (see appendix A1).
A diary entry was submitted.
8
Participants continued monitoring their learning using the tools they preferred.
Learners were asked to self-assess their work when they submitted some of their
assignments.
A diary entry was submitted.
9
Learners were asked to self-assess their work using the rubrics given before they
submitted their assignments.
A diary entry was submitted.
Exams’
week
Participants were given some questions to help them reflect about their learning (see
appendix A1) and increase learners’ awareness about it.
10
Learners were involved in most of the decisions made regarding their learning as
planned for the third term, including the assessment of their learning (see appendix
A1).
A diary entry was submitted.
Learners were explained what self-study guides were, what they included, and how
they could use them to organize their learning.
11
Participants monitored their learning using the tools they preferred (see appendix A1).
They were asked to report on their learning progress.
Learners were asked to self-assess their work using the rubrics given before they
submitted self-study guides.
A diary entry was submitted.
12
Participants continued monitoring their learning (see appendix A1).
Learners were asked to self-assess their work using the rubrics given before they
submitted self-study guides.
A diary entry was submitted.
13
Learners were asked to self-assess their work using the rubrics given before they
submitted self-study guides.
A diary entry was submitted.
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Exams’
week
Participants were given some questions to help them reflect about their learning (see
appendix A1).
A diary entry was submitted.
Participants were sent the questionnaire at the beginning of the week and were given
a few days to answer it.
Learners sent back the questionnaire already answered. The researcher saved the
responses from participants in the folder created for it.
Participants’ responses from the questionnaire were analyzed to identify any issues
that need be asked about or elaborate during the interviews.
Arrangements were made with participants to set up meetings to conduct interviews
the following week.
Interviews were conducted throughout the week according to participants’ time
availability.
Table 2: Research process summary
Awareness statement by the researcher
This investigation was conducted in one of the classes the researcher taught; therefore, the
researcher played two roles: as a researcher and as a teacher. This had some implications that
need to be addressed considering the nature of the investigation. First, the purpose of the
intervention was to develop learner autonomy, which involves students making their own
decisions, as well as be independent and responsible for their learning. However, this is often
confused with learners being obedient to what the teacher instructs them. For instance, students
may be asked to complete a task and are provided with the content to be learnt, the materials,
the instructions for the task. If students complied with everything they were asked to do, some
might consider this autonomous learning; however, it is not. Although students do not learn
directly from the teacher, they are not fully autonomous because the teacher established what
they were going to learn, how, when, which materials they were going to use, and likely the pace
they were going to learn at. This is not autonomous learning because the teacher controls many
aspects; however, it could be considered a first step to reach such goal if students control some
aspects of their learning (Cotterall, 2000). On the other hand, this situation could be seen as
students being obedient. It is possible to confuse obedient learners with autonomous learners. It
was essential in this investigation to differentiate the former from the latter to identify actual
autonomous learning behaviours performed by participants to have evidence that this approach
was promoted among them.
Another implication that has to be addressed is the power relationships between the participants
and the researcher in this investigation. Because the researcher was also the teacher it was
possible that the subjects felt drawn to provide the responses the researcher expected because
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he was someone they respected and did not want to contradict. Participants had previously learnt
with teacher-centered methods; therefore, they considered the teacher an authority figure to be
obeyed and agreed with at all times. Therefore, when asked their opinions about any aspect of
the intervention students could have felt compelled to say it was appropriate. However, this
would have skewed the results of this investigation significantly and it would have made it
impossible to get a thorough understanding of what was studied. To try to prevent this, the
researcher informed participants that the information they provided was confidential and was
only going to be used in this research. Second, subjects were clearly explained that their
responses did not affect in any way their class performance, scores, or test results; the opinions
they expressed would not decrease or increase such scores. It was hoped that this would
contribute make subjects feel confident to truly say what they thought about whichever issues
they were asked.
Finally, any contact the researcher has with participants related to the investigation was done in
an area where he and students did not usually interact. A neutral area was used; where the
students did not feel like they were talking to their teacher and the power relationships
decreased, to try to have participants freely express what they really thought about the issues
they were asked. The researcher was aware that in spite of these actions it was not possible to
fully remove the teacher’s influence on participants. However, this was kept in mind during the
data analysis to try to use truthful information during this process.
Data collection process
Data collection happened during the Fall semester 2016. The intervention was conducted for one
semester because that was how long teachers taught a class at the school where the investigation
happened. Because of this, it was not possible to extend the treatment more than that. Data was
gathered during the intervention through learners and researcher’s diaries, the questionnaire and
the interviews were used at the end of it. The description of the data collection process is
presented next.
3.9.1 Learner diaries
Learners wrote their diary entries at the end of each week starting on the third one. They were
allowed to submit them either handwritten in a notebook, typed in a piece of paper, or in an
electronic document. When they did not finish writing their entries during class time, they were
allowed to finish them over the weekend and submit them on Monday. The entries of those who
did not accept to participate in the study were separated from the ones of the learners who
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signed the research consent form. Participants selected the questions they wanted to answer, or
the topic related to their learning they wanted to discuss each week. Entries were written in
English. Because this was not learners’ first language, slips of the tongue, mistakes, and other
errors can be found in their responses. The entries received were recorded in a Word document
named according to the number of entry. A different document was created each week to
compile the entries submitted. This document included the number of entry, date, and
participants’ entries; each one with the author’s fake name. Twelve documents like this were
created, each one included the entries submitted each week. Each document was saved in a
folder created to store the data collected from diaries. This folder was kept in the researcher’s
personal laptop nobody had access to because only the researcher knew its password. All the data
collected was safely stored and used only for research purposes.
After entries were submitted the researcher read them then replied with some comments or
questions related to the responses students had made. 12 entries were submitted through the
intervention and most participants submitted most of the entries. A longitudinal examination of
this data was not conducted because learner diaries were originally not created as a data
collection instrument but as a pedagogical tool the teacher implemented in the class to have
students reflect about their learning. However, because the students’ responses generated useful
information, it became a data collection instrument. Rather than analyzing the outcomes of the
diary, the researcher was interested in retrieving any information that contributed to answer
some of the research questions. Second, because students were free to decide the questions they
answered or issues they addressed, there was a great variety of data obtained. Learners did not
address the same issue each week. Some discussed a different topic weekly, and some answered
the same question more than once. Nevertheless, the results present information submitted
along the intervention.
3.9.2 Researcher diary
The format used for the researcher diary was simple. A Word document with basic required
information: date, term, purpose of the session, and a section to write notes (see appendix B.4).
This was done to facilitate writing his observations. Some questions were included, which the
researcher answered depending on what happened in the classroom. If it was possible some
questions were answered; however, the researcher was free to write about any other issues he
observed and considered relevant in the intervention, learners, strategies used, methodology,
outcomes, learner behavior, learning practices, support given to learners, etc. The main purpose
of this instrument was to collect information the researcher could use to analyze the intervention
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and the fostering of autonomous learning to make changes and improve these the next time they
were implemented.
3.9.3 Questionnaire
The questionnaire (see appendix B.2) was administered at the end of the intervention. Its
questions gathered participants’ opinions regarding the intervention, the learning approach, the
decisions they made, and whether they believed they became more autonomous in their learning.
This instrument was sent to all the students taking the class via email. They sent the questionnaire
back a few days later including their answers through the same means. The researcher only used
the responses of those who accepted to participate in the study. That was the reason why
participants were required to write their names on the questionnaires; to separate the responses
of those who signed the consent forms from those who did not. Only the information obtained
from the former was used in this investigation. Their information collected was saved in a Word
document using participants’ alias. This document was saved in a folder in the researcher’s
laptop, which nobody had access to.
3.9.4 Semi-structured interviews
The interviews were conducted at the end of the intervention; after participants´ responses from
the questionnaire had been collected and analyzed. This was done to identify issues that needed
to be explored further during the interviews. Eight participants were interviewed. Interviewees
were selected based on their time availability and acceptance to participate in the interviews.
Some participants refused to be interviewed because they did did not want, while others
informed the researcher they were very busy with final projects, and they had no time to be
interviewed. The interviews were conducted individually at a time that was convenient for the
participants. Each interview lasted between 25 to 20 minutes. At the beginning of the interviews,
participants were asked in what language they preferred to be interviewed; Spanish or English.
Some felt confident to do it in English, whereas others chose to do it in Spanish. They were told
they could answer the questions in whichever language they preferred. The researcher employed
a semi-structured interview (see appendix B.3).
The questions included in the interview inquired about issues found in the responses obtained in
the questionnaire, to expand or confirm findings from this instrument, and other topics that
needed to be explored to collect data to answer the research questions. Twelve questions were
included in the interview; however, not all of them were asked if the participants had responded
them without being asked. However, if participants partially answered them, they were
questioned to expand on the information provided. Some of the questions had sub-questions. The
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latter was created to follow up on what learners had said. They were asked only if needed, but
not all of them were used during the interview. Moreover, if unexpected but relevant issues
emerged during the interview, the researcher asked more questions about them to get an insight
into these (Descombe, 2014; Gill, Stewart, Treasure, & Chadwick, 2008). At the end of the
interview, the interviewer asked participants if there were any other topics they wanted to talk
about in case there were issues they wanted to address. After interviews were conducted, they
ware transcribed in a Word document named with the alias of the participant and saved in a file
created for the information collected with this instrument. This information was kept in the
researcher’s personal computer so that nobody could access it.
Data set
Duration/length
Word count
Questionnaire
The word count of the
responses from each
questionnaire ranged from 440
to 710.
The word count of all the
responses together was 8431
words.
Interviews
Each Interview lasted between
7 and 9 minutes
The word count of each
interview ranged from 1800 to
3200 words. The word count of
the transcription of all the
interviews was 26,436.
Learner diary
Each student entry was
between 300 and 450 words
The word count for all the
entries submitted is 26,880.
Table 3: Summary of data sets
Data analysis methods
Data analysis is complex (Pope, Ziebland, & Mays, 2000) because it requires a cognitive effort and
attention to get a deep understanding of the topic being researched to be able to continually
refine the interpretations made of the data collected; it is rigorous, intense, and long (Basit,
2003). In addition, the selection of the appropriate approach may be troublesome for the
researcher (Grbich, 2012) because several can be employed (Elo & Kyngäs, 2008). Braun & Clarke
(2006) explain that the selection of the data analysis method depends on the size of the project,
the amount of time the researcher has, the inclination and the expertise of the researcher. Two
data analysis approaches were selected for this research. They are discussed next.
3.10.1 Data analysis methods used
Coding and thematic analysis were used to analyse the data collected. A description of these
methods is included. In addition, an explanation regarding what was used from each one of the
previous, as well as why they were combined is provided next.
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3.10.1.1 Coding
Coding is an independent analytical strategy (Miles, Huberman, & Saldaña, 2014) which helps to
organize and make sense of the data collected (Basit, 2003), and allows the researcher to create
categories prior to the data analysis or as such process is in progress (Pope, Ziebland, & Mays,
2000). Coding was employed in this study because it was unknown what information students
were going to provide. Another reason to select this method was because it includes a clear
process to follow. Its steps to code data are: transcribing interviews and typing handwritten
documents, sorting and organizing data, reading through all data, coding the data by hand or
computer, finding themes, interrelating themes, and interpreting the meaning of themes
(Creswell, 2013). These steps were useful because the researcher was novice in analysing large
quantities of data and considered that this method thoroughly explained what had to be done.
Once codes were created, thematic analysis was used identify themes and conduct the rest of the
data analysis.
3.10.1.2 Thematic analysis
Thematic analysis was used because it is suitable to answer questions that inquire people’s
experiences, views, and perceptions (Caulfield, 2019), to find commonalities and differences,
make sense of the previous, and generate unexpected insights (Braun & Clarke, 2012). It does not
involve theoretical and technological knowledge of other approaches, and it is more accessible;
especially, to researchers with little experience in research (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Thematic
analysis has been used in education (Caulfield, 2019), but can be adapted to the needs of the
investigation to answer questions that involve getting an insight of people’s experiences and
opinions (Braun & Clarke, 2012). It is appropriate for researchers at the early part of their careers,
which is the case of the author of this study.
Thematic analysis uses a six-phase framework to analyse data (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Next each
step is named and described.
1. Become familiar with the data. In this phase the data collected has to be read several
times in order to know it very well and become immersed in the content.
2. Generate initial codes. Here codes that represent relevant aspects of the data are
created. These might be used to answer the research questions. Coding can be done
inductively or deductively. The former means that the codes and themes emerge from the
data collected. As a result, if a thematic map is created it is very close to the content. On
the other hand, a deductive approach is top down. This means codes are created
according to the concepts the research had already selected. The codes and themes
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emerge from the concepts chosen; therefore, when they are mapped, they are connected
to the data.
3. Search for themes. A theme “captures something important about the data in relation to
the research question and represents some level of patterned response or meaning within
the data set” (Braun & Clarke, 2006, p. 82). In this phase the codes created are reviewed
to find codes that are similar and that overlap. Themes are created by grouping codes
that have something in common. As a result themes describe a relevant pattern found in
the data. In addition, during this phase the connection between themes begins to be
established to decide which may go together. This step ends with the creating of thematic
map that includes the possible themes to be used.
4. Review themes. During this phase created themes are reviewed, modify, developed,
refined, and compared to the dataset. Themes can be divided, combined or deleted if
necessary, to have a set of themes that answer the research question. A thematic map
can be created to ensure the most relevant aspects of the data are included in the
themes.
5. Define themes. This is the last time themes are refined. A complete analysis of each
theme is done to determine what is unique about each and what their essence is. It is also
established here if sub themes are needed and if they are connected with each other. The
names of the themes are selected as well. Furthermore, extracts from the data are
selected to provide examples and illustrate the points that are being made.
6. Write up. This requires the connection of the analytic narrative and extracts from the
date, as well as linking the previous with existing literature. The purpose here is to create
a story that accurately represents the data obtained, based on the analysis conducted.
The story needs to be clear, but complex, as well as argumentative to answer the research
question.
In conclusion, thematic analysis was selected because it matched the characteristics of the
research. It is used in qualitative research, it is flexible, and it seeks to obtain the views,
experiences, and perceptions of participants. Second, it provides a step-by-step description of the
process to follow to analyse the themes. It does the previous more clearly that coding does, this is
why the researcher decided to use this method during the second part of the analysis of data.
Consequently, the last three phases from thematic analysis were employed to analyse the data:
review themes, define themes, and write up.
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Data analysis process
The analysis of data began by following the coding scheme by Creswell (2013). Interviews were
transcribed verbatim; because of this and the fact that English was not participants’ mother
tongue, some mistakes can be found in the transcripts. It was decided not to correct them to keep
responses intact. The comments participants made in Spanish were translated to English by the
researcher. Diaries had been submitted through email in electronic documents so there was no
need for transcription. Data collected from the questionnaire was compiled in one document. The
answers to each question from this instrument were placed together, along with the fake names
of the participants who elicited such responses. The same was done with the answers from the
interviews. Next, all the information was read to notice similarities and differences, which is
essential in data analysis (Khandkar, 2009). Data from each instrument was organized and kept
separated during this phase.
In Vivo coding, also known as literal or inductive coding (Saldaña, 2013), was used to code all the
data. This method was selected because it is appropriate for qualitative research. It is especially
adequate for studies in which the voice of the participants is prioritized, it is commonly employed
by beginning qualitative researchers (Saldaña, 2013), and it is used in action and practitioner
research (Coghlan & Brannick, 2010). These characteristics are found in this study. Although there
were specific questions to be answered, the codes emerged from the content of the data
(Caulfield, 2019) rather than from existing concepts to answer such questions. Nvivo 12 was used
to facilitate the organization of data and creation of codes. It helped to develop codes, to classify
them, to have different layers, as well as to arrange all the data that was used for each specific
code. Some screenshots are included below to show how the information was organized. It is
important to explain that they are not screenshots of the version of the software that was used
during the data analysis. This is because the researcher employed Nvivo 12 when the data was
analysed; however, when he tried to get screenshots using such version of the software, he
realized his license had expired and was unable to have access to his project. He bought a new
license but was informed that Nvivo 12 was no longer available, he was told he could download
the latest version of Nvivo and attempt to recover the project he had created. He did as
instructed, but it was not possible to retrieve the information using the new version of Nvivo.
Consequently, he lost the project and all the information he had analysed. To get the screenshots
he was requested, he used the latest Nvivo version. The data was fed to the software, organized,
and the codes were created as he had done before. The data analysis was done again to get
screenshots of how the software was used through this process. This is the reason why everything
that appears in the screenshots is from the current Nvivo version.
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First a new project was created in Nvivo and all the data collected from each instrument was
imported to the software to use it. There were three files because the data from each instrument
was analysed separately.
Figure 1: NVivo Project
The data collected from each instrument was reviewed to create the codes. Once a code was
created, all the responses that belonged to such code were placed there, using the fake names
participants had been previously assigned. When a new code emerged, any comment related to it
were added there. This process was followed to code all the data from each instrument. The
following screenshot shows the responses to the first question of the questionnaire and the codes
that emerged from them. These were: good opinions about making decisions, negative opinions
decision making, and good but difficult at first.
Figure 2: Sample codes
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The screenshot below shows how the responses that belonged to the same code, from the first
question of the questionnaire, were grouped and placed under the code they belonged, negative
opinions decision making, along with their authors (using fake names). These quotes from
participants were employed to support the findings presented in the results chapter. The same
process was done with all the data from the three instruments.
Figure 3: Quotes from participants
Once all the data from each instrument was coded, it was shown to a colleague who was familiar
with the research to review the codes. Some changes were made after considering the feedback
the researcher was given about the codes. The screenshots below present the codes that resulted
from the questionnaire. There were 22. These were organized in six different groups. The first
group was reflecting and included two codes: reflection a new practice, and reflection helped to
assess learning practices. The second was raising awareness, it had four codes: what autonomous
learning is, strengths and weaknesses of learners, awareness of themselves as learners, and the
consequences of the decisions made. Opinions about autonomous learning was the third group.
There were four codes here: students become more autonomous, positive opinions about,
negative opinions, and learners had control of their learning. Monitoring learning was the fourth.
It included two codes: raise awareness about learning and instruments that helped monitoring.
The fifth group was making own decisions. It had seven codes: training needed, raise awareness,
positive opinions about making decisions, no training needed, making decisions leads to foster
autonomous learning, increase learner involvement, and difficult. The last group was factors that
helped to foster autonomous learning. Three codes belonged here: voluntary attendance to
tutorials, support given, and pair and teamwork.
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Figure 4: Codes from questionnaire A
Figure 5: Codes from questionnaire B
The next screenshots display the codes that resulted from the interviews. 27 codes were found in
this instrument and were placed in five groups. The first group was autonomous learning which
had five codes: positive opinions about autonomous learning, continue learning with this
approach, having control of learning, students selected how to learn, and working at their own
pace. The second was the introduction of autonomous learning. Five codes made up this group:
positive opinions course outline, feedback, the teacher, the work plan. The next group was
whether students became more autonomous and had three codes: looked for more information,
more independent in their learning, and students made decisions about their learning. The fourth
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was awareness raising, it included eight codes: became better at making decisions, benefits of
pair work, decisions and their implications, how students learn, reflection a new practice,
personal attributes, tasks students were good at doing, poor time management, procrastination,
and what helped learning. The last group was making decisions, there were six codes here: afraid
to make wrong decisions, difficult at the beginning, students became better at making decisions,
knowing themselves, practice, and making decisions.
Figure 6: Codes from interviews A
Figure 7: Codes from interviews B
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The last screenshots show the codes that derived from learners’ diaries. 21 codes emerged from
this instrument. These were organized in five groups. Views of participants about making
decisions was the first and included three codes: learner involvement increases, increase learner
independence, and improving learning. The second group was self-study guides. This had seven
codes: work at their own pace, improve learning, freedom to learn, foster autonomous learning,
procrastination, lack of feedback, and for students who were already autonomous. The third
group was comments about decisions. This had four codes: good decisions, percentages and
decisions, good work and decisions made, and bad decisions. The fourth was changes made to
adapt to autonomous learning. There were five codes in this group: work harder, look for more
information, improve time management, attend tutorials, and ask questions. The last group was
changes in learning practices and it included two codes: time management and effort.
Figure 8: Codes from the diaries of learners A
Figure 9: Codes from the diaries of learners B
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The next step was to find themes. An inductive approach, the development of themes based on
the content of the data (Caulfield, 2019), was employed. All the codes were considered to
generate themes, whether these could be used to answer the research questions or not. The
thematic analysis framework created by Braun & Clarke (2006) was used from this point on to do
the rest of the data analysis. This is discussed at the beginning of the next chapter.
Overview
The objective of this investigation was to explore the impact the intervention had on the fostering
of autonomous learning among the participants of the study. To achieve the previous, two
research questions were created. The first one looked for evidence that showed how the
intervention promoted this approach to learning, whereas the second one inquired the views of
participants about learning autonomously. To answer these, qualitative research was done and
action research was implemented. Three instruments were chosen to gather data: learner diaries,
questionnaire, and semi-structured interview, because they were suitable to collect participants’
views, experiences, and perceptions about the treatment, autonomous learning, and the
introduction of this approach. The methods employed to analyse data were presented, the
rationale for using them was provided, as well as what from each method was employed in this
process. The data analysis process was described to show how both methods were used.
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Chapter 4 Results
Introduction
This chapter presents the results obtained from the three data collection instruments employed.
First, it explains how the themes from each instrument emerged. Then, the researcher describes
how such themes were compared and interrelated across instruments to obtain the main themes.
After that, the results from each instrument are presented. Verbatim quotes from participants are
included. Because participants were not English native speakers, some mistakes are found in the
quotes included. In addition, any comments elicited in Spanish were translated into English by the
researcher.
Generation of themes
The themes were obtained by following the thematic analysis framework by Braun & Clarke
(2006). According to these researchers, a theme “captures something important about the data in
relation to the research question and represents some level of patterned response or meaning
within the data set (p. 82).” The codes found were reviewed to find those that were similar or
overlapped. Those that had something in common were grouped to create themes in each
instrument. Themes described a relevant pattern found in the data. The inductive approach used
(Caulfield, 2019) resulted in the generation of themes per instrument, whether they contributed
to answer the research questions or not. All the codes found were included in the Results
Chapter. This was done to get and present a complete picture of all the findings obtained.
However, those that contributed to answer the research questions were selected and used in the
next chapter to answer the research questions. The researcher considered it was more
appropriate to have all the findings available to then remove those that were not needed, than to
lack or not have enough to answer the research questions because some were discarded earlier. A
thematic table was created for each instrument to see which codes were grouped to create the
themes in each instrument. They are presented next.
Codes found
Themes created
• A new practice
• Reflection helped to assess learning
practices
Reflection
• What autonomous learning is
Raising awareness
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• Strengths and weaknesses of learners
• Awareness of themselves as learners
• The consequences of the decisions made
• Students become more autonomous
• Positive opinions
• Negative opinion
• Learners had control of their learning
• Voluntary attendance to tutorials
• Support given
• Pair and teamwork
Opinions about autonomous learning
and factors that contributed to foster it
• Raise awareness about learning practices
• Instruments that helped monitoring
Monitoring learning
• Training needed
• Raise awareness
• Positive opinions
• No training needed
• Leads to foster autonomous learning
• Increases learner involvement
• Difficult
Asking learners to make decisions
Table 4: Questionnaire thematic table
Codes found
Themes created
• Positive opinions about autonomous
learning
• Continue learning with this approach
• Have control of learning
• Students selected how to learn
• Learners work at their own pace
• Positive opinions about the introduction
• Course outline
• Feedback
• The teacher
• The work plan
Autonomous learning and its
introduction
• Looking for more information
• Students more independent in their
learning
• Students made decisions about their
learning
Whether students became more
autonomous
• Became better at making decisions
• Benefits of pair work
• Decisions and their implications
• How students learnt
Awareness raising
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• Reflection a new practice
• Personal attributes
• Tasks they were good at doing
• Poor time management
• Procrastination
• What helped learning
• Afraid to make wrong decisions
• Difficult at the beginning
• Students became better at it
• Knowing themselves
• Practice
• Making decisions
Asking students to make their own
decisions
Table 5: Interviews thematic table
Codes found
Themes created
• Learner involvement increases
• Increase learner independence
• Improved learning
• Good decisions
• Percentages and decisions
• Good work and decisions made
• Bad decisions
Views about making decisions and
comments about these
• Work at their own pace
• Learning is enhanced
• Freedom to learn
• Foster autonomous learning
• Procrastination
• Lack of feedback
• For students who were already
autonomous
Self-study guides
• Work harder
• Look for more information
• Improve time management
• Attend tutorials
• Ask questions
• Time management
• Effort
Changes learners made
Table 6: Diaries of learners thematic table
Once the themes from each instrument had been established, thematic maps were created to see
more clearly which themes had emerged from each instrument. These maps facilitated the
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comparison and analysis of the themes found in the three instruments. This was done to find
correlations, and to discover themes common in all instruments.
Figure 10: Questionnaire thematic map
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Figure 11: Interviews thematic map
Figure 12: Diaries of learners thematic map
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The analysis conducted to the themes found in the three instruments resulted in the
establishment of the main themes of the investigation, these were: autonomous learning, making
decisions, and awareness raising. They were found in at least two of the three the instruments.
Slightly different issues related to these themes were addressed in each instrument, although in
some cases they discussed the same ones. The next step was to refine the themes and the data
that belonged to them were analysed to establish what aspects of the data the themes included
(Braun & Clarke, 2006). Furthermore, it was determined how the broad themes contributed to
answer the research questions of the study and whether any sub-themes were needed to do so.
Extracts from the data that belonged to these themes were included in the results to provide
examples of participants’ comments. These themes were included in the discussions chapter, as
well as the answers to the research questions. The following are the findings obtained from each
instrument.
Learner Diaries
This instrument collected data during the intervention as participants submitted their diary
entries each week. Verbatim comments from participants were included. Because they were not
English native speakers, some mistakes are found in the quotes. The following are the results that
emerged from learners’ diaries.
4.2.1 Changes learners considered to make at the beginning of the intervention
The entries some learners submitted during the first term showed that they realized they needed
to modify their learning practices to be able to adapt to autonomous learning. They noticed that
what they were used to doing to learn was not as useful in this approach. This is a feature of a
change being introduced, learners move from the known to the unknown (Clarke, 1994). Some
learners said they had to put more effort in the work they did and their learning endeavours in
general after they had experienced learning with this approach for a few weeks. They had
previously learnt with teacher-centred methods and were used to being passive in their learning
and be told what to do. However, this approach required them to be more active. Others expressed
they needed to use other learning strategies to use time more efficiently. Moreover, several
participants mentioned they had to organize their time better to have more opportunities to get
assistance and finish work on time. They seemed to have discovered the relevance of completing
work on time to be able to receive some type of support that could enhance their work. These
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findings show that awareness began to be raised about the changes learners needed to make to
adapt to autonomous learning.
“Something that I would change for the next term is making more effort while doing my reflection paper
(Sonia).”
“I think I would change the fact that I underestimated the actual class and how much effort really goes
into it (Paola).”
“I would be smarter on my reading so that it would not be so time-consuming, and understand everything
with my own words instead of trying to memorize it from the readings, that way it would be easier to
explain and get familiar with it (Daniel).”
“Also, I would change my time organization, because if I plan my activities during the week I will have
more opportunities to receive feedback and improve my performance (Daniela).”
“I am not good at organizing my times. I think if want to succeed in this course, I need to organize my
times in order to complete all my tasks properly (Mia).”
“I want to change my way of organize my time and go to bed earlier and do my homework at time
(Andres).”
4.2.2 Changes students made to adapt to autonomous learning
During the third term, participants wrote about the changes they made to adapt to the new way
of learning. Many said they had to be more active in their learning either by asking the teacher or
someone else the questions they had about the information they read, the topics they had to
learn, the instructions they were given, or the tasks they had to complete. They had to learn by
themselves, meaning in collaboration with classmates but without the assistance of the teacher. It
appeared that asking questions was not something they did commonly in their previous learning
experiences. Moreover, they realized it was necessary to look for more information about the
topics they were expected to learn. Even though they were provided with learning materials, they
decided to explore those issues some more to get a better understanding of them. Furthermore,
some learners conducted online research, while others decided to ask their classmates to help
them when they had questions about the content to be learnt. Sometimes they looked for
information in Spanish to remove the language barrier. Participants did not seem to have used
online materials too much to assist their learning probably because access to Internet was limited
because Wifi connection on campus was bad and access to the computer laboratory was
restricted.
“Asking the teacher the doubts that I have in each session (Mia).”
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“Make sure that I take more notes and ask any question that I have to understand much better
(Brenda).”
“I investigated on my own the things that I could not understand from the guides to have a better
perspective of the subject and to carry out my work (Gris).”
“I was looking up online more information about each approach or method that I saw in this term
(Blanca).”
“Sometimes I asked my classmates to complete and formulate my ideas or I remove me the doubts
about information that I did not understand (Claudia).”
Another change participants mentioned they had to make was to learn to manage their time
better. They reported this helped improved their performance in class because it prevented
procrastination, they had time to submit drafts to get feedback, they were able to work at their
own pace, and spend enough time on their tasks and assignments. In addition, learners put more
effort in the work they did to complete and submit all the graded assignments. Not only they
worked harder, but they also worked more because getting feedback on a task involved doing it in
advance to have time to get feedback and make corrections before the deadline. They declared
that to achieve the previous some of them paid more attention to the instructions they were
given and followed them closely to make sure they complied with all the requirements
established, as well as to manage their time better. These actions from learners show what Nunan
(1997) and Littlewood (1996) describe as autonomous learning; students being responsible of
conducting the actions that result from the decisions they made.
“I organized my time well to deliver the work on time which I had to deliver, I delivered the drafts to
see where I had made a mistake and to correct my mistakes (Mia).”
“As far as I remember, I certainly proud of me organizing the work I had to do and the dead line I
selected for each of them as I had plenty of time to work consciously on it (Jenny).”
“I want to add that I organized my time well and the effort I put into each task brought me good results
as my written task calcifications (scores) improved (Claudia).”
“I worked hard in my assignments and my study guides (Claudia).”
“I read carefully the study guides and reflection about each and every one, I concentrated on
completing the tasks and follow their correct structures (Mayra).”
4.2.3 Opinions about the decisions made at the beginning of the study
Learners’ opinions at the beginning of the study were not expressed about the practice of
making their own decisions but about how appropriate their choices had been regarding
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selecting the worth of graded assignments. The comments some learners made showed that
their opinions about these decisions depended on the scores that resulted from these
choices. If their scores were high, they considered these decisions correct. If they obtained
a low mark; because the assignments were difficult, done for the first time, or any other
reason, they considered such decisions as wrong. At this point, decision-making seemed to
have been used by learners more as a strategic selection to obtain good grades, rather than
an opportunity to personalize and take control of their learning as it was intended. This was
probably done because they were concerned more about getting high marks in the class
than becoming autonomous learners. Nevertheless, this perspective changed as the
intervention continued. Some participants also mentioned that some of their choices had
been incorrect because they had not been careful when they made decisions. This is one of
the factors that affect making informed choices (Chi, 2016).
“My right decisions were related with the percent for the lesson plan of the first term, in which I got a
good grade (Mayra).”
“My decisions that were good, they were the fact that I did really good job on the lesson plan which was
a plus (Gris).”
“I think that giving my reflection paper a very high percentage was my downfall, because I didn’t think
that it was going to be that hard but I was very wrong (Brenda).”
“My wrong decisions had to do with the percent assigned to the reflection paper. Really, I had not done
a work like this, so I didn’t know how to do it (Martha).”
“Wrong because sometimes I do things impulsively, when I have money, time or it’s something that I’d
always wanted (Liz).”
Some participants believed their decisions were correct during the first term, even though it
was the first time they had done this. The criteria to express such judgement appears to be
based on the effect making such choices had in them. This practice seemed to have
motivated some learners to make a greater effort and some changes in their work habits to
get the expected results. This is congruent with the comments have made Dörnyeri (2001)
and Littlejohn (2001) who assure that having students learn autonomously increases their
interest in their work. These results showed that learners used different criteria to
determine if their decisions were right or wrong.
“I think my decisions were right. I worked hard in the assignments and organized my time at best that I
could (Daniela).”
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“I believe the decisions I made in the first mid-term were right. Even though I was not used to the way
this course works, I tried to do my best in order to achieve a good score (Jenny).”
4.2.4 Outcomes from participating in the decisions made regarding learning
During the third term learners’ perspective about making decisions changed. They no longer talked
about specific decisions they made in their diaries, but about decision making as a practice that
enabled them to choose how to learn according to their preferences. Some of them expressed that
making their own decisions increased their engagement in their learning because they were able to
decide how they were going to learn. They were motivated to perform the actions that resulted
from their decisions, as Nunan (1997) affirms happens in autonomous learning and took ownership
of their learning. In addition, students mentioned that this practice made them more independent
in their learning because did not depend on the teacher to tell them how to learn. They selected
what they thought was best for them and through experience they discovered whether such
choices assisted their learning. Making their own decisions helped them learn from their mistakes
and discover their strengths and weaknesses as learners. The latter was relevant information that
they used to make informed choices (Marteau, Dormandy, & Michie, 2001) the following times they
made decisions about their learning. Although some may consider this as strategic selection to
obtain good grades, it is an essential element to make informed choices according to Chi (2016) and
Marteau, Dormandy, & Michie (2001).
“I think making our own decisions helps us to get involve in our learning process. Getting involved in our
learning process helps us to improve our performance in class and probably to gain independence (Mia).”
“Deciding on your own makes you want to do it, and not hate it while you’re doing it. To me at least it’s
crucial to make your own decisions because if you let some influence you, just keep in mind that you will
be stuck with that choice not the other person (Daniela).”
“It makes me more independent and like I said previously, learn from my own mistakes, but also get to
know myself better and realize what my strengths and weaknesses are (Liz).”
“Your actions and decisions even if they are right or wrong will teach you a lesson, maybe that you do
not have to do something again or that you probably need to do it something in a different way or better
(Rubi).”
“I do think that making your own decisions helps. I mean if someone tells me to do something or they
make up my mind for me, I won’t really learn anything because It’s something I don’t want to do (Gris).”
“I think that making my own decisions help my learning because I know which are my abilities and
disabilities. For example, I like that I can put my percentages for my grade because I know that I’m not
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good redacting and I can put a lower percentage for that type of assignment to get a better grade
(Claudia).”
4.2.5 Self-study guides
Self-study guides were introduced in the third term to have students learn some topics and
promote autonomous learning. The limitations of the context prevented to have participants
complete other tasks that required them to be more autonomous in their learning. For instance,
they could not do research because the library did not have enough books to get the information
they needed. Internet access was limited because Wi-Fi was not very good and access to the
computer lab was limited. They were not free to learn what they felt they needed because the
school required them to learn the content included in the syllabus. Furthermore, learning with
these guides was not optional, and their work was going to be assessed by the teacher.
Nevertheless, it gave them some control of their learning because participants could select when
to work, the order in which they completed the study guides, whether they worked individually or
with somebody else, the place and the pace they worked at, and whether they attended face-to-
face tutorials to ask questions about them. Giving learners some control of their learning
promotes autonomous learning, it is a step in the process of developing learner autonomy
(Thanasoulas, 2000). This was the objective of using self-study guides. Considering the limitations
of the context, it was a tool that could be used to promote autonomous learning. According to the
comments participants made, study guides did not make them autonomous, but contributed to
help them reach this goal. It seemed that working with these guides was relevant in participants’
learning experience because it was a topic they wrote about during the third term. The findings
related to this issue are presented next.
4.2.5.1 Positive aspects of self-study guides
Learners agreed that self-study guides overall assisted them to learn. They helped them to
understand the content expected to be learnt. Because the guides gave learners the opportunity
to work at their own pace, participants spent the amount of time they needed to do the activities
included in them to learn their content. They did not have to work at the same speed their
classmates did, nor did they have the pressure of doing so. Working at the own pace assisted
students in their learning and contributed to enjoy this process according to the comments of
participants.
“Also the study guides helped me to understand better the topics because of the questions we
answered (Sonia).”
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“I think it is useful for make the topic clear and if we use our own words to answer the questions it will
be harder to forget the topic and would be in our mind (Jenny).”
“I was able to work at my own pace and I was able to complete all the tasks and assignments I was
asked to (Sonia).”
“I enjoyed working with the study guides because I could read at my own rhythm at my house without
feeling stressed about having to understand something in a certain amount of time, like in a class when
a teacher asks me to read and to answer some questions that I need to deliver within the next hour
(Brenda).”
“I felt that I could have my own time to do them at home and the way that we received feedback of
each one of them (Andres).”
Participants also welcomed having freedom in their learning when working with self-study guides.
These were posted online at the beginning of the term so that students could download and work
with them whenever they wanted. Each guide helped them to learn one topic. When using study
guides participants could select the order in which the topics were learnt; whether they worked
individually, in pairs, in small teams, at school, or at home; how they completed them; and the
pace at which they worked. This freedom also helped to decreases stress and facilitated learning
according to the comments learners wrote.
“I think is cool because students have freedom to choose if going to school or not, we can work like we
want and at the time we want (Paola).”
“I felt freer and I didn’t feel as much stress like I usually have at the end of the terms, so yes, I think that
is a good strategy and I would like to keep doing this kind of activities (Mayra).”
“Felt with more liberty than other semesters and was a little bit easy to learn the topic because we had
a previous text that explain everything before the class tutorial (Blanca).”
Learning with self-study guides made them more independent and responsible of their learning.
Some students indicated that the previous happened because they controlled their learning. They
selected when they completed which guide, the pace they worked at, whether they did them
individually or in collaboration, and the order in which they did them. These learning materials
were introduced in the last term once learners had become more autonomous in their learning
because completing them required a fair amount of independent work. Participants seemed to
have appreciated not relying on the teacher to learn all the time. They also mentioned they
acknowledged that learning depended on them. This made them more responsible because
deciding how and when to learn motivated them to work. As stated by Littlewood (1996),
participants conducted the actions that resulted from their choices to reach their goals.
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“This method allows to me to become more independent and responsible to get my work done
(Carmen).”
“We can share information with our classmates and help each other (Martha).”
“I think that is a good way to encourage us to be independent and autonomous with our learning
(Claudia).”
“I also think that it is an excellent way to take responsibility of my work (Mijares).”
“I think is a great way of learning because it gives us the opportunity to be responsible of our learning
and we decide if we learn or not (Rubi).”
“I believe that in such a learning process we as students become more responsible of our study as well
as help us reason the way in which we must set a time for do whichever activity we must do (Gris).”
Self-study guides enabled learners to personalize their learning. They stated that they were able
to tailor their learning according to their preferences, time availability, and strengths. Therefore,
participants worked in more comfortable environment, with enough time to plan their learning,
using the strategies they considered helped their learning. Some participants seemed to have
applied what they had discovered about their strengths and preferences while working with self-
study guides, while others develop some skills more.
“By using the self-study guides, I could take notes on what I learned, making learning very personalized.
I would like to keep working this way because I can organize my tasks depending on the day that I could
do them (Daniel).”
“I found it quite interesting because I got more time to reflect things in a more peaceful environment,
completing self-study guides alone was way more easier than what I thought (Gris).”
“I consider that I learned to appropriately organize my time and deeply think of what I am going to do
with the work I have to deliver (Paola).”
The analysis conducted to participants’ diaries resulted in finding several positive aspects of the
self-study guides employed in the treatment. Nevertheless, they also mentioned several
disadvantages they found from working with these guides. These are discussed next.
4.2.5.2 Problems related to learning with self-study guides
Participants considered that self-study guides were suited for independent learners or those who
had already developed to some degree the skills needed to learn independently. They
acknowledged that someone who had not yet developed such abilities or preferred to learn with
teacher-centred methods would find it difficult learning with these materials. As it was explained
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in 4.2.5, this learning material was employed to give learners some control of their learning by
deciding when, how, where, the pace, and the order in which they completed them. Moreover,
learners had to be responsible of conducting the actions that resulted from these decisions to be
able to reach their learning goals, as it happens in autonomous learning (Littlewood, 1996).
Students completed the guides by working independently or with somebody else. Autonomous
learning is a process not a product (Thanasoulas, 2000), in this case self-study guides intended to
have students take another step in this process. Even though this learning materials were
employed when participants were supposed to have developed to some extent independent
learning skills, learning with them was still troublesome for some. This was probably why
participants said learning with self-study guides was suitable for independent learners. These
results support the notion that learner readiness is relevant when autonomous learning practices
are introduced (Chan, 2001, Nordlund, 2001).
“Another one can be if some students do not like to work independently, it could be hard and stressful
to do the tasks (Mijares).”
“If there are students that are not independent would be hard (Carmen).”
“Also, if we do not have experience being autonomy, we could complicate our-self the way that we
work and get more stress (Rubi).”
One of the biggest problems learners found from working with self-study guides was
procrastination. It was mentioned before that these learning materials gave them the opportunity
to plan their learning endeavours, work at their own pace, and do it in the environment they
preferred. However, participants mentioned that if they were not responsible enough, they might
not perform the actions that emerged from their decisions or do so at the last minute. This
resulted in poor quality in the work they did, plagiarism, or not learn what was expected. Some
learners experienced some of these consequences because they procrastinated and discussed
them in their learner diaries. This might have been because, even though they had experienced
autonomous learning for a few months, they still had not learnt to manage their time, or were not
disciplined and responsible enough to work continuously to reach their goals. They were not
ready to take some control of their learning (Yildirim, 2012). Participants acknowledged that the
previous were needed to work well with self-study guides. This indicates that before learners are
asked to learn on their own, it is necessary to help them develop their time management skills,
have them report constantly on their progress and to assist them during this process to prevent
procrastination.
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“Sometimes we are not responsible enough to carry out the self-study guides and we could
procrastinate a lot (Sonia).”
“Sometimes I didn’t give it enough importance to the study guides since I had more free time and I
wrongfully thought that I would have more time later on which wasn’t the case, so at the end I had to
do some study guides in a rush because I didn’t administrate my schedule correctly (Mia).”
“Students can easily get distracted with other things (Internet, social medias, pets), students become
lazy because nobody is asking them to study or look for the information and they do it at the end of the
death line (Paola).”
“Students work at the last minutes, hence causing sloppy and unorganized work (Andres).”
“Some students can copy the information from other students without even read about the topic
(Brenda).”
“I would say that is students procrastinating all the work they have until the last moment or just a few a
hours before the deadline, which means that they might not completely understand the topic that is to
be learnt and just deliver their work just to have a grade, thus they do not comprehend the topic and
the objective of students learning is not reached (Martha).”
Another problem learners reported was not having immediate assistance when they did not work
in the classroom. Participants were allowed to work outside or at home, and attendance to face-
to-face tutorials was not mandatory. Those who chose to the former did not have the opportunity
to get help when they were working. They had to contact the teacher through email, attend the
face-to-face sessions, or make an appointment to meet with him to get assistance. Not being able
to ask questions when they had them caused confusion of the content they were expected to
learn, prevented from learning it, or delayed their work until they were able to do so. In addition,
learners could not get feedback to have the opportunity to make corrections as soon as they
finished their tasks. These led to frustration and discouragement among learners, as well as not
fully learning what they were expected if misunderstandings had occurred in the content learnt.
Providing more guidance and assistance to learners when they worked by themselves could have
helped to answer any questions they had about the content or instructions, especially if they are
in the process of developing their autonomous learning skills. However, because many students
worked at home and only the researcher was able to assist students when he was not teaching it
was difficult to provide support to all of them when they had difficulties. Nowadays, video calls
and other tools can be used to assist learners more quickly.
“Another disadvantage is that if you have a doubt at the moment about any question and the
information is not enough you do not have the teacher to solve your doubts and another thing is that
you do not have the scaffolding on the part of the teacher (Jenny).”
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“If we have a doubt or do not understand certain topic or concept we could get discouraged and
frustrated because we do not have someone to explain us clearly (Gris).”
“They can’t get feedback from the teachers (Daniel).”
“Students can fall in a stressful mode because no one is helping them out (Mayra).”
“The cons were that sometimes I didn’t understand something of the reading or in the questions
(Paola).”
“Sometimes we can get stuck or lost in some works and not be enough able to continue by our own
(Carmen).”
“If we have a doubt or do not understand certain topic or concept we could get discouraged and
frustrated because we do not have someone to explain us clearly (Sonia).”
Questionnaire
The results that emerged from the questionnaire are presented here. Verbatim quotes from
learners are also included. Some mistakes are found in them because participants were not
English native speakers. This instrument was administered at the end of the intervention;
therefore, it includes learners’ views about autonomous learning and the different aspects of the
intervention.
4.3.1 Development of opinions about autonomous learning
Participants stated that at the beginning of the intervention they had negative opinions about
autonomous learning because they felt confused regarding the role they played. Even though
they had been informed the roles they and the teacher were going to play, as well as other
aspects about this approach to learning, some did not fully understand the information
presented. This caused them to be unsure about what autonomous learning required from them.
“At the beginning was confused (Brenda).”
“At first I admit I felt kind of lost (Jenny).”
“At first, it was chaos for me because I am not that organized and because of that I always had
problems with my times and remembering when to do such activities. Nowadays, thanks to this process
I have learned how to keep track and control of my own activities (Sonia).”
Nevertheless, learners also mentioned that as the intervention progressed, they adapted to
learning with this approach and their opinions changed. Eventually participants welcomed
autonomous learning. They experienced and acknowledged the benefits of learning with this
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approach. Moreover, they had positive opinions because they were able to choose how they were
going to work and were able to do so at a pace that was suitable for them. They also liked
selecting the type of assignments they preferred to complete, so they could perform better. They
acknowledged that they became more responsible of and independent in their learning. These are
aspects of autonomous learners (Lengkanawati, 2017; Bhattacharya and Chauhan, 2010; St. Louis,
2006).
“Work autonomously was a great experience because it help me to learn meaningfully. Also, I could do
my assignments concerning my decisions (number-time) and my own abilities (Claudia).”
“I think it was a good way to work autonomously because I had the freedom to choose how to work and
what to do the teacher only provided me with the information I was able to create my own learning on
the subject by doing the extra work I could put into practice my understanding on the subject (Mijares).”
“I think is really good to work independently, because you go in your own rhythm, you can get relax all
the term and at the final get busy with the whole work, or you work normally and at the final you enjoy
the rest of the classes, it depends totally on you (Daniel).”
“At the same time helped me to procrastinated less and be a bit more responsible and get things done
(Jenny).”
“It helped me to make more effort to myself to do the tasks without to have the teacher on my back and
it’s good because I am these kind of people that if you tell them what to do, they don’t want to do it
(Mayra).”
4.3.2 Learning in collaboration
Participants said that the support they received from classmates was essential to adapt to the
new learning practices. Pair and teamwork helped in this regard. Students stated that working
with others gave them the opportunity to work in collaboration, to give and receive feedback
from classmates, to know others’ ideas, and to make decisions together. Peer support, group
learning and collaboration were aspects of autonomous learning (Hu and Zhang, 2017; Nakai,
2016; Cabrera-Ruiz, 2009) participants reported experiencing.
“Because by working in a team, I could analyze other quietly good ideas and conclude it together
(Blanca).”
“I think that is good work in pairs or small teams, because together we can help us giving and receiving
feedback in a positive way, improving our attitudes towards the learning (Claudia).”
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4.3.3 Becoming autonomous learners
At the end of the study, almost all the participants agreed they had become more autonomous.
They affirmed this because they became more responsible of their learning (Zulaihah & Harida,
2017; Dam, 2011; Karababa, Eker, & Arik, 2010). They were less dependent on the teacher and
were able to select the learning activities they preferred. Others stated it was because they
gained awareness about the pace they worked well at, why they failed or were successful, and
what helped and did not in their learning. Participants’ claims that they became more
autonomous were supported with the activities they did without being instructed to do so. These
were watching videos, asking other students or the teacher to explain more or clarify topics they
were having difficulty understanding or get extra help when they needed it.
“Yes, now I take my own decisions related to my learning and I’m responsible of what I learnt and how I
do it (Andres).”
“Yeah, because now I know how long time takes me doing each task and I can decide what to do and
when to do it (Carmen).”
“Of course I did, I was not like this before, more responsible and aware of how I should do things and
now I know why I fail in other classes, because I know what I do right and wrong and of course now I
know that I am the responsible of my learning, no one else is, but me (Paola).”
“I do not depend more on the teacher, I do not have to wait for him to tell me what I have to do neither
when, and that is great because I am now more independent (Rubi).”
“I think I am more autonomous but I think I can improve more, so I need to work more on me, and take
more time in my work (Mia).”
“I did watch a lot of videos when I wasn’t clear about something (Jenny).”
“I was talking to students whom understand the topic, it was very useful because it expanded the
knowledge acquired in the class (Blanca).”
“I needed some extra help so I asked classmates and a teacher, so I could understand it completely
(Martha).”
4.3.4 Opinions regarding whether training was needed to make decisions
Participants were asked to progressively make decisions about their learning through the
intervention because it was a new practice for them. Despite this, some participants responded
that receiving training on how to make decisions could have been useful at the beginning of the
intervention because it was a new practice, and training would have provided guidance on making
the appropriate choices. Few students admitted they were naturally hesitant regarding making
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decisions, so training could have helped them in this regard. Although this practice was difficult at
first for the reasons previously mentioned, participants stated that they developed this skill as
they performed it along the study.
“Yes, because I could be more oriented about what I’m going to do with my learning (Claudia).”
“Yes, but just at the beginning, I’m naturally indecisive because I don’t like to choose “the bad” option or
to eventually regret it. I feel like after a few months working on it made It progressively easier so, yes.
“Yes, because now that I have done for 3 terms I think I met myself and I know how to decide in the
percentages and in the way that I want to learn) (Mayra).”
On the other hand, there were a few participants who believed training learners how to make
decisions was not necessary. They argued they had a good knowledge of themselves, which
helped them to make appropriate decisions. Others believed it was better to learn by trial and
error. They considered it was better to learn to make decisions by choosing what they thought
was best; then, analyse the outcomes of such decisions to reach conclusions regarding how
appropriate they had been. They preferred to learn by doing. Training my not be needed;
however, it is essential to keep in mind the guidelines the literature suggests helping students
make informed choices (Baxter, Glendinning, and Clarke, 2008; Chia, 2006)
“No, because I am used to make decisions. I think I know myself enough and know my weakness so I
made decisions that would not affect me (Gris).”
“No, because in that way I will not learn to make decisions by my own (Martha).”
4.3.5 The views of students about making their own decisions
At the beginning of the intervention some participants had negative opinions about having to
make their own decisions about their learning. They felt it was confusing, uncomfortable,
stressful, and difficult. This was expected because it was a new practice for them (Chia, 2016).
These feelings were also caused because participants were afraid their decisions were going to be
incorrect and lead them to perform poorly in class, and they did not know what the consequences
of their decisions were going to be when they made them. These are natural reactions when
learners are asked to make choices for the first time (Ahmed, 2012). However, they agreed that
they eventually welcomed this practice because they controlled their learning, and it helped them
to become more responsible learners.
“So it was a little confused for me and I didn’t know I didn’t know what the consequences from that were
(Claudia).”
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“To make decisions about you own learning is complicated because you won’t know how will be your
results (Jenny).”
“However, since I decided everything I was afraid of failing in an assignment (Mijares).”
“I was not use to take decisions about aspects of the class and my leaning (Claudia).”
“Besides having a hard time deciding, I feel that it was a good thing and I wish we did that in more classes
(Jenny).”
“I felt good choosing and deciding how to work in the class, how you wanted to do the things such as
your homework, choosing your grading criteria and so on (Daniela).”
“I found it interesting and at the same time a little fun (Mayra).”
“It was really good and increase my sense of responsibility and consciousness (Martha).”
4.3.6 The contribution making decisions made to foster autonomous learning
According to participants this practice let them take control of their learning, increased their
motivation, and made them become more independent learners. They felt they were in charge
because they could select how and when to learn. They were able to organize and plan their
learning endeavours, as well as to select the learning activities they wanted to conduct and the
materials they employed to complete them. Moreover, allowing them to make these choices and
select the classmates they wanted to work with increased their motivation to learn because they
were working with those they wanted and did tasks they enjoyed doing. In addition, they were
motivated to work more because they contributed to establish how they were going to be
assessed. This motivation resulted in participants taking ownership of and spending more time
and energy in their learning. Moreover, participants affirmed they became more independent in
their learning because they did not depend on the teacher all the time to learn, they were able to
learn on their own by researching information and asking others. These results are congruent with
what some authors say regarding the benefits of having students make their own decisions
(Boggu & Sundarsingh, 2019; Hsu & Wang, 2011; Ajideh, 2009).
“You decide how, and when to learn, you have to make decisions for almost everything, this gives you a
kind of control of what you are going to learn in a autonomous way (Andres).”
“In addition, you carry the control of your learning and your organization and time (Daniela).”
“You choose that materials, activities, and organizer graphics and so on, it can help you to carry out
your works, homework, and so on (Rubi).”
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“Because when I had the option, I obviously chose something I liked and to work with people I know can
help me and work as a real team, which motivated me to keep it up and work “por amor al arte” (because
they enjoyed it) (Jenny).”
“It makes me feel engaged because it suppose that when I made the decisions in my assessment and
work process, I adapted to my working way (Carmen).”
“Making my own decisions showed me that I was now responsible for my own work and that I would be
the only affected if I did not do things properly (Sonia).”
“I become very independent and autonomy on my own learning (Daniela).”
“Yes, because I feel that I did not need the teacher to tell me everything I wanted to know and that I
could learn by myself (Carmen).”
“To search by my own more information or look for other ways to solve the problems (Martha).”
“Because you depends by yourself there is nobody to help you if you are in a trouble, you need to do
your own things, and little by little you become more independent (Daniel).”
Making their own decisions also led participants to gain consciousness about the importance of
this practice, of managing their time better, and of taking responsibility of their work and
learning. Some participants declared that this practice contributed to make them analyse the
different options they had, what these involved, and the consequences conducting them or failing
to do so had in their learning. This contributes to make informed choices (Chi, 2016). These
findings seem to indicate that allowing participants to make their own choices had several
benefits and helped to promote autonomous learning.
“Aware of the importance of decision making and how I should stop procrastinating and start working
because I was the one that made all of those decisions and if I don’t do it I really don’t have no one to
blame (Paola).”
“Making my own decisions showed me that I was now responsible for my own work and that I would be
the only affected if I did not do things properly (Sonia).”
“Analyze the opportunities and what would happen when changing in learning in other words you take
into account the causes and reflect on what to do better (Mijares).”
“You know that whatever you do or stop doing will affect you somehow and that because of you (Rubi).”
“I think it helped me to be aware to be organized and control better time (Gris)”
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4.3.7 Aspects participants raised their awareness of
Although there was an emphasis to raise learners’ awareness at the beginning of the intervention,
it also happened in the next two terms, although less intensive. It was found that many
participants became aware of themselves as learners. They realized how they learnt, as well as
their strengths and weaknesses. According to their comments, this realization happened because
they made their own decisions and worked by themselves. Through experience and the reflection
participants conducted at the end of each term, they became conscious of the aspects mentioned
before. It seemed that these helped them to develop their analytical skills because, although they
were provided with scaffolding to reflect, awareness was raised on their own during such periods.
Awareness raising was one of the outcomes in this study, as it was mentioned in the literature
review (Darsih, 2018; Zulaihah & Harida, 2017; Cohen, 2003).
“I got to know me a lot more, that’s how I think I became more aware, because I got to know myself more
(Paola).”
“I think that you really become aware of that form to work because you go by your own rhythm and
only you know when you have to do the task or assignments and only you are the person who can
perjudicate (be affected) about your grade (Daniel).”
“I became aware in my own leaning, still have some problems because at it says you have to work and
learn by your own (Andres).”
“I realized about all the things that I am good at and also the ones that do not match with my habilities
(Carmen).”
“Well I think it helped me to assess my weaknesses and strengths (Mijares).”
“Therefore, I think it really helped making me more aware of my strengths and weaknesses because when
the job was done by myself (Paola).”
“Knowing the strengths and weaknesses of each technique will allow me to know which will be the best
option (Mia).”
Subjects also became aware of what autonomous learning involved. This was because it was
explained to them; however, learning with this approach also helped in this regard and to clarify
misconceptions about this approach. They used to think that autonomous learning involved
working alone, in isolation; however, after participating in the study this misunderstanding was
cleared. They also acknowledged that this approach involved becoming responsible of their
learning. Gaining awareness about the approach is vital to understand it and facilitate adaptation
(Abdelrazeq, 2018; Ajideh, 2009).
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“It would not be not true if I say that I learnt about autonomous learning in this class, but of course I
became more aware of this (Rubi).”
“And of course, thanks to my teacher because he cleared that working autonomously does not mean
that we, as students, are alone, but that we become responsible for our learning (Sonia).”
4.3.8 Monitoring of learning
Learners monitored their learning each term. Several participants agreed that the work plan was
what assisted them the most in this regard. This was probably because it included what they were
going to do each week, instructions of the assignments they were going to do, deadlines, rubrics,
and any other relevant information for each term. In addition, some learners said that feedback
assisted them to monitor their learning. Monitoring their work contributed to raise learners’
awareness about what they were doing, what they had to achieve by the end of the course, and
the consequences that resulted if they did not comply with the work expected. This was not
expected, but having participants checked what they were doing helped to them notice if they
were doing things correctly, if they had to make changes through this process, or take further
actions. Some learners agreed that monitoring their work contributed to foster autonomous
learning because they were independent during their learning and were able to make changes if
they considered it necessary. Monitoring their learning helped participants identify the problems
they had while learning to prevent them in the future and become conscious of the progress,
which are the objectives of this practice (Hu & Zhang, 2017; Ajideh, 2009; Nunan, 1997).
“I think the thing that help me the most was the workplan (Daniel).”
“Yes, especially the work plan and deadlines (Mia).”
“In my opinion when using these two tools: drafts and workplan helped me to monitor my work (Blanca).”
“Yeah, because we are very conscious of what we are doing and what we have to achieve at the end of
the course, if you do not learn the content you cannot do the tasks so, it is very important to be focus
and do what we most do (Carmen).”
“Well, I think it helps because you are in some way under pressure because you said that you will do
something and if you didn't do it, that will have consequences, so that helps you to be more
autonomous (Daniel).”
“Yes, because monitor makes you noticed if you are working correct or I you have to do some changes
(Andres).”
“Yes, because as a student I have more control of what I have to do, and I keep working on what I have
to do, so that helped me to me more autonomous (Mia).”
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“I believe that it helps to monitor work even autonomous learning because it allows us to develop and
practice our skills as linguistic and oral as we create a process by learning for ourselves that is to say we
work independently in what we need and if we have doubts we investigate and discuss thoroughly on
the subject (Mijares).”
4.3.9 Benefits of reflecting on learning
Learners reflected at the end of each term and based on their comments it seemed to have
produced positive results. They responded that reflecting assisted them to notice what helped
them learn, what did not, as well as their strengths and weaknesses. They mentioned that
knowing the former was vital to make corrections or changes to improve their learning practices
and avoid making similar mistakes in the future. Students said that the aspects they became
aware of through reflection about themselves and their learning helped them make better
decisions about their learning the next time they had to. It provided them with essential
information to make informed decisions (Chi, 2016). Finally, some mentioned that reflecting
contributed to develop autonomy in learning because it helped them become aware of their
needs, select the strategies that seemed appropriate, evaluate the work done to decide what they
needed to change to improve their learning. These resulted in better planning of learning and
decision making. These results are congruent with the literature reviewed (Tassinari, 2012;
Reinders, 2010; Scharle & Szabo, 2000).
“It was totally different from what I was used to doing (Sonia).”
“Yes, because it helped me understand what I did well and correct the mistakes I made. This will allow
me in the future to make better decisions, improve what I do well and probably not make the same
mistakes (Liz).”
“Yes because makes you realized about your weaknesses and strengths related to autonomous and you
correct them in order to become more autonomous (Andres).”
“Yes, because, it helps you give yourself a feedback about your own learning, and you analyze and
recognize your errors, your weaknesses, your strengths, your process of your improves in your learning,
your skills, your talent, and so on (Daniela).”
“Yes, because it helped me understand what I did well and correct the mistakes I made. This will allow
me in the future to make better decisions, improve what I do well and probably not make the same
mistakes (Liz).”
“I truly believe that the moments of reflection and the self-assessment did help me a lot as an
autonomous learner because it was always focused on my own necessities and once I knew what I was
missing, I developed my strategies to improve my work (Sonia).”
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“If it helps me learn autonomously because I plan a process when looking for a way to do things, analyzed
if they work for me or I change it and evaluate my results in the end (Mijares).”
“Yeah probably when you reflect about your learning I think you become more independent or
autonomous because you can see what you did wrong and what you did good, so then you can see
where you need to improve and where you are good (Daniel).”
Interviews
4.4.1 Opinions about the introduction of autonomous learning
At the end of the intervention most participants stated that autonomous learning was introduced
properly. Learning practices from this approach were implemented progressively considering that
participants had previously learnt with teacher-centred methods. Participants stated that a
gradual introduction was appropriate because it gave them the opportunity to adapt to the
different practices and requirements of the new learning approach. This is agreement with the
suggestion given by Bocos, Radut-Taciu & Chis (2015) and Martin (1999) who affirm that
autonomous learning must be introduced gradually.
“Well actually it was really good to introduce because in the university of Colima we don’t work like
that, we work like only teacher-centered or student-centered so it was really good to have the decisions
to make autonomous, to introduce little by little so you could adapt to the process and then make
expert in that topic (Brenda).”
“I think yes, the teacher did a very good job introducing autonomous learning because we didn’t know
the..hay porque le contesté en inglés, ud hizo un buen trabajo. Fue apropiado a la manero que lo hizo,
poco a poco, entonces estuvo muy bien introducido (Rubi).” “why am I answering in English. You did a
good job. The way autonomous learning was introduced was appropriate, it was done little by little
(Rubi).”
In addition, participants stated that the course outline, the work plan, and the assistance they
were given helped to introduce autonomous learning. The course outline included which topics
they were going to learn, when, the instructions for graded assignments, and deadlines. Having
this information helped them organize their work and manage their time better. The course
outline and the action plan facilitated the planning of their learning. This was because the former
provided information related to the work to be done while the latter a document where they
could plan and write down what they were going to do, when, and which resources they were
going to use to reach their learning goals. Finally, feedback was relevant because when working
independently sometimes learners felt lost or had questions; however, through feedback and
guidance students were able to have their questions answered or receive corrections to improve
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the quality of their work.
“Yes because I remember that I watched the course outline and I decided when I was going to read the
chapters of the book, so I had my time to read. They were useful when I was lost in the first term they
were like the guide so I can know what to do (Gris).”
“Yeah, I actually paste it on my wall, my course outline and when you change the due date or something
like that I went home and clean, clean put it on and for, so don’t remember it, don’t forget sorry (Martha).
“I think that the work plan that you gave us that you teach us how to work with that it has been really
helpful right now because the teacher don’t gave us the deadline we decide when we have to submit the
assignment or the lesson plans or that kind of stuff but the work plan has been really helpful in what time
should I work with that so the work plan is amazing right now (Paola).”
“Yes! It really helpful to me because it helped me to organize my time in a better way to it gives me to,
gives me the time to give the time to your assignments or other assignments for the other teachers
(Martha).
“Fue muy útil porque cuando en algunos trabajos me sentí muy perdida y muy insegura, respecto a
realmente es lo que tenía que entregar, y con el feedback, una cuando me ponía que estaba bien que por
ahí iba, me sentía más segura a la hora del trabajo final, y cuando estaba un poquito perdida me volvía
a encaminar por donde teníamos que ir (Blanca).” “It was very useful because when I felt lost or insecure
when doing some tasks; the feedback I was given I learnt whether I was doing things right or not. If I did
I felt more confident when I submitted my final work. However, when I was doing tasks incorrectly,
feedback helped me to understand what I needed to correct and how things had to be done (Blanca).”
“So getting feedback was one of the ways to get guidance because we wanted to make sure that what
we were doing was right (Jenny).”
4.4.2 Reasons why learners had positive opinions about autonomous learning
Participants explained they had positive comments about autonomous learning because they were
able to work at their own pace and manage their time so that they could complete all the activities
they planned. If they knew a certain assignment demanded more time to finish it, they made the
necessary arrangements to ensure they had plenty of it to complete it. They welcomed selecting
how they were going to work, which tasks and assignments they were going to submit, deadlines
for graded assignments and to an extent how they were going to be assessed. Although these
caused negative feelings at the beginning of the study, they were the aspects of autonomous
learning they liked the most. Finally, they stated learning with this approach made them more
responsible and autonomous in their learning, as well as gain consciousness about what they do to
learn. These are some essential features of autonomous learning (Lengkanawati, 2017;
Bhattacharya and Chauhan, 2010; St. Louis, 2006; Ho and Crookall, 1995).
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“I personally I really liked it! All my classmates that in general we liked it, I enjoyed the class. I actually
was really motivated, at first I was kind of afraid of class, cause teaching methods, but I feel like I did learn
a lot during the class. I think it was the realization that working more, like the freedom that you gave us,
was like, it was really good (Carolina).”
“Pues me gustó mucho que yo hacía las cosas a mi tiempo y no era tanto como que me dejaran una
tarea de un día para otro. Me gustó mucho eso porque hay cosas que tu sabes cuánto tiempo te vas a
tardar en ellas y el maestro a veces no toma en cuenta eso porque no sabe cómo aprendes y o cosas así
(Andres).” “I liked it a lot because I worked at my own pace and it was not as it happened in other
classes in which you are given tasks to do to be submitted the next day. I also liked it because you know
how long it takes you to complete certain tasks. Teachers often do not give you enough time because
they do not know you or how fast you work (Mijares).”
“I consider actually that it was a better way to learn because I have never had the experiment of learning
by myself, it was really good. It’s really helpful because we organize, actually I organize my time. I consider
better and the ability to make on our own decision and to have to, how can I say, select the time for the
working on the assignments it helps you to have more powerful decisions and to be conscious of your
decisions so it’s amazing the power that gets. It was amazing, for me it was an experience that I will
happily have repeated again (Martha).”
“I think it was really good everything like to choose your deadlines and choose what kind of
assignments you are going to do because it allows to work well because if the teacher says: ok, you are
going to do this and if you don’t want to do that, it´s like boring or stressful and if you decide to do the
assignments by your own you are like ok; I say, I am going to do that. It something that makes you
commit about to do your things. Think all the things were good, I like very much to work autonomous
learning (Brenda).”
“I hope you keep working like this because es una experiencia es muy grata, si nos saca de nuestra zona
de comfort, pero está muy bien. ¿Por qué lo digo? nos enseña a ser autónomos, responsables, y ser un
poquito más conscientes de lo que realmente estamos trabajando (Sonia).” “it was a pleasant
experience. You took us out of our comfort zone, but it was alright. Why do I say this? Because it taught
us to be autonomous, to be responsible, to be a bit more conscious of what we are really working on
(Sonia).”
4.4.3 The role the teacher played in fostering autonomous learning
The teacher’s actions contributed to introduce and develop autonomous learning. Learners
commented he had good rapport with them, his attitude towards assisting participants was
appreciated and contributed towards increasing their motivation. It appears the teacher created
an appropriate environment, which is vital to promote this approach (Öztürk, 2019; Azin, Biria &
Golestan, 2018) Participants declared they liked the activities planned for the class, the freedom
they were given, and the assistance provided when needed. A relevant element was the way they
were given feedback. Learners found it necessary to be told what they needed to correct, but
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truly welcomed the fact that they were praised for their accomplishments and their effort.
Feedback had a positive effect in the development of autonomous learning as it has in previous
studies (Hermagustiana & Anggriyani, 2019). It encouraged them to keep working.
“Most of the time we were working cause we were, and I’m telling you I was really motivated in the class.
Also, we had the chance to ask you questions, so it was better for us to work there. I really liked the way
you explained it and then the kind of freedom that we had, you were approachable, we could ask you,
we could do our work and we had resources enough so like it was kind of; Okay yeah, I like this, I’m gonna
do it. (Carolina).”
“El maestro siempre nos mantuvo motivados de que, si también como nos decía: ese reflection paper
está mal, tres o cuatro veces, aparte de eso también te decía, a mira hiciste un buen trabajo aquí super
bien. Como que todo ese positive feedback si nos ayudó mucho, al menos a mí me ayudó mucho a seguir
a motivada y eso es muy importante. No nada más que te de libertad, ósea te doy libertad pero también
te digo que estás haciendo las cosas bien, eso me gustaría que lo siguiera haciendo porque si es
motivador (Rubi).” “The teacher always kept us motivated. Even when he told us that our reflection
paper was wrong three or four times, he also would tell us: look you did a great job here. That type of
positive feedback helped us a lot, at least it helped me to be motivated and that was important. It is not
enough to be given freedom; that is necessary, but also to be provided with guidance to help you do
things right. I hope he keeps doing that because it motivates learners (Rubi).”
“I think that most of my classmates are with me that all your activities were interesting and had point in
common, so we were anxious to know what was the goal of that activity, so getting the knowledge and
doing the research together or what we were doing by our own it was really amazing. So personally your
activities were like, oh my god we’re going to today so it was really exciting, it was amazing (Martha).”
“All the work that we did in class it was really positive for us because motivated us as students to work
on our strategies and weaknesses (Liz).”
4.4.4 Becoming autonomous learners
All the participants agreed they felt they had become more autonomous and were more
responsible of their learning. They affirmed this was because they did not depend on the teacher
to decide how they were going to learn all the time; and often, learnt in advanced what was
established in their course outline or their work plan. Some students said they became more
independent because, without being required to do so, they looked for more information about
the topics they were expected to learn by either researching online or by asking others. They did
not restrict their learning to the content found in the materials and resources provided by the
teacher. Nevertheless, they also acknowledged the teacher was necessary to sometimes guide
them and assist them in their learning. Independence and responsibility are two features found in
autonomous learning participants developed during the intervention (Zulaihah & Harida, 2017;
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Karababa, Eker, & Arik, 2010)
“Sí que soy más autónoma, si porque mejor se oye muy vanidoso. Sí, o sea, ya traía autonomía en otras
tareas de mi vida, pero en la escuela estaba muy acostumbradita a atenerme, pero no, cambió totalmente
(Blanca).” “I am more autonomous, it may sound a bit presumptuous but it is true. I was already
autonomous in some areas of my life but at school I was used to being dependent, but this class changed
that completely (Blanca).”
“Yes (more independent) because you don’t have to stay only with the teacher says, you’re free to look
for another sources, to look for another help, to look for another even books, you don’t have to go on
the websites an just stay with that information you can go to books, anything but the autonomous leaning
I think it’s the better way, the student has to learn to make decisions (Martha).”
“I still look for in the internet, I still look for many different articles of the things that we are going to
learn, that’s basically I do (Gris).”
“Pues, sí soy más independiente, bueno yo creo que es necesario ser independiente pero al mismo tiempo
nadie puede trabajar o estar al cien por ciento solo, sí se necesita un maestro por aquello de las dudas,
de saber en base a la experiencia de alguien más cómo reaccionar o cómo actuar ante cierta situación,
pero de igual manera yo me siento más independiente (Sonia).” “Well, I think I have become more
independent. I believe this is important; however, nobody can be one hundred percent autonomous. It
is necessary to have a teacher who can clear any doubts we may have; someone who can use their
experience to guide when students face unknown situations. Anyway, I feel I am more independent now
(Sonia).”
Furthermore, most participants considered they developed autonomy in their learning because
they took control of their learning, which is one of the main aspects of autonomous learning
(Lengkanawati, 2017; Holec, 1981). They were able to decide how they were going to work, when,
and who they were going to work with. In addition, if they had questions or needed help, they did
not depend on the teacher all the time to have their doubts cleared. They asked senior students
who had already taken the class before and had learnt the content they were working on or other
teachers. They became more resourceful in their learning.
“Yeah, I will say I became more autonomous at the end because you gave us the chance to choose like
who to work with; like everything, all the activities we had the chance to be going as long as we turned
them in on time so it was pretty much good because we had our own planning (Jenny).”
“I think that it helped us and me, especially, to develop my autonomous in all the aspects and in the
classes I like, more independent. I like to work in pairs but I know that if I do the work by my own I
would get a good grade, and it helped you to develop in the aspects of your daily life, so I think that it’s
very important (Daniel).”
“Pregunte a alumnos de otros grados y maestros (Blanca).” “I asked students who had already taken the
class and some teachers (Blanca).”
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“Fui a preguntarle a compañeros de grados superiores a mí y preguntar a maestros que ya tenía, que yo
sé que tienen más experiencias que otros o que saben implementar bien (Mayra).” “I asked junior and
senior students who had already taken the class and some of the teachers I had at that moment; people
who are more knowledgeable and experienced than me and did well in the class (Mayra).”
4.4.5 Autonomous learning or teacher-centred learning
Some participants said they would prefer to study EFL or French with teacher-centred methods.
They believed autonomous learning was not the best approach to develop foreign languages skills
because language learning required more guidance from the teacher. Nevertheless, participants
also expressed they would like to continue learning through autonomous learning, or have other
teachers use some elements of this approach. This suggestion was given because then they could
explore, do research, which could lead them to become more autonomous. They acknowledged
that having freedom was important, but they did not want to be completely free, they wanted to
be guided.
“I would prefer to have a bit more teacher centered for example with, I don’t know, French or English it’s
a little bit more like, okay I need a little bit more help a little guidance at first but for example not the
whole time maybe not, sometimes I would prefer them to be more student centered and more
autonomous and some other times I don’t want them to be completely teacher centered just a little bit
(Carolina)”
“In most of the subjects that we have I would prefer in a more autonomous way cause I feel like it worked
like you already kind of helped us find or discover this way of working, now we wanna do it again or at
least I wanna do it again, there are a few more clases that I would prefer to have a bit more teacher
centered for example with, I don’t know, French or English it’s a little bit more like, okay I need a little bit
more help a little guidance (Paola).”
“Yo creo que sí, si aprendería más si fuera autónomo, un poquito más autónomo porque hay unas clases
donde …pues toda la semana es el mismo tema nomas parafraseado entonces, entonces bueno yo creo
que podría explorar, yo creo que estas clases te podrían servir como para, ósea estas horas de clase
como para que tu hicieras trabajo de investigación (Sonia).” “I believe that I would learn more if
autonomous learning was used more. I would like classes to be taught like this because sometimes in
some classes teachers keep talking about the same topic the whole week. I think it would be more
effective if I were asked to explore. I think we should use class time to do research or inquire about the
topics we have to learn (Sonia).”
“Si, yo quisiera que las demás clases fueran más así porque yo podría ser más autónoma; pero si las
demás clases también te permitieran serlo porque que tengas control y que la asistencia cuenta y como
que tanto control como que te aburren, entonces..la libertad estuvo como muy bien, porque era una
libertad como..dentro de lo que cabe controlada (Rubi).” “Yes, I would like classes to employ
autonomous learning because if they did, I could become even more autonomous. Classes in which
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attendance to every session is mandatory and everything is controlled by the teacher are boring. Having
freedom is good, but a type of controlled freedom (Rubi).”
4.4.6 Opinions about being involved in the decisions made regarding learning
Most students declared that making their own decisions about their learning was difficult,
stressful, and challenging at the beginning of the intervention. This was because it was a new
practice for them. In addition, learners realized that making their own decisions meant taking
responsibility of their learning, which is not easy for learners in general (Brajcich, 2000). Negative
feelings were generated also because they were afraid to make wrong decisions. This is common
in these situations (Chi, 2016). Participants feared their lack of experience and expertise in this
practice could have led them to choose options that resulted in performing poorly in class and get
low scores. Rather than being concerned about their learning, at the beginning of the study,
participants seemed concerned about making decisions that led them to get good marks in the
class.
“It was something difficult, you know? Because I was used to the teacher always saying, so you are
going to do this and this is going to be your assessment criteria (Daniel).”
“I think that at the beginning was stressful for me because I don’t know how to decide, maybe if I
decide to give more points to a task I will get a less grade, so confusing, I don’t know how to do it
(Daniel).”
“Entonces, al principio fue algo como, que si dio un poquito de miedo, que empezaras a, porque tu ibas
a tener mucha responsabilidad sobre tu propio aprendizaje (Rubi).” “So, at the beginning it was a bit
scary because this meant you were then going to be responsible of your own learning (Rubi).”
“Well, at the beginning it was really stressful for me because especially with the assessment criteria,
because I did not know how to make that decisions (Liz).”
“Estresante, yo creo que es una de las palabras, y miedo, miedo a equivocarme (Blanca).” “Stressful, I
think it is one of the words I would use to describe this experience, and being afraid; I was afraid to
make mistakes about the choices I made (Blanca).”
“Yo me volví loca en especial sacando porcentajes y después diciendo: ¿y si no me sale bien y le doy un
porcentaje muy alto? Si fue algo que me estresó en el momento (Sonia).” “It drove me crazy when I had
to assign a value to the graded assignments because once I did it I asked myself: what if I gave this
assignment a really high value? It stressed me out when that happened (Sonia).”
As the intervention progressed, learners changed their opinions about making their own decisions
about their learning. They said that during the second part of the semester they felt comfortable
with and welcomed this practice. This was because it allowed them to do what they thought was
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best, and through experience they learnt to make appropriate decisions. Furthermore, they
mentioned that letting them make their own choices made them more responsible of their
learning because it was them who decided what to do, so they took ownership of the actions that
emerged from their decisions and their learning. Two factors seemed to have helped them: the
knowledge they acquired about themselves and learning tasks, and the freedom they had to
choose how they wanted to work. The former is vital to have students make informed choices
(Marteau, Dormandy, & Michie, 2001) and the second is an essential aspect of autonomous
learning (Lengkanawati, 2017; Bhattacharya and Chauhan, 2010; St. Louis, 2006).
“Bueno para mi si fue difícil al inicio pero ya, conforme pasó el tiempo ya otra vez fue fácil (Paola).”
“Well, for me it was difficult at the beginning; however, as time went on it became easier (Paola).”
“Yo opino que sí, pero así mismo he mejorado mucho en la toma de decisiones desde que comencé
tomando mis decisiones en cuanto a lo que estudio y como quiero seguir mis evaluaciones (Mia).” “I
believe I have improved my decision making since I started to make my own decisions about what I am
going to learn and how I want to be assessed (Mia).”
“But the second term, it’s like I have more with the deciding my own criteria, so the second term was
easier (Daniel).”
“Es un factor positivo porque así los estudiantes se dan la tarea de pensar lo que quieren y lo que creen
que es mejor para ellos, para cuando ellos tengan que tomar sus propias decisiones ellos estén seguros
de lo que quieren y así mismo también tomen rápidas decisiones y las mejores para ellos (Mia).” “It was
a positive practice because students can decide what they want to do and what is best for them. As a
consequence, when it is time for them to make their own decisions (in aspects related to their lives) they
will be sure about what they want and will be able to make good decisions quickly (Mia).”
“Pero al final de cuentas me pareció justo, por qué? Porque bueno, uno se hacer responsable…. Se nos
está dando la oportunidad de que ya tu digas, bueno yo quiero hacer esto, yo me conozco y creo que
este es el porcentaje que le debería de dar, está muy bien (Sonia).” “But at the end I thought it was a fair
practice, why? Because it made us responsible of our learning… we are being given the opportunity to
decide what you want to do and say: I know myself so I believe I should assign this value to this
assignment. I think this was a good practice (Sonia).”
4.4.7 Reasons why making decisions was easier during the second part of the intervention
Participants reported that making decisions became easier because they developed awareness of
what they were skilful at and what helped them learn. For instance, if they knew they were good
at giving oral presentations, it was easy to choose this task when they were allowed to decide what
to do. It also helped that whenever they had to make decisions, they had plenty of time to do so
and took the time they needed to analyse what was best for them. This is one of the
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recommendations given to improve the decisions made (Chi, 2016). They did not make careless
choices anymore. This was useful because it enabled them to ponder the implications of the
decisions they were considering, their advantages and disadvantages, this leads to make
appropriate choices (Bekker, Thornton, Airey, Connelly, et al., 1999). If students did not like the
possible consequences of the decisions they were considering making, they had time to select other
options and conduct the same analysis to select those that were appropriate. Several participants
mentioned that the knowledge they gained about themselves as learners and their strengths
facilitated making decisions. If they knew, for instance, that they worked well in teams, when they
had to choose how to work to learn a topic, working in collaboration was an easy choice to make.
“I think it was easier because I knew that I was good at writing the reflection paper and also the lesson
plan was easy, so it was easy for me to decide, ah what I’m going to do this, this and this because I was
good in the previous term (Liz).”
“It was easier at the beginning of the third midterm because we, I already know how you want to work,
making the decisions of this might not working or this could be working, so it was amazing not depending
a hundred percent, maybe a twenty percent and eighty percent left was on me or in my class, on my
teammates (Paola).”
“Stressful not anymore actually, I take my time, I think carefully and I take the decisions that I think that
are better for me, so it was really helpful doing that (Martha).”
“Antes yo tomaba las decisiones más como intuición, no las pensaba era más como de voy por esto porque
quiero esto y yo pienso que ahora soy más cuidadosa al tomarlas porque veo que es lo que puede afectar
(Mayra).” “I used to make my own decisions by intuition, I did not think them through. I chose to do
things just because I wanted, but now I think things over, I am more careful when I make decisions
because I take into consideration their consequences (Mayra).”
“After practice and all I’ve come to know myself a little better so I can make better decisions, and having
this chance (Mijares).”
“For me it was like new, but I really like it because I had like the power to decide how I was going to be
graded and I like that because if I have like my strengths I want to give more like value to those things
than the things I’m not confident so I really liked it (Gris).”
The experience learners obtained from making their own decisions and the knowledge they got
about the class facilitated this practice during the third term. Participants stated that the previous
happened because they had learnt through trial and error during the first terms what worked and
what did not to achieve their learning goals and make the right decisions. This was positively
reflected in their class scores. It seemed that reflecting at the end of each term about what they
did and the reflections they made helped to raise awareness about which choices were the most
appropriate for them.
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“He mejorado mucho en la toma de decisiones desde que comencé tomando mis decisiones en cuanto a
lo que esto y como quiero seguir mis evaluaciones (Mia).” “I have become better at making my own
decisions about my learning and assessing myself since I was allowed to do so (Mia).”
“Yeah it was easier to make decisions towards the end of the school year because I already knew how
the things worked. In the last partial, it was like easier, it was easier to decide (Andres).”
“It was easier, cause we knew, we already, since we were working with the class for two or three or four
months, I can’t recall, we were like okay, so I remember this was easier than this so I might give a little
more percentage cause I need to pass or like to kind of accommodate everything and like it was way
faster to make a decision (Martha).”
4.4.8 Suggestions made to facilitate making decisions
Some learners said that they learnt how to make decisions by conducting this practice. They
highlighted that learning by doing gave them the opportunity to learn from experience to make
different choices, analyse its results, and realize which were appropriate. Some participants
mentioned that it was hard to make decisions when these were related to completing tasks they
had never done before. Not knowing what the task involved caused difficulty to make decisions.
Therefore, clearly explaining the requirements of any new tasks and anything else expected could
facilitate making decisions about these types of tasks, which is one of the suggestions given by Chi
(2016) to have students make informed choices.
“He mejorado mucho en la toma de decisiones desde que comencé tomando mis decisiones en cuanto a
lo que estudio y como quiero seguir mis evaluaciones (Mia).” “I have become better at making my own
decisions about my learning and assessing myself since I was allowed to do so (Mia).”
“After practice and all I’ve come to known myself a little better so I can make better decisions, and having
this chance helped (Carolina).”
“Nunca había hecho reflection papers, nunca había hecho lesson plans. Siento que lo más difícil era que
iba a enfrentarme a un trabajo diferente y no tanto a la calificación que le iba a dar a esos trabajos
(Andres).” “I had never written a reflection paper or a lesson plan. I feel that the most difficult part was
the fact that I had to complete assignments I had never done before, assigning a value to them was not
the stressful part of it, but doing something that was new to me (Andres).”
Few participants expressed that having the opportunity to talk to the teacher about the
implications of the choices they made would facilitate making decisions. It seemed like sometimes
learners did the previous without thinking about the consequences; however, when they realized
what the implications were, it was too late to change them. Becoming aware of what their
possible decisions would imply could help learners to decide if they wanted to go ahead and
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select such choices. This would involve having the opportunity to change their decisions if they
were not satisfied with the possible consequences.
“Para mí sería necesario como que… eh no sé, igual no training pero a lo mejor como poder platicar con
el maestro de que bueno si vas a hacer las cosas así, tal vez pueda pasar esto o esto, porque por
ejemplo, si decidimos sobre nuestros porcentajes de cada trabajo, pues yo no sabia que tan estricto iba
a ser para revisar los trabajos o eso. Entonces yo creo que a lo mejor conocer un poquito más al
maestro, tener un poquito de background de como trabaja, de que le gusta y cosas así. Eso estaría bien
(Rubi).” “I believe that it would be useful something like; I do not know, not training, but talking to the
teacher about the possible consequences of the decisions we make. For instance, if I chose to do to
written assignments I did not know how strict the teacher was going to be when marking my papers, if
he was going to focus only the content and not the structure and grammar, or if everything was going
to be considered to mark my written assignments. I believe that knowing the teacher a bit more, to
have some background on how they work, what they expect from students works, and things like that
would be useful (Rubi).”
Several participants agreed that some type of training would contribute towards helping
participants learn how to make decisions, especially at the beginning of the treatment. They
expressed that because this was a new practice for most of them, it would be useful to provide
them with as much help as possible to decrease the uncertainty about their decision-making.
Some type of training would prevent them from making quick, mindless decisions and decrease
unpleasant outcomes from these. Training learners has been suggested by some scholars to help
students adapt to autonomous learning (Wejira, 2019; Tassinari, 2016).
“Well I think yes, it could be maybe training for me because I am not being a really autonomous person
I think that I need to, need to make decisions more about my responsibility (Liz)
“Mmm there should be training, yes because like I said, the first time you don’t even know if you are
going to do right or wrong. Once you are aware of how good or how not good you are at that, you could
give a probably in this case the percentages (Sonia).”
The last suggestion was to have students gradually make their own decisions about their learning.
They acknowledged that this approach was employed in this study and was appropriate to
introduce this practice. They said that making easy decisions at the beginning of the intervention
gave them confidence because it made them feel like it was not difficult to conduct this practice.
They agreed that it was appropriate to increase the number and the complexity of the decisions
made as they gained experienced and learnt how to make their own decisions. Have them move
forward once they had mastered what they were asked to select first (Yildirim, 2012).
“Como fue introducido poco a poco, igual era, como que te daba miedito, pero se, ósea ya lo hacías
pensando que iba a ser algo bueno para ti si lo hacías bien, porque tú eras super responsable de tu
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aprendizaje, pero creo que estuvo bien que fuera gradual con cositas muy chiquitas, para que te den un
poco más de seguridad, de que tus decisiones (Rubi).” “Because it was introduced little by little, it was
like a bit scary at first; but then you did it because you knew it was going to be good for you, because
you would become responsible of your own learning. I think it was good that it was a gradual process
asking students to make few and simple decisions to gain confidence about the decisions you made
(Rubi).”
“It was good because at the beginning it was simple the decisions, not the hardest but it was like a chair
like to the simple as hard, so it was good to make simple decisions and then as harder, and at the final it
was the final grade, so it was good to, goes to the easiest thing to the hardest thing, it helps a lot
(Brenda).
4.4.9 Aspects learners became conscious of during the intervention
Participants became more aware of their decisions and the importance of reflecting on these.
Previously, it had been mentioned that they welcomed making their own decisions. However,
they also said it was necessary to help them analyse their outcomes to establish how appropriate
such decisions had been. Some suggested writing down the outcomes of each decision to help
them make informed decisions in the future. Furthermore, several learners said they realized that
being in control of their learning meant they were responsible of it, and if they learnt or not
depended on them because they had decided what to do. They had to accept responsibility of
their actions or the lack of these and the impact this had on their learning. On-action reflection, it
takes place after a learning experience has occurred (Ottesen, 2006), to raise awareness about
the consequences of the decisions they made.
“It made me to get more conscience about my decisions, minimum decisions that helped me in a future
(Mijares).”
“Entonces como que aprender un poquito más de tus decisiones, o a lo mejor no se; que al final del semestre
escribas algo y ver qué pasó con tus decisiones, algo como una reflexión acerca de eso (Rubi).” “One needs to
learn a bit more about the decisions one made. Maybe it is necessary at the end of each semester to analyze
and write down what were the results of the decisions one made. Perhaps write a reflection about this (Rubi).”
“Si claro que si, no había tenido la oportunidad; este bueno, tanta libertad de decidir cuánto van a vale
mis trabajos, cómo me voy a organizar eda.¿Qué es lo que voy a hacer? ¿Qué no? Y bueno ya eres
consciente ahora dices; bueno lo que hagas o lo que dejes de hacer es tu responsabilidad y tienes que
aceptar las consecuencias eda, buenas o malas. Entonces si, si a mi me sirvió mucho (Paola).” “Yes, of
course it did (helped me to make my own decisions). I had never had the opportunity to decide the
value of the assignments I had to submit, how to organize my learning, what I was going to do and not
do. As a result, you realize that when you control your learning; if you work or do not work you have to
accept the consequences of your actions, whether these are good or bad. You become responsible of
your learning. This is why I said that allowing me to make my own decisions helped me (Paola).
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Some participants noticed the type of assignments they were good at doing. Becoming aware of
this facilitated making decisions, as it was discussed before. If learners knew which tasks they
excelled at when they were allowed to select what to do, it was easier to choose any of these.
Furthermore, several students became conscious of some personal attributes that assisted their
learning such as being disciplined, trying to do their best, and being good at assessing their work.
Finally, several participants noticed they preferred to be assessed using alternative assessment
instruments such as projects because these helped them demonstrate how much they have
learnt, whereas a traditional test did not.
“I realize I’m kind of good making lesson plans cause I was like, okay yeah, I got the idea fast so like
okay, I’m good at this (Carolina).”
“Trabajo muy bien haciendo trabajos de reflexión o análisis porque pues pienso en muchas cosas, veo
como todos los lados y aprendí pues que cuando…a conocer mis capacidades, conocer mis fortalezas,
que trabajo muy bien haciendo esto. Así de, ok si soy buena haciendo reflection papers, pues voy a hacer
unos (Rubi).” “I work very well doing assignments that involve reflecting or analysing because I look at
things from different angles; so I became aware of my abilities and strengths, and the fact that I work
well doing these types of works. It was like; ok, I am good at writing reflection papers. I realized I am
going at writing reflection papers, so I am going to write some (Rubi).”
“Ser disciplinada y hacer bien los trabajos siempre fui buena, ya que hacer mi propio work plan es fácil
(Mia).” “I realized I have always been disciplined and at trying my best in all the assignments I have to
do and doing my own work plan was easy (Mia).”
“Soy bueno evaluándome (Andres).” “I am good at assessing my work (Andres).”
“I feel like it was better to do projects or assignments than a test cause in a test you have a certain time
and a certain line and all; and I feel like sometimes you don’t like express all you know in a test (Carolina).”
Participants gained consciousness about their weaknesses as well. The most common ones were
procrastination and poor time management. These were connected because someone who did
not manage their time well was likely to procrastinate. Nevertheless, some learners commented
they realized the negative impact procrastination had on the quality of their work, and class
scores. Raising awareness about these issues was necessary to know which learning practices
were not helping them to learn to change them and improve their learning. Raising awareness
about strengths and weaknesses is common when autonomous learning is implemented (Cohen,
2003).
“Mmmm, aprendí que soy muy procrastinadora (Rubi).” “I realize I procrastinate a lot (Rubi).”
“I discovered my weaknesses and my strengths like if I procrastinate my grade it was like bad (Daniel).”
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“No puedo organizar muy bien el tiempo (Paola).” “I do not manage my time well (Paola).”
Participants reported they became aware how they worked well. Few participants stated they
realized they do it better under pressure. This may be considered very stressful for some;
however, these students welcomed it. This prevented such learners from getting stressed when
they worked under pressure because they knew they were going to do well in this learning
conditions. Others affirmed they needed to have plenty of time make decisions and work well.
Some students said they realized they learnt to work well when they did it in pairs or teams;
nevertheless, they also noticed that when they did so, they had to be involved in the work done.
This was probably to make sure every team member collaborated as they should.
“I work better under pressure (Brenda).”
“I need to have time; I love time because I distract myself with anything, with a fly I don’t know. I need
time to do the things and make my decisions better to do the things and all the stuff (Sonia).”
“I discovered that when I work with a pair and another, I need to get more involved in this kind of work
because the last midterm I didn’t know how to work with a partner and now I discovered that we can
do a good job (Liz).”
Overview
All the findings obtained from the three data collection instruments are presented here along
with verbatim quotes from the subjects. They are all here to provide a better perspective of the
comments, opinions, and experiences from participants regarding autonomous learning and
everything else related to the intervention. Nevertheless, not all the results were used to answer
the research questions of this investigation. In the following chapter the themes found across
instruments are presented the research questions are answered.
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Chapter 5 Discussion of findings
Introduction
The analysis conducted to the findings obtained from this research revealed several relevant
issues that need to be addressed. In this section, the researcher discusses relevant aspects
participants became aware, the importance of having subjects make their own decisions, their
views about autonomous learning, and other significant issues about this approach.
Raising awareness
All participants agreed they developed their awareness about different issues throughout the
intervention. Although, most of the activities to reach this goal were conducted at the beginning
of the study, others were done throughout and assisted to raise learners’ awareness. These
findings are discussed in the following section.
5.1.1 Weaknesses
One of the weaknesses participants became aware of and affected their learning was their poor
time management. This was reasonable because they had rarely been asked to control their time
in their learning endeavours, it had been their teachers who did it for them. When they were first
asked to manage their time, they either did not know how to do it, did it incorrectly, or were not
disciplined enough to comply with the decisions and plans they had made regarding time
management. Longman & Atkinson (2004) contend that poor time management practices such as
not assigning sufficient time to complete tasks or study for exams, and not meeting the
established deadlines are the sources of stress and low performance among students. In this case,
learners submitted incomplete tasks or missed deadlines to submit assignments. Through trial
and error, most participants improved their time management; however, this was more
challenging for those who decided to do tasks in a team or with a partner because they had to
organize their time in such a way that enabled them to meet with their teammates or partners or
find resources and strategies to work with them online synchronic or asynchronously. Enhancing
time management contributed to foster autonomous learning since time was used more
efficiently to complete the tasks assigned; giving subjects the opportunity to work at their own
pace to reach their goals. It also helped to work better by themselves, meaning without
depending on the teacher or by working in collaboration with others. This agrees with the
research that suggests that managing time properly can result in students being more efficient,
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which leads to the achievement of goals and objectives, as well as becoming better at planning
(Hellsten; 2012). In addition, raising awareness about subjects’ time management helped
autonomous learning because those who realized their administration of time was not the most
appropriate; and experience its negative effects, concluded that they had to find and implement
different strategies to improve their time management to enhance their learning endeavours.
How time is employed is more relevant than the amount of time available because a good
organization can lead to reach the goals set (Alvarez Sainz, Ferrero, and Ugidos, 2019).
Participants improved their time management, although there was not enough information to
establish how this was done, except for their comments on how the work plan and course outline
helped them in this regard.
Participants also realized they procrastinated when they were given more control of their
learning. Procrastination was a consequence of poor time management. This led to working under
pressure with a high level of stress. Scher & Ferrari (2000) explains that procrastination decreases
the likelihood that students will finish their tasks properly. Quant & Sánchez (2012) content that
procrastination not only negatively affects students’ performance but their health as well.
Procrastination was more frequent when self-study guides were employed to help subjects learn.
These learning materials gave participants more control of their learning. Self-study guides can be
used to foster autonomous learning (García and Mercedes, 2014); however, if students
procrastinate when these are employed, learning will not be achieved (Steel & Klingsieck, 2016);
at least not to the level expected, nor will students develop their autonomous learning skills.
Based on the findings obtained in this study, it may be advisable to find ways to prevent students
from procrastinating with these learning materials are used. One possible solution to prevent this
problem could be to closely monitor the work and progress of learners. In this way, the teacher
can identify students who are getting behind according to what is appropriate and implement
different strategies to prevent procrastination. Once students learnt to work well with these
materials, it may not be necessary to keep track of learner’s progress as much. In this study, once
the participants realized the negative consequences of procrastination, they organized their time
better and work continuously to reach their goals throughout the term.
A benefit of gaining awareness about their weaknesses was that participants realized they needed
to improve such areas, found ways to do so, and eventually enhanced them. The fact that
participants were able to find strategies to strengthen their weaknesses on their own or with
some help was relevant because it contributed to have participants develop their problem-solving
skills. Armağan, Sağır, & Çelik, (2009) affirm that “Students who have learned problem solving
process can be successful in every stage of their lives by using these skills in finding solutions to
the encountered difficulties and problems (p. 2678).” Biggs (2001) argues that by developing
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students’ problem-solving skills they more easily assume responsibility of their learning. Most
participants found ways to overcome the difficulties they faced while adapting to autonomous
learning, which is an indication that their thinking skills developed.
5.1.2 Strengths
Becoming aware of what participants were skilful at was a relevant benefit for learners because it
facilitated making decisions about their learning. For instance, if a student realized he was good at
making videos, attractive power point presentations, and artistic posters, when they were
allowed to select how to demonstrate their understanding of a given topic, it was easy to choose
one of these. Becoming aware of their strengths was relevant to move towards making informed
choices. The results obtained in this study suggest that raising awareness about learners’ strength
contributed to improve and enjoy the learning process. These findings are like the ones obtained
by Flint-Taylor, Davda, & Cooper (2014) who found that there is a connection between using
personal attributes and becoming resilient in their work and learning.
Participants became conscious of how they preferred to learn. Little (2001) refers to this
phenomenon as making explicit unconscious processes. According to this researcher, this helps
students to become aware of what worked, what did not, and what to do to improve such
practices in the future. This also contributed to make informed and better decisions about their
learning. This was because once learners had realized what their learning preferences were, when
they were given the opportunity to decide how to learn, they used such information to make
choices about their learning. Decision-making was easier and the choices were more appropriate.
Mkonto (2015) contends that raising awareness about students’ learning preferences helps them
realize how they learn, take charge of their learning, and enables them to become independent
learners. No data was collected regarding whether raising awareness led to fostering
independence in learning in this study, only regarding the aspects participants became aware of.
Subjects became aware of the skills they possessed for learning, the needs they had, and their
assessment preferences. This knowledge also facilitated the decision-making process. For
instance, if subjects were conscious of the assessment instruments that helped them demonstrate
the knowledge they had acquired, it was easier for them to select the ones to be evaluated with
when they were given the opportunity to make such choices. All in all, the more aspects students
are aware of regarding their learning, their preferences, themselves as learners, their skills,
personal attributes, and anything else related to the learning process, the more information they
have, which can help them to make more appropriate decisions about their learning. Research
has shown that there is a clear connection between raising awareness and developing autonomy
(Iimuro & Berger, 2010). The findings of this study agree with these researchers because by raising
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awareness of different aspects about their learning, they had more information which contributed
to make better choices when they were learning autonomously. In addition, the results confirm
the structure included in Reinders’ model regarding including awareness raising as one of the first
levels of implementation of autonomous learning. They also suggest increasing the number of
issues learners should become aware of. These should include aspects about the learner, their
learning preferences, and the learning process.
Participants making decisions about their learning
Involving participants in the decisions made regarding their learning is a theme found across
instruments. This practice was present throughout the intervention and was crucial to foster
learner autonomy among subjects. The findings regarding this theme, as well as its relevance are
discussed in the following section.
5.2.1 Negative opinions about this practice
Participants experienced negative feelings about this practice at the beginning of the intervention.
An analysis done to these comments led to the conclusion that there were two main factors
which caused negative feelings among participants: the novelty of the practice and the fact that
participants did not know how to make their own decisions about their learning. This was a new
experience for them. The more teacher-centred were the methods employed to teach them in the
past; the greater the change they went through to adapt to learning autonomously. Implementing
a change in the classroom requires students to move from the known to the unknown and this
causes negative feelings among them (Yılmaz & Kılıçoğlu, 2013). Making their own decisions about
their learning was a drastic change for most of participants, even though this practice was
introduced gradually. Moreover, not knowing how to make decisions stressed students because
they did not know what to decide. They lacked background, experience, and the knowledge
needed to confidently carry out this practice properly. The findings in this study agree with the
results of a study by Ceylan (2015) which indicate that students do not feel competent to make
their own decisions, at least not a formal classroom environment. However, the source of
negative feelings was not only because participants did not know how to make their own
decisions, but it was also because these had a direct impact on their class scores. If some of their
choices were incorrect, their consequences could negatively affect their scores. This was a great
concern for participants. Perhaps if none of the decisions impacted their learning and
performance, negative feelings would not have been generated. Even though most of the choices
they had to make at the beginning of the treatment did not significantly affect their class
performance, there were a few which did; those were the ones that caused negative reactions.
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Had they had the knowledge and expertise to make appropriate decisions about their learning or
had they been asked to decide only aspects of their learning which did not affect their class
performance at all, negative feelings about this practice would not have been generated.
Although making decisions about their learning; and the impact these had, was a major concern
for most of them at first, as the treatment went on it turned into a practice subjects welcomed.
5.2.2 Effects of having participants make their own decisions about their learning
Participants changed their opinions about making their own decisions during the second part of
the intervention. As they gained experience and learnt how to conduct this process, they felt
more confident and felt comfortable at performing this practice. This means they had already
adapted to the change introduced; therefore, they did not experience walking into the unknown,
as Kanter (2012) and Clarke (1994) define change. In addition, they did not experience the
discomfort that results from experiencing change (Yılmaz & Kılıçoğlu, 2013). Some subjects learnt
to make their own decisions more quickly than others, which means they adapted to the change
faster than others. This is a common phenomenon when a change is implemented (Burke, 2008).
Eventually, all participants got accustomed to this practice which contributed to generate positive
feelings about it and welcome it.
Participants said that making their own decisions about their learning gave them control of their
learning. Although participants were not fully autonomous, they were able to decide many
aspects related to it. Being involved in the decision-making process allowed them to make choices
that were suitable for them and their learning. Thus, instead of all subjects doing the same
learning activity, in the same way, using the same materials; they were able to select the learning
activities they felt helped them the most to reach their learning goals, doing them in the way they
considered most appropriate and by using the materials they found most useful. Giving
participants some control of their learning resulted in tailoring learning according to what they
felt it was best for them. Based on the results obtained from a study conducted by Ismail & Yusof
(2012), they found that giving students the opportunity to decide how to learn leads to creating
more learning opportunities and increasing their motivation to learn. In this case, students were
more motivated to work and learn because they were doing so in accordance with their likes,
preferences and what they felt it was best for them.
Moreover, participants felt that making their own decisions about their learning helped them to
be more responsible and become more autonomous in their learning. Subjects stated the former
happened because by deciding how they wanted to learn, they took ownership of their learning.
In addition, they said that whether they were successful or fail, they had no one to blame but
them because they decided how to learn, when, the pace, and the materials. Consequently, if
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they did not comply with the decisions they made, it was their fault. When the decisions were
made by the teacher; if they failed or performed poorly, they could argue that it was due to the
choices the teacher made for them, they could blame the teacher. Nevertheless, in this study
because it was them who made decisions about their learning, they could not attribute failure it
to anybody but them. This caused them to be more responsible, which also led them to become
more autonomous in their learning. By establishing how they were going to learn and doing so
according to how they decided to do it, they depended less and less on somebody else to learn.
This is what Bhattacharya and Chauhan (2010) and Louis (2006) taking control of their learning,
which is a major step towards becoming autonomous learners. These benefits contributed to
have participants realize the relevance of making their own choices about their learning.
Involving participants in the planning of their learning and selection of learning materials and
strategies are aspects included in Reinders’ model and are connected to having students make
their own choices about their learning. Although, such inclusion in this study was not to the level
suggested by this author, it was done as much as it was possible by the limitations of the context
where the research was conducted. Nevertheless, the results indicate that it is vital to involve
learners in the choices made regarding the planning of their learning and other relevant aspects.
5.2.3 Factors that facilitated the decision-making process
According to participants, gradually increasing the number of decisions and their complexity
helped them to become competent at making choices. When students are not used to making
their own decisions about their learning, asking them to make too many at once may be too
stressful (Bhattacharya and Chauhan, 2010; Ho & Crookall, 1995). Making decisions about their
learning was a radical change for most participants, that is why it was required to introduce it
progressively. A change requires a gradual adaptation because the cycle of change involves
certain steps that everyone has to take (Bocos, Radut-Taciu, & Chis, 2015). Therefore, once they
had adapted to an aspect of the change introduced, they were asked to move forward. Having
participants welcome this practice and requesting to keep being allowed to make their own
decisions about their learning indicated that the approach used to introduce it was appropriate.
Giving subjects enough time to make their own decisions was another factor that helped. This
strategy gave them the opportunity to make a careful selection considering their strengths,
weaknesses, personal attributes, learning preferences and any other piece of information they
had become aware of, as well as being able to analyse the implications of such decisions.
Furthermore, having ample time to make decisions allowed subjects to discuss them with their
classmates or the teacher if they felt it was necessary. They provided subjects with a different
perspective on their choices which enhanced the decisions making process. The result obtained
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resemble those by Ahmed (2012) who found that participants suggested discussing the
implications of the decisions they intended to make was an appropriate strategy to have them
make better decisions about their learning.
One relevant suggestion given by the subjects to develop their decision-making skills was to have
students make decisions continuously. Asking subjects to make decisions about their contributed
to develop this skill and get more experience. If the result was positive, subjects realized that such
decision was correct; therefore, it was advisable to make it again. If it was the opposite,
participants could try to realize why it was not appropriate and learn not to make it again. This
accumulation of experiences and knowledge sometimes only happens by trial and error. The
strategy employed, learning by doing, made participants get experience in this practice and
discover by themselves which decisions were suitable for them and which not. The more
knowledge was acquired in this regard, the easier and more appropriate subjects’ choices
became.
Participants expressed that knowing well the requirements of the learning activities, tasks, and
assignments they were asked to complete eased making decisions about their learning. This is
considerably more relevant when students are asked to do tasks they had never done before.
Providing subjects with all the information they need about the tasks and assignments to be done:
their complexity, structure, expected content, length, depth, and any other relevant features, is
vital to make informed decisions. Better decisions are made when people have the information
they need to do so and a suitable range of options to choose from (Morewedge, Yoon, Scopelliti,
Symborski, Korris, & Kassam, 2015). The findings of this study seem to suggest that clearly
explaining what tasks and assignments must be like and providing some examples of them can
contribute to make the decisions making process easier.
Training participants on how to make decisions was another strategy suggested by some
participants; although some expressed, they did not fully agree with this idea and believed
training was not needed but rather have them learn how to make decisions through experience.
Nevertheless, it may be worthwhile to consider training students on decision making when this
practice is first introduced to students who have no background on it. Training on how to make
decisions can provide students with some information, advice, and strategies regarding this
process which could likely assist in the development of this skill. In addition, it may prevent
students from having negative experiences while learning through trial and error. Colakkadioglu &
Celik (2016) explain that it was believed in the past that people could not be trained how to make
decisions; however, they explained that different studies have been conducted on this issue and
have demonstrated that decisions making skills can be taught. Ahmed (2012) claims that making
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decision is an ability which can be developed, if there is anything that can be used to assist this
development such as training, it should probably be used. Nowadays there are endless decision-
making courses and trainings offered by different institutions which affirm they teach how to
make better decisions whether these are personal or work related. If there is anything that may
help learners to adopt a new practice, it should be employed. If participants can learn how to
make decisions more quickly by receiving some training on this issue, it should be given to
prevent having them learn everything about it through personal experience.
5.2.4 The impact of reflection on making decisions
Reflection was conducted at different stages of the intervention. During the awareness raising
stage participants reflected about different issues that were key for their learning. As a result,
they realized what their strengths and weaknesses were, learning preferences, personal
attributes, tasks they were good at doing, and other aspects related to themselves or their
learning. Whatever participants became conscious of required them to reflect about such issues.
Reflection contributed to gain awareness. A relevant finding was that participants highlighted the
importance of reflecting about their decisions when these were being made and at the end of a
learning period. The former gave participants the opportunity to consider different aspects about
themselves and their learning such as preferences and strengths. In addition, it enabled them to
analyse the implications of their intended decisions in terms of work, time, and resources needed
to comply with such decision; as well as the consequences in case they did not commit to doing
what their choices required. This realization helped them decide if the option they chose was the
most appropriate; in case it was not, they had the opportunity to consider other choices that
were more suitable for them. Reflection is vital to make decisions because it can assist individuals
to adjust according to the context and situation (Donovan, Güss, & Naslund, 2015). Osman (2010)
explains that self-reflection can decrease the number of mistakes made by adults when they make
decisions. Having participants reflect about the decisions they intended to make raised their
awareness regarding the implications of such choices. This resulted in participants being more
informed about their decisions and what they implied, which contributed to enhance the
decision-making process.
Reflecting about the decisions they had made at the end of the learning period enabled learners
to establish if these had been correct or incorrect. Larsen, London, and Emke (2016) affirm that
reflection “can be used to influence students’ learning from experience, increase their awareness
of their thoughts and actions” (p. 285). In this case, reflecting raised participants’ awareness
about the consequences of their choices. This knowledge was vital to enhance the quality of the
decisions made for several reasons. First, by knowing which choices were not appropriate,
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participants were able to stop selecting those; thus, avoiding the negative results that would likely
be obtained if such decisions were made again. Second, inappropriate decisions were replaced
with other ones or changes were made to obtain more desirable outcomes. For instance, if a
subject had paired up with a friend to complete a task, but they did not work well together, and
the task had been poorly done; this student could do it on their own the next time they were
given a similar task or select a classmate with whom they had worked properly in the past. Finally,
realizing which decisions enhanced participants’ learning can make the decision process easier
because they will know which ones should made again. All in all, reflecting on the decisions made
at the end of the learning process can generate knowledge regarding whether those decisions
were appropriate, should be repeated, or new decisions ought to be made.
Reflecting at the end of the learning process helped learners to find ways to improve their
learning. This played a vital role in becoming better learners and improving their learning
practices. If students only reflected about their learning process and awareness was raised about
what themselves as learners, their learning process, and their actions; they would acquire
knowledge which undoubtfully could assist them to make better decisions in the future. However,
taken a step further, it could result in participants discovering strategies to improve their learning
practices. Having subjects reflect on their learning process not only assisted participants to
establish what they did right and wrong, but also find ways to make corrections and improve their
learning. These results agree with Little (2001) who asserts that reflecting can lead to awareness
regarding what helped the learning process, what did not, and how learning practices can be
enhanced, and Chang (2019) contends that it is necessary to reflect on what has been learnt to
review it, improve it, and extend it.
The findings of this study support the structure found in Reinders’ model regarding the inclusion
of reflection as a level of implementation. This model required students to reflect about their
learning process. The results of this investigation showed that doing so can help students become
aware of different aspects about themselves and their learning, as well as to improve their
learning practices.
Autonomous learning
The purpose of this study was to explore whether and how much the intervention fostered
autonomous learning among participants. Therefore, it was essential to discuss the findings that
were generated in relation to this approach to learning. The themes related to this topic are
examined in this section.
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5.3.1 The opinions of the participants about autonomous learning
At the beginning of the intervention, it was difficult for participants to learn in this way. Learning
autonomously was a drastic change for most of them. Nevertheless, as the treatment went on
and participants adapted to the change introduced their feelings became positive. At the end of
the study subjects stated autonomous learning was a great approach and they enjoyed learning
with it. Furthermore, they affirmed that learning was easier than through teacher-centred
methods because they were able to make their own decisions, control their learning and do so
according to what they felt was more suitable to them. Giving students control of their learning
contributes to develop a sense of ownership among them and makes them more committed to
their learning (St. Louis, 2006).
5.3.2 The opinions of the participants about autonomous learning
At the beginning of the intervention, it was difficult for participants to learn in this way. Learning
autonomously was a drastic change for most of them. Nevertheless, as the treatment went on
and participants adapted to the change introduced their feelings became positive. At the end of
the study subjects stated autonomous learning was a great approach and they enjoyed learning
with it. Furthermore, they affirmed that learning was easier than through teacher-centred
methods because they were able to make their own decisions, control their learning and do so
according to what they felt was more suitable to them. Giving students control of their learning
contributes to develop a sense of ownership among them and makes them more committed to
their learning (St. Louis, 2006).
5.3.3 Factors that contributed to the development of autonomous learning
Working in teams was a practice that helped to introduce autonomous learning. By implementing
cooperative learning activities participants were required to construct their own knowledge by
interacting, learning from, and teaching each other. This approach was welcomed by participants
because they selected who the teamed up with. In addition, they helped each other, brainstorm
ideas, gave and received feedback from teammates and ideas and suggestions were shared to
achieve their learning objectives more easily. The fact that almost all participants chose to work
with others at one point or another, showed that working in teams was a practice that was
welcomed by participants. These findings agree with what some of the benefits of cooperative
learning according to Chamisah (2013), it makes students work together to solve problems and
achieved common goals, it promotes active involvement and responsibility of students in their
learning. Collaboration and some dependency on the teacher for their learning was common
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when cooperative learning activities were carried out. These practices introduced autonomous
learning to participants.
Feedback helped participants to adapt to autonomous learning because it was a type of guidance
that assisted them to go in the right direction to reach their learning goals. This was especially
important when autonomous learning was first introduced because without it, participants might
not have known what to do, how to do it, or which learning materials to use. Feedback helped to
prevent misconceptions and clarify misunderstandings of the content to be learnt, prevented
wrongfully doing the tasks assigned or selected, provided suggestions to improve the quality of
participants’ work and motivated learners to keep working. Feedback gave students guidance as
suggested by Iimuro & Berger (2010), students need guidance as they are introduced to
autonomous learning. In this study, feedback provided directions, support, and assistance to have
subjects walk more easily along their path for learning.
The employment of self-study guides contributed to make participants learn autonomously to
some degree. This happened for several reasons. They gave participants freedom to learn since
subjects selected whether to work on them at home or in the classroom; it individually, in pairs or
in small teams. They chose to use the learning materials included in them or find others that they
considered more suitable for them. In addition, study guides provided participants with the
opportunity to work at their own pace since they decided how long and how fast they worked on
them. Furthermore, these learning materials made learners more responsible. This happened
because they oversaw the decisions made regarding the completion and submission of the self-
study guides, and they were responsible of conducting the actions that lead to completing all the
work required. The results obtained are congruent with what García and Mercedes (2014) affirm
about self-study guides. These are a learning tool which enhances the learning process developing
learner autonomy.
5.3.4 Participants becoming more autonomous in their learning
Learners felt they became more autonomous in their learning. One of the reasons given was the
fact that they were responsible of their learning. This happened at different levels depending on
each participant; nevertheless, all of them considered themselves to be more responsible learners
compared to what they were like prior to their participation in the treatment. They believed this
because they made decisions about their learning and complied with what these required. In
addition, they took ownership of their actions and behaviours. They did not blame other for their
mistakes or wrong decisions they made and accepted the consequences of such decisions and
their actions. Furthermore, they were able to analyse themselves and their actions to discover
what they were doing right and wrong and try to find ways to improve their learning. This
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matches existing literature that contends that autonomous learners are responsible of their
learning (Xhaferi and Xhaferi, 2011; Benson, 2007; Little, 2002).
Another indication that participants became autonomous learners was the fact that they took
charge of many aspects of their learning. This happened during the second part of the treatment.
They were able to plan how they wanted to learn; individually, in small teams, or in pairs, by
attending face-to-face sessions and tutorials or by working outside the classroom, by setting up
meetings with the teacher to ask questions or by doing it at the tutorials or through social media
or email. They selected time and the pace they were going to learn at by creating a workplan in
which they stated what they were going to do in each class session included in their schedule and
establishing the deadlines of the tasks they were going to submit. They chose the learning
activities they were going to complete and the learning resources they were going to employ to
learn. In addition, eventually they were able to select most of the assessing instruments that were
going to be employed to evaluate them and the value of each one of them. According to existing
literature, autonomous learners take control of their learning (Ismail & Yusof, 2012; Iimuro &
Berger, 2010; Reinders, 2010; Littlewood, 1996; Holec, 1985), this is what participants did
gradually during the intervention. Although they did not have full control of it, they became more
autonomous in their learning.
Another reason given by participants to state they became autonomous learners was the fact that
they did not adopt a passive role in their learning. Throughout the treatment participants were
required to learn on their own. Participants were conscious they were going to carry out
constructivist-like activities which required them to build their own knowledge by working in
small teams, in pairs or by themselves. Sometimes they went ahead of schedule on the learning of
some topics included in the syllabus. There were several occasions when participants; without
being told to, researched more information about the issues to be learnt, asked classmates or
other teacher about it, or used other learning resources to complement and enhance their
learning. In addition, the use of self-study guides required them to learn autonomously. These
allowed them to work at their pace, as they felt it was best, on their own time, using the
resources and learning activities they preferred. Because participants worked and constructed
their own knowledge; by working by themselves or with others, they did not limit themselves to
learning with the materials given, learnt at their own pace and did so as they preferred to learn
indicate that they were autonomous in their learning.
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Research questions
Until now, the results from the data collection instruments were presented in the previous
chapter, and the most relevant themes have been discussed in the first part of this one. Next, the
answers to the research questions are provided using the relevant findings obtained in this
investigation.
5.4.1 Main research question 1: What evidence indicates that there has been a
development of autonomous learning among participants?
Participants expressed in the questionnaire and the interviews that they developed their
decisions-making skills, this facilitated making their own choices about their learning which Islam
(2011) considers vital in autonomous learning. Throughout the intervention, at different levels
and amounts, participants made decisions about their learning. Although at first this practice was
confusing, eventually it was welcomed and appreciated by all. It was also found from the
responses to the questionnaire that participants gradually develop the ability to plan how they
were going to learn, to choose they pace they were going to work with, the materials and
strategies they were going to use; as well as to select the instruments they wanted to be
assessed. The findings from the interviews support the previous. Subjects stated that making their
own decisions became easier as the treatment progressed. They affirmed that during the second
part of the intervention they felt competent at it and welcomed this practice. Bhattacharya and
Chauhan (2010), Louis (2006), and Ho and Crookall (1995) contend that by having students make
this type of decisions, they begin to take control of their learning, which is an essential step
towards becoming autonomous learners. The fact that participants develop their decision-making
skills and were able to decide how they wanted to learn at some point during the treatment is an
indication that they became more autonomous in their learning by the end of intervention.
The responses collected from the questionnaires and interviews showed that participants were
able to take charge of several aspects of their learning during the second part of the treatment.
Lengkanawati (2017), Iimuro & Berger (2010) and Holec (1981), define autonomous learning as
having the ability to take control of one’s learning. Ismail & Yusof (2012) and Reinders, (2010)
affirm that such control can be achieved by allowing students to make their own decisions
regarding their learning. The subjects of the study stated in the responses from the two
instruments that they felt they oversaw because they were able to select how and when to learn,
which activities they want to do, which materials they were going to use, who they worked with,
how they wanted to be assessed. In addition, participants also affirmed that having them plan,
monitor, and reflect on their own learning contributed to take control of it because they were
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able to decide how they wanted to learn, notice what helped them and what did not, as well as to
think of strategies to improve their learning and make the necessary changes to achieve such
goal. This matches the model by Reinders (2010) and his view that through reflection learners can
analyse their learning and identify what caused them problems, as well as lead them to find
solutions to such problems, and think of the changes they need to make in their learning practices
to enhance them. Reflecting throughout the learning process is an essential aspect of
autonomous learning (Tassinari, 2016). The fact that participants were able to plan, monitor, and
reflect on their learning shows that they were in control of aspects of their learning, which is an
indication that autonomous learning was fostered among them.
The data obtained from the three data collection instruments employed showed that eventually
participants did not depend on the teacher all the time to learn or further their knowledge. They
were able to learn by themselves some of the topics included in the syllabus. Wejira (2019) and
Dickinson (1995) contend that autonomous learning requires students to be independent and
more involved in their learning so that they can take charge of it. Boggu & Sundarsingh (2019) and
Ajideh (2009) explain that this approach requires students to work on their own without having to
depend all the time on the teacher for supervision or direction. During the interviews and in the
learner diaries participants declared that during the second part of the treatment they often
worked by themselves or with others to learn the topics of the class. This was done mainly by
researching information on the Internet or using the learning materials and resources they had
been provided with by the teacher at the beginning of the class. They then attended some of the
tutorials given by the teacher to refine their knowledge, ask questions they had, or to elaborate
on what they had learnt independently. Some subjects mentioned did this to have more
opportunities to get feedback and make corrections if these were needed. Hu and Zhang (2017)
and Cabrera-Ruiz (2009) explain that in autonomous learning students learn by themselves or by
collaborating with others, which is what participants did in this study. In addition, participants
expressed in their learning diaries, interviews, and questionnaire that they often went beyond the
knowledge they obtained from the teacher and the materials provided by him. They continuously
looked for extra information about the topics to be learnt to get a better understanding of them
or complement their learning. They did this by researching on online, asking other teachers, or
students who had already taken the class. The actions participants reported doing indicated that
they took responsibility of several aspects of their learning.
Subjects reported an increase in their responsibility towards their learning. This was found in the
comments that emerged from the questionnaire, the interviews, and the learner diaries. Chan
(2001) explains that students taking responsibility of their learning is vital in autonomous learning.
Cotterall (2000) contends that autonomous learners take responsibility of some aspects of their
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learning at different stages during the learning process. Participants explained that as the
treatment progressed, they became more responsible learners. They affirmed this because of the
learning practices they adopted, which are attributed to responsible learners. They tried to submit
all the assignments they had chosen to do, they were intrinsically motivated to do their best
effort, they met the deadlines they had set for themselves, they accepted negative results when
they knew they had not worked hard enough, and they were interested in learning and using new
strategies to become better learners. Furthermore, participants stated they realized that since
they had planned how they were going to learn, it was their responsibility to conduct all the
actions that were required to achieve their learning goals. Subjects took ownership of their
learning and were motivated to do what was necessary to comply with the decisions they had
made about their learning. Al-Saadi (2011), Nunan (1997), and Littlewood (1996) argue that
autonomous learning requires students not only to make decisions, but also to be responsible for
performing the actions that result from such decisions. This is what subjects did during the
intervention.
One essential aspect from autonomous learning which all participants reported developing in the
questionnaire and interviews was awareness raising. Researchers agree that it is essential that
learners gain awareness about different aspects related to themselves and their learning in
autonomous learning (Abdelrazeq, 2018; Darsih, 2018; Tassinari, 2016; Cotterall, 1995). This is
because the knowledge obtained from this endeavour helps them to make better decisions about
their learning (Cohen, 2003). The participants of this study affirmed they became more conscious
of different features related to autonomous learning, themselves, and their learning during the
treatment. They stated they raised their consciousness of what autonomous learning involved,
their strengths and weaknesses, their learning styles and preferences, the tasks they were
competent at doing, the people they worked well with, their EFL skills, how they learnt best, their
assessment preferences, among other aspects. They also said that becoming conscious of the
previous contributed to make better decisions about their learning because such knowledge led
them to choose more efficiently what helped them learn, who they worked well with, how they
learn well, and which assessing instruments helped them to show what they have learnt. This
agrees with what Öztürk (2019), Azin, Biria & Golestan (2018) and Zulaihah & Harida (2017),
affirm regarding autonomous learners. They need to become consciousness of their strengths and
weaknesses, as well as other aspects related to their learning such as the most appropriate
methods, resources, and strategies for them, and the learning tasks. The development of
participants’ awareness about different aspect related to themselves and their learning suggests
that autonomous learning was promoted among them.
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5.4.1.1 Subsidiary question 1: How do the elements of the treatment contribute to the
development of autonomous learning?
According to the comments participants made in the questionnaire and interviews the work plan
they were asked to create at the beginning of each term, the course outline helped them to plan
and monitor their work and learning. The latter was provided by the teacher with relevant
information about the course while the former included useful information for the subjects such
as the assignments they were going to complete, the activities they were going to do each week,
the progress they planned to achieve weekly, and the deadlines they established. Subjects agreed
that including the previous information in the work plan helped plan how they were going to learn
because they wrote down the decisions they made regarding their learning. In addition, they were
able to monitor their own work because it reminded them what they had to do and when it had
to be done. Hu & Zhang (2017) explains that when students monitor their learning, they can
regulate their work and learning, and it increases motivation, commitment, and persistence to
learn. Ajideh (2009) and Nunan (1997) add that this practice helps them identify the problems
they have during the learning process and make the necessary changes to avoid them in the
future. Not enough data was gathered regarding monitoring helping participants find problems
they had during their learning.
Based on the responses from the questionnaire and interviews, participants stated that the
support and feedback they received on their work, drafts, tasks, and anything related to their
learning was crucial for them to be more autonomous. When they began to work independently,
support was essential because they had many questions, they were unsure about what to do and
how, they needed assurance about what they were doing or needed suggestions. Once they
completed some tasks or gained some experience they did not need as much assistance;
however, teacher support was still necessary to give participants feedback so that they could
correct any mistakes they had made, as well as to give suggestions on how to improve their work.
Reinders (2010) and Chia (2005) contend that when autonomous learning is introduced, learners
need assistance to understand this new way of learning and develop the competencies required.
The latter affirms that more help is needed when this approach is first introduced because it is
then when learners have the most questions and doubts about it. The support participants were
given during the treatment was vital to guide them in their independent learning endeavours, as
well as to help them to overcome the difficulties they encountered as they began to learn on their
own.
The responses obtained from the questionnaire and interviews showed that pair and teamwork
contributed to foster autonomous learning. Because learners often worked outside the
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classroom, and the teacher was not there to teach them nor available to provide them with the
assistance they needed, working in collaboration with their peers led to have them give and
receive feedback, support each other, make decisions, and construct knowledge together. In
autonomous learning, students can choose to work by themselves or with others to reach their
learning goals (Karababa & Arik, 2010). When they decide to work and learn with others, they
have opportunity to interact, help and encourage each other in or outside the classroom. This is
what Hu and Zhang (2017) and Cabrera-Ruiz (2009) mean when they affirm that autonomous
learning has a collectivist culture; it permits students to work in collaboration to complete the
tasks they need to achieve their learning objectives. Working in pairs or teams outside the
classroom gave participants the opportunity to be independent in their learning, which required
them to make their own decisions about their learning. These conditions required participants to
take some control of the learning of the topics they studied. By doing so, they were learning
autonomously (Lengkanawati, 2017; Karababa & Arik, 2010; Holec, 1981).
The comments obtained from participants’ diaries indicated that the self-study guides employed
in this study contributed to promote autonomous learning. They provide the necessary
scaffolding to reach specific learning objectives or competencies because they focus on the
facilitation of learning (Garcia-Aretio, 2014). This type of guides optimizes and facilitate the
teaching-learning process by promoting cognitive processes in students to help them learn
autonomously (Garcia Aretio, 2014). Students expressed that self-study guides gave them
freedom in their learning they were able to decide which to download and complete first, when
to do so, and whether they did it individually or in collaboration. This assisted participants to
organize their time more appropriately, as well as to work at their own pace. Self-study guides
gave participants considerable control of the learning of the topics included in them. All in all, self-
study guides gave participants independence in their learning and enabled them to make their
own decisions about their learning; which are vital aspects in autonomous learning (Boggu &
Sundarsingh, 2019; Wejira, 2019; Shawwa, 2010; Benson, 2000; Holec, 1981).
Participants agreed that introducing autonomous learning gradually was appropriate because it
gave them the opportunity to adapt to the new way of learning for them. They had previously
been taught with teacher-centred methods, autonomous learning was a drastic change for them
and needed time to slowly change their learning practices. Bocos, Radut-Taciu & Chis (2015) and
Martin (1999) affirm that it takes students some time to adapt to the new learning practices
autonomous learning involves; therefore, it is suggested to introduce this approach gradually. In
addition to using a progressive implementation, it is advisable to introduce easy learning practices
at first; then, gradually increase their difficulty this process continues (Nordlund, 2001; Brajcich,
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2000; Cotterall, 1995). The findings of this study match existing literature regarding how to
introduce autonomous learning.
5.4.1.2 Subsidiary question 2: How do the levels of implementation contribute to foster
autonomous learning?
The intervention of this study included five levels: awareness raising, planning learning,
monitoring of learning, assessing learning, and reflecting on the learning process. Raising
participants’ awareness helped them to gain knowledge about themselves and their what assisted
their learning. According to the responses of participants from the interviews and questionnaire,
they became aware of what autonomous learning is, their strengths and weaknesses, themselves
as learners, their EFL skills, what they needed to learn, the consequences of the decisions they
made, and the necessary conditions for them to learn well. Abdelrazeq (2018), Azin, Biria &
Golestan (2018) and Zulaihah & Harida (2017), contend that when students become conscious of
these aspects, they can plan their learning more efficiently and quickly because they already know
which choices to make regarding the materials, the learning strategies, the methods, and the
tasks that facilitate learning. Therefore, the contribution awareness raising makes is to help
students obtain knowledge that, when considered, can assist them in making more appropriate
decisions about their learning; which is essential in autonomous learning (Lengkanawati, 2017;
Zulaihah & Harida, 2017).
The second level of implementation, planning learning, gave participants the opportunity to make
decisions about their learning. When subjects had already adapted to the approach introduced
during the second part of the treatment, they were able to make many of the decisions about
their learning. Allowing students to participate in the decision-making process is a cornerstone of
autonomous learning (Darsih, 2018) and it is during the planning of their learning that they make
a great number of choices (Warni & Supraptiningsih, 2019). Based on the comments participants
made from the three data collection instruments, it was found that in the planning of their
learning they were able to decide the learning strategies they wanted to use, the resources, the
activities and tasks, the type and number of assignments they were going to complete, whether
they worked individually or with others, who they worked with, the pace they were going to learn
at, as well as the progress they were going to make each week on their learning. This practice
leads towards giving them control of their learning; which is what autonomous learning is all
about (Wejira, 2019; Ismail & Yusof, 2012; Reinders, 2011; Iimuro & Berger, 2010). Therefore,
allowing learners to make their own decisions about their learning, while they plan their learning
or at any other stage during this process, contributed to foster autonomous learning. In addition,
participants agreed that giving them the opportunity to gradually make this type of decisions
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helped to develop this skill and foster autonomous learning. This is congruent with what Yildirim
(2012) suggests; to have learners make a few choices first; and as they gain experience at it,
increase the number and difficulty of decisions they make about their learning.
Involving participants in the monitoring of their work and learning also helped to foster
autonomous learning. The participants commented during the interviews and the questionnaire
that this practice helped them to realize what they had done, what they still needed to complete,
how much time they had left, and what was required to submit all the work they had selected on
time. Subjects agreed that gaining awareness of the previous helped them to be more responsible
of their learning because; since they had decided how they were going to learn during the
planning stage, the completion of the tasks selected, and the reaching of their learning goals
depended on them. Ajideh (2009) argues that monitoring learning raises learners’ awareness
about their learning choices and practices. In addition, having learners monitor their work led
them to gain consciousness about what was easy to do, what caused them difficulty, what
assisted their learning, what did not during the learning process. Asking participants to monitor
their work and learning resulted in an increase in learner responsibility and awareness about their
learning practices; which are aspects that need to be developed for students to become
autonomous learners (Azin, Biria & Golestan, 2018, Zulaihah & Harida, 2017; Dam, 2011; Nunan,
1997; Littlewood, 1996).
The fourth level of implementation, assessing learning, allowed participants to make decisions
regarding the assessment of their learning. Lengkanawati (2017) and Karababa & Arik (2010)
contend that learners should be involved in the decisions made throughout the whole learning
process. Assessment is part of this process, that is why it is suggested that students’ opinions
should be considered during this stage. Nunan (2003) believes that teachers could share control
of classroom learning by engaging learners in the evaluation process. The results of the study by
Warni & Supraptiningsih (2019) affirm that it is possible to involve learners in the decisions made
about their assessment. Participants reported that involving them in the making of these
decisions made them more responsible for their learning because since they had made the
choices, it was their responsibility to carry out whichever actions that emerged from what they
had decided to. Nunan (1997) and Littlewood (1996) explain that in autonomous learning
students are not only in charge of the decisions made, but they are also responsible for
performing the actions that emerge from such decisions. Therefore, the fourth level allows
participants to make decisions about their learning, which gives them control of it, and
contributes to make students more responsible of their learning.
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The last level of implementation; reflecting on the learning process, helped participants analyse
their learning process, what was useful, what was not, how to use their strengths in their learning,
the resources that were employed to assist them, the changes they had to make to improve their
learning, as well as the decisions they made and their implications; according to the findings that
emerged from the three data collection instruments. Learners claimed that reflecting on this issue
raised their awareness about themselves as learners and what assisted their learning.
Furthermore, they expressed that reflection was useful to find more appropriate learning
strategies, to self-correct their work, to make better decisions about their learning, to plan and
evaluate their learning more appropriately, as well as to improve their learning overall. Reflection
is vital in this approach to learning because it contributes to have students examine their learning
experiences, their perceptions about their learning, to establish what assists their learning, to
identify what causes them difficulty in their learning, to find solutions to the problems they have,
and to enhance their learning (Tassinari, 2012; Reinders, 2010; Nordlund, 2001). Having students
reflect during the treatment contributed to have students to develop a skill necessary in
autonomous learning; one which leads them to analyse by themselves their learning and all the
aspects related to it to enhance it.
5.4.2 Main research question 2: What are the opinions of the participants about learning
autonomously?
The comments of the participants from the interviews and questionnaire showed that they were
pleased learning in this way. Although at the beginning of the study they felt somewhat nervous
and doubtful about it; eventually, participants adapted to the new learning practices and
welcomed learning autonomously. When asked at the end of the intervention how they felt about
learning autonomously, subjects declared they liked it because they had freedom to choose how
they wanted to learn and were in control of most aspects of their learning. Furthermore, they
stated they preferred it over teacher-centred methods because they had the opportunity to learn
at their own pace; alone or in collaboration, and they were able to accommodate their learning
according to their capacities, learning styles and preferences. Islam (2011) explains that students
take control of their learning by creating their own learning plans according to their needs and
abilities. Wejira (2019) and Zulaihah & Harida (2017) add that learning autonomously involves
selecting the learning methods, techniques, materials, and progression of their learning. Based on
what students expressed, being able to make these decisions contributed to have learners assign
enough time for them to learn the topics they needed to well and complete the assignments they
selected without having to worry about how fast or slow their classmates were working. Finally,
learners stated they were pleased with learning autonomously because it helped them to develop
some skills which assisted them in their learning such as time management, decision making, and
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awareness raising. They affirmed that this resulted from having them decide how they were going
to learn, enabling them to organize their learning endeavours according to the content to be
learnt and the tasks they were going to complete, as well as having them reflect about the
decisions made and their learning process. The positive opinions participants had about
autonomous learning are likely to have resulted from acquiring the knowledge they needed and
developing the skills necessary to do so. These two elements are vital to learn autonomously
according to Littlewood (1996).
5.4.2.1 Subsidiary question 1: What are the views of the subjects about the fostering of
autonomous learning in this study?
Participants expressed at the end of the treatment through the interviews and questionnaire that
they believed autonomous learning was fostered properly. They affirmed that the gradual
development of the skills needed to learn according to this approach gave them the opportunity
to progressively acquired the different components of this approach to learning. This facilitated
the promotion of this approach. Nordlund (2001) contends that adapting to autonomous learning
is neither fast nor easy. Bocos, Radut-Taciu & Chis, (2015) agree and state that it takes some time
for students to adapt to the learning with this approach and everything that it involves. The
comments the participants made agree with what Nordlund (2001), Brajcich (2000) and Cotterall
(1995) affirm: autonomous learning should be developed gradually to prevent confusion and
stress among students. In addition, learners acknowledged that the support they were provided
through the different resources given, as well as the guidance and assistance given by the teacher,
decreased the number of difficulties faced during the introduction and development of
autonomous learning. Reindeers (2010) and Chia (2005) agree that learners need assistance when
autonomous learning is implemented to understand this new way of learning and develop the
competencies this approach requires them to have.
5.4.2.2 Subsidiary research question 2: What are the opinions of the participants about
autonomous learning and how these developed along the treatment?
The findings that emerged from the questionnaire showed that learners had negative opinions
about autonomous learning at the beginning of the treatment because this type of learning was
confusing to them and caused them to feel lost and frustrated. They explained that this was
because it was a new way of learning for them; since they were used to learning with teacher-
centred methods, and they lacked the skills they needed to be successful at learning with this
approach. This is congruent with what St. Louis (2006) argues. This researcher affirms that
learners who have learnt in a system that is controlled by the teacher find it difficult to become
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teacher independent. Al-Saadi (2011), on the other hand, asserts that most students dislike the
idea of overseeing their own learning. Yılmaz & Kılıçoğlu (2013) explain that experiencing negative
feelings when a change is introduced is completely natural. Boohene & Williams (2012) adds that
negative reactions and resistance to change usually is experienced from those who undergo such
change. It was also found that as the treatment progressed, and participants developed the
abilities needed and acquired knowledge necessary, autonomous learning became less difficulty
for them. At the end of the treatment, all the opinions learners expressed about this approach to
learning were positive. They said it was a “great” approach to learn with. They welcomed
autonomous learning because they were able to control their learning, it enabled them to
develop the skills they needed to improve their learning, it made learning more meaningful, and
they became more independent and responsible learners. Participants expressed they preferred
learning with this approach rather than with the teacher-centred methods their teachers had
used prior to participating in the study. They stated they wished their future teachers employed
autonomous learning in the classes they were going to take in the rest of the program.
Overview
The global themes found in the data collected across instruments were discussed in this chapter
to get a better understanding of participants’ opinions, experiences, and views about autonomous
learning and the intervention. They showed that they developed skills which are essential to learn
autonomously such as awareness raising, decision-making, and reflecting. This discussion, along
with the results obtained, were employed to answer the research questions in the second part of
this chapter. Evidence provided indicates that autonomous learning was fostered among
participants, how each aspect of the treatment and the levels of the model employed contributed
to reach this goal. Furthermore, it was found that learners’ views towards learning autonomously
were positive and the fact that this approach was fostered appropriately overall. These findings
were used to conclude the study presented in the following chapter.
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Chapter 6 Conclusions
Introduction
Several conclusions were drawn from answering the research questions, the discussion of
findings, and the analysis of all the data collected. Overall, the objective of the treatment was
reached. Nevertheless, other conclusions were reached regarding the elements of the treatment
that helped to foster autonomous learning and why, the aspects from participants that were
developed to learn autonomously and why these were needed, and the opinions of participants
about this approach to learning and regarding the way it was introduced. These conclusions, along
with the limitations of the study, the suggestions for further research, and the practical
implications, are presented next.
Conclusions
Based on the results of this investigation, it was concluded that the evidence was obtained to
indicate that autonomous learning was fostered among participants. Participants were able to
take control of aspects of their learning at some point during the intervention, which is how
Lengkanawati (2017), Karababa & Arik (2010) and Holec (1981) define autonomous learning. The
previous was achieved because learners made many of the decisions about their learning during
the study. Darsih (2018) explains that involving learners in the decision-making process is
essential to promote autonomous learning. Participants planned their learning; selecting the
learning materials and activities, methods, pace, and modes of learning they wanted to use. In
addition, they were able to monitor their own learning using the instruments they were provided
with as well as other ones they chose to use. Furthermore, they participated in the decisions
made regarding the evaluation of their learning. They were allowed to select the assessment
instruments, their value, how and when they were submitted, as well as the number of these. In
other words, students were involved in the decisions made about their learning throughout this
process, which led to the conclusion that autonomous learning was fostered among the
participants of this study.
It was also concluded that the intervention achieved its goal because skills and personal traits that
are essential in autonomous learning were developed. Participants’ awareness was raised. They
became conscious of their strengths, weaknesses, learning styles, preferences, as well as useful
learning strategies and techniques. Abdelrazeq (2018), Darsih (2018), and Tassinari (2016) affirm
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that raising student awareness regarding themselves as learners and their learning is key in
autonomous learning because this process helps them to discover relevant knowledge which they
can use to make better decisions about their learning (Cohen, 2003). Moreover, participants
developed their decision-making skills. This practice was new to them; nevertheless, they learnt
to do so and put it in practice throughout the intervention. Zulaihah & Harida (2017) and Holec
(1981) explain that autonomous learning requires students to make their own decisions about
their learning, which learners did to a little or greater degree during the study. In addition, the
findings indicate that participants developed their reflective skills. This resulted from having them
analyse and reflect about their learning and try to find ways to improve this process. Tassinari
(2016) and Scharle & Szabo (2000) affirm that students need to reflect at every stage of their
learning process in autonomous learning. In this study learners were asked to reflect at the end of
each learning period about their learning, although some reflection was conducted when students
wrote their diary entries during the interventions. These reflection tasks helped to develop
participants’ reflective skills.
A relevant aspect of autonomous learning found was that participants became more independent
in their learning. Eventually, they learnt with little or no help from the teacher, often in advance,
by collaborating with others, and by using different learning resources; given as well as others
they found by themselves. Boggu & Sundarsingh (2019) and Ajideh (2009) argue that in
autonomous learning students need to be independent and actively involved in their learning and
learn by working by themselves or in collaboration with others (Hu and Zhang, 2017; Cabrera-
Ruiz, 2009), which was done by participants during the intervention. Furthermore, subjects took
more responsibility of their learning. They tried to meet the deadlines they set for themselves,
submit all the assignments they chose to do, they were motivated to do their best effort, they
were aware of and accepted the consequences of their decisions. Al-Saadi (2011) and Nunan
(1997) contend that learners not only make decisions about their learning, but they also must
take responsibility of conducting the actions that result for such choices. Gradually, participants
became responsible of their learning by making their own decisions and doing what resulted from
these.
Another conclusion drawn from this investigation was that one element of the intervention that
assisted the introduction and development of autonomous learning was the strategy used to
implement this approach. Gradually introducing autonomous learning gave participants time to
develop the skills they needed and to adapt to a new way of learning that was new to them since
they were accustomed to learning with teacher-centred methods. This is consistent with what
Bocos, Radut-Taciu, & Chis (2015), Nordlund (2001), and Brajcich (2000) suggest. They affirm that
autonomous learning must be introduced gradually to prevent confusion and negative feelings
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among learners. In addition, the scaffolding, the resources, the assistance, and support subjects
were given throughout the study played a crucial role in the fostering of autonomous learning.
They stated that the previous helped them to organize, plan, monitor, and guide their learning, as
well as to foster independent learning. Yılmaz & Kılıçoğlu (2013) and Kanter (2012) affirm that
learning autonomously involves a drastic change for many students. Because of this, learners
need assistance when this approach is implemented to have a good understanding of its
implications in their learning and develop the competencies this approach requires them to have
(Reinders, 2010; Chia, 2005). Finally, the levels of implementation included in the model provided
subjects with something they needed to learn autonomously. Whether to gain knowledge;
awareness raising, or develop skills needed in this approach to learning; making decisions,
monitoring, or reflecting on their learning, each level contributed to foster autonomous learning.
Based on the findings, the researcher concluded the level of implementation that made the
greatest contribution to the fostering of autonomous learning was allowing participants to make
their own decisions about their learning. This practice gave learners the opportunity to take
control of their learning. The more decision they made; the more autonomous participants were.
Lengkanawati (2017) and Karababa, Eker, & Arik (2010) explain that autonomous learning
requires students to take control of their learning at every stage of this process, although this can
also happen at some stages (Cotterall, 2000). This is achieved by having learners make their own
decisions (Lengkanawati, 2017; Zulaihah & Harida, 2017; Holec, 1981). In this study, learners were
able to take charge of their learning to some degree during the intervention, at the beginning a
little whereas during the second part about many aspects of their learning. This was also a
practice that eventually was welcomed by all the participants.
It was concluded that participants welcomed learning with this approach because they took
control of different aspects of their learning: they were able to learn at their own pace, they
selected the learning activities and tasks, they chose some of the assessment instruments, just to
name a few. They also acknowledged the benefits of learning with this approach such as: they
were motivated to learn, their learning improved, they became less teacher-dependent in their
learning and most responsible of it, and they develop different skills useful for their learning.
Several researchers agree with the opinions participants expressed regarding the benefits
autonomous learning produces (Sakrak-Ekin & Balçıkanlı, 2019; Zulaihah & Harida; Boggu &
Sundarsingh, 2019; Hu and Zhang, 2017; Yamashita, 2015; Bhattacharya & Chauhan, 2010;
Shawwa, 2010; Lowe, 2009; Ryan and Deci, 2000). Although at the beginning of the treatment
they had negative opinions about this approach, at the end of the intervention they all agreed
they welcome autonomous learning and wished to continue learning with this approach.
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Based on the findings of this study, the researcher concluded that self-study guides can foster
autonomous learning, but learners’ work and progress must be monitored continuously. The
latter is especially necessary when students who have had no experience working with them. It
has been established that these guides assist students to learn, as well as to promote
autonomous learning (García and Mercedes, 2014; Garcia Aretio, 2014). However, what has not
been discussed sufficiently is the fact that students’ progress needs to be monitored and checked
frequently. It was found in this research that the latter is essential for different reasons. First, to
make sure students work regularly in their study guides. Lack of monitoring can result in
procrastination by learners. This leads to incomplete work or low quality in it because it was all
done in a few days without paying attention to details and not taking enough time for revising and
correcting. In addition, learners can experience stress, frustration, and anxiety from having to
complete several tasks in a short period of time. Second, checking students’ work decreases
misconceptions about the content to be learnt, as well as incorrect performance of tasks because
any wrong or understanding or doing is informed to students or highlighted for them to correct.
Guidance, feedback, and corrections are possible if this practice is implemented throughout the
learning process. Finally, monitoring and checking learners’ work can also be used to encourage
learners as they learn autonomously. Ideas can be suggested, praising can be done, questions can
be answered, deadlines and other information can be reminded, and any other type of assistance
is possible to be provided while students work and learn to increase the quality of their work and
learning. Students cannot just be given self-study guides to work with and expect them to be
disciplined, responsible, manage their time properly, and work consciously and continuously in
their study guides. Monitoring is necessary to ensure the previous happens. If so, expected
learning objectives will be reached and autonomous learning will be fostered.
Limitations
The current study falls within a large area of research. Autonomous learning has an endless
number of issues that have been and continue to be explored by researchers all over the world.
This investigation examined only two of them: the introduction and development of this learning
approach. Its findings contributed to get a better understanding of these aspects. Nonetheless,
more studies of this type are required to be conducted in other settings, including participants
with different profiles, and done under diverse conditions to gain more knowledge about the
issues explored here. Due to the fact that this learning approach is so vast, and it has so many
variables, an unlimited number of topics can be investigated about it. This study examined two of
these from the thousands that are likely to exist. Although this can be considered as an advantage
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because it led to get reliable information about them, the researcher is conscious that there are
many more that still need to be researched but could not be included in this study.
Future research
An issue connected to the introduction of autonomous learning that needs to be investigated
further is the planning of the implementation of this learning approach. It was identified in the
conclusions section that little is known about this process. It is clear; however, that researchers
who have introduced autonomous learning prior to this process thought through and made
essential decisions about it to get the best possible results. Nevertheless, not enough has been
written about what happens in the planning stage. The author of this study believes that further
research on this issue needs to be carried out so that there can be a better understanding of what
the planning process involves, how it can be done, which decisions must be made, the aspects
and elements that must be considered, and anything else related to this stage. The information
generated from this research could benefit anybody interested in implementing autonomous
learning because they would get some guidelines which can assist them to plan this process. As
more knowledge is obtained about how to plan, people interested on this topic will have fewer
questions and doubts about it, and it is likely that their planning will be more appropriate.
Throughout this investigation it has been discussed that for students to become autonomous
learners they need to employ autonomous learning skills. Although different researchers have
written about which these skills are and some of them have conducted studies that have
generated some knowledge regarding what can be done to develop such skills, more research
needs to be conducted on this issue. In contexts like the one in this study, where everything is
controlled by the teacher, it is likely that there is and has been no effort to help students develop
such abilities. If autonomous learning is intended to be introduced among this type of learners, it
is crucial to help them acquire the skills they will need to be independent in their learning.
Nevertheless, if not enough is known about this issue, it is going to be more difficult to reach this
objective; and therefore, develop autonomous learning. Further research on this topic will lead to
generate knowledge regarding how and what can be done to develop the skills needed in
autonomous learning such as time management, discipline, becoming responsible of their
learning and the like. This knowledge would be very useful for people interested in fostering this
type of learning because it could provide them with useful activities, ideas, tasks, and guidelines
that can inform them regarding what can be done to reach this goal.
The introduction of autonomous learning requires assistance to learners during this process,
especially at the beginning of it. Recent technological devices and tools have made it possible to
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enhance communication with others. These could also be employed to provide guidance,
feedback, explanations, or any other type of assistance to learners. Technology could significantly
improve the efficiency, amount, and quality of the support given to learners when this learning
approach is introduced. This is a topic that has not been explored but needs to. It would be
beneficial to research whether online resources such as Skype, WhatsApp, Facetime, Zoom, Email,
Facebook, Messenger, Meet, and others, could enhance and increase the support learners are
given when autonomous learning is introduced. Other issues that it would be useful to explore
would be how each electronic tool can contribute in this endeavour, how effective they are at it,
which are best for what purposes, and how they should be employed. This information would be
useful for those interested in implementing autonomous learning because it would increase the
tools and resources they can use to help learners; as well as to make the assistance given more
efficient during the learning process.
This investigation produced findings that contributed to understand how to introduce and
develop autonomous learning among learners in a content class; however, more research is
needed to explore whether this leaning approach could be employed in English as a foreign
language learning in the context where the study took place. Several participants stated that
autonomous learning should not be used for the development of EFL skills; nevertheless, the
studies reviewed showed that the use of autonomous learning in EFL classes produced positive
outcomes. The latter led the researcher to believe that it is necessary to explore if similar results
can be obtained from the employment of autonomous learning in EFL learning in the setting
where this study was carried out. This type of research has not been done in this context; thus, a
study of this nature would be beneficial to learn more about the effects of this learning approach
in the development of EFL skills. The researcher believes that developing autonomous learning
skills among EFL learners and having them take charge of their learning could result in the
enhancement of their English development because their language learning would not be
restricted to what is done in the classroom only. It is likely that students’ English level could
increase considerably if; inside and outside the classroom, they worked at their own pace, on
their language needs, using the resources they have available and they preferred, and by doing
activities and tasks they have experienced helped them learn the most. A study is necessary to
find out if this hypothesis is valid.
Another research project that needs to be conducted is in relation to the use of self-study guides
to develop autonomous learning among learners who are not used to working with this type of
learning materials. Although the results of this investigation showed that these guides
significantly benefitted the fostering of autonomous learning because they gave them control of
their learning, several drawbacks were found among them as well. Some participants stated that
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certain elements of the guides need to be improved; however, it was their implementation what
the most troublesome to subjects. The approach used to introduce them and monitor
participants’ work and progress from using them was not the most appropriate. This negatively
affected the development of autonomous learning, as well as in participants’ learning. Changes
can be made to self-study guides to enhance them, by take into consideration the comments and
suggestions given by participants. Nonetheless, in order to discover if such modifications can
actually prevent the problems the self-study guides used in this study generated, and these
learning materials can better promote this learning approach, it is necessary to conduct an
investigation implementing them with the improvements suggested by the participants of the
study, the researcher, and existing literature on this topic. Designing and implementing self-study
guides appropriately according to the profile of the learners can make a significant difference in
the development of autonomous learning, therefore further research on this topic is essential.
Practical outcomes
Based on the results of this investigation and the experience obtained from conducting this study,
several practical outcomes emerged. One of them is the fact that plenty of time needs to be spent
planning the implementation of autonomous learning. Teachers need to think carefully how this
process is going to take place and make important decisions about the different aspects that will
be part of it prior to starting the introduction process. A profile of the learners must be created in
order to be conscious of what they are like, their strengths and weaknesses, and acknowledge
how familiar they are with this type of learning, as well as how much experience they have had
with actively participating in their learning process. The latter is vital to make decisions regarding
the process and approach to be employed. If participants are used to learning with teacher-
centred approaches, it is necessary to consider how they are going to be assisted to acquire the
knowledge and develop the skills they will need to learn autonomously. Furthermore, teachers
need to think through what the main objective of the intervention is going to be, how it is going to
be achieved, what is going to be needed to do so, and how long the process is going to take. The
level of autonomy in learning students are expected to reach by the end of the implementation
process must be clearly established, as well as the length of the intervention. Based on these two
elements, the teacher needs to plan how the objective is going to be achieved, as well as when
each of the aspects or elements of this learning approach are going to be introduced to reach
such goal. Furthermore, a list of the learning materials students will have access to has to be
created to complete the learning tasks and activities given, as well as the resources they will be
provided with to help them adapt to this way of learning. It is vital to create a support system. The
latter includes the tools and strategies that are going to be employed to be in touch with, guide,
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assist, and give feedback to students. It is also important to select, and if necessary, create the
instruments that will be used to monitor and assess learning and decide how they are going to be
introduced if they are novel to learners and how they are going to be employed. Finally, a
blueprint of the implementation process must be created, which includes a clear schedule stating
what, how, and when from autonomous learning is introduced, along with a description of all the
resources and strategies that will be used to gradually reach the objective set for the intervention.
Raising participants’ awareness is a must at the beginning of the introduction process. Students
need to be conscious of different aspects regarding themselves and their learning. This process
needs to be divided into different sessions to avoid overwhelming students. In one session
students can be helped to learn what autonomous learning is, what changes it implies in their
studying and learning habits, their roles as learners and the teacher’s. It is also advisable to
explain to them why this change is being introduced, how it is going to benefit them, and what
the introduction process is going to be like overall. This is especially important when participants
have had no experience learning with student-centred methods. All the questions that may be
asked about this learning approach should be answered to ensure clarity regarding what learning
is going to be like during the intervention. Another session can focus on learners gaining
awareness about themselves. Here they can be led to be conscious about what they are like, what
they are and are not skilful at, when they are at their best, what type of activates they like doing
to learn and to relax, what their time management is like, how disciplined they are to work on
their own, how they spend their time, and the like. During a third session, awareness can be
raised about their learning. Here learners can be assisted to discover which their learning styles
are, their preferences, what they currently do to learn or which learning strategies they use, their
strengths, and their weaknesses, how they can learn best, which learning materials helped them
the most, and anything else related to their learning which would be worthwhile to discover.
Although awareness raising is suggested to happen at the beginning of the introduction process, it
is likely that it will increase as they participate in the intervention. It also advised to have them
reflect about everything related to their learning after certain periods of time to expand and
refine learners’ awareness to identify what helped them learn, what did not, and what changes
they need to make to improve their learning.
It is necessary to create a blueprint and write a description of the entire introduction process of
this learning approach. Here, the length of the intervention and the level of learner autonomy
expected to be reached is considered to decide the number of phases this process is going to
have, how long each of them will last (these can be selected according to the terms, units of
study, examination periods, or any other periods that are common to learners), what the goal; in
relation to developing autonomous learning, of each stage is going to be. The division of the
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implementation process needs to be established to decide which aspects and practices from
autonomous learning will be introduced in each phase, how, as well as which resources and
strategies will be used to facilitate this process in each period. Based on the level of autonomy
students are expected to reach at the end of the implementation process, the degree of
autonomy to be achieved at each phase are sequenced backwards from the main goal. The use of
this strategy ensures that students gradually develop their autonomy in learning, and the
objective is reached within the time established. The more the introduction process is scripted,
the easier it is going to be to follow it. This can also result in fewer difficulties and facing less
unexpected events. Some changes and adaptations may be done if necessary; however, these are
likely to be few if the implementation process was thought through and was written down in
detail.
It was concluded that having learners participate in the decisions made regarding their learning
was essential to develop autonomous learning. However, the implementation of this practice
needs to be organized well, especially if students have never been asked to make their own
decisions. Because this practice may involve a drastic change in subjects’ learning habits, it is
necessary to clearly establish which decisions they will be asked to make and sequence their
introduction properly. To achieve the previous a list of all the decisions students will be asked to
make during the intervention needs to be created. Then, they need to be ranked from the easiest
to the most difficult. They should be introduced gradually; in number and complexity, considering
the number of phases the implementation process includes. Thus, in the first phase students are
asked to make the easiest decisions and only a few of them. In the second one, a few decisions
are added, and these are a bit more challenging for students to make. The same principle of
gradually increasing the number of decisions and their difficulty in each phase is considered for
the rest of the phases of the process. In the last one, learners are expected to make all the
decisions selected for the intervention. This approach was found to be appropriate for this
practice in this research because it prevented participants, who were not used to making their
own decisions, from stressing too much when they had to make many and difficult decisions all at
once at the beginning of the treatment. Making decisions about our learning is a skill that takes
time to master; as it happens in the development of any skill, it should begin with something easy
and gradually increase its difficulty as learners’ abilities evolve. All in all, it is advisable to make a
proper selection of the decisions learners are going to be allowed to make, to sequence these
from easy to more complex; then, gradually introduce them to help participants adapt to this
practice and contribute to the development of autonomous learning.
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Reflection of the teacher/researcher regarding implementing the
model and conducting the investigation
The conduction of this investigation generated new experiences for me as a researcher more than
as a teacher. This was because I have taught English for over two decades and done teacher
training for more than ten. During this time, I have introduced different teaching approaches,
methods, techniques, strategies, and materials to help students learn. These were learnt through
formal studies, attending language teacher conferences frequently, and learning other ones on
my own. Therefore, introducing something new in my classes was not alien, nor it has been to
attempt to foster autonomous learning. For the past decade I have been learning about
autonomous learning independently, as well as by taking courses and attending talks on this topic.
Since then, I have employed different practices in the classes that I have taught to try assist
students to become more independent in their learning. Although what I implemented at first
was isolated, as time has gone by and through experience, I learnt to structure, sequence, and
implement such practices more appropriately. The difference was that this time it was not a few
strategies and elements which were introduced, based only on my experience, but a model
according to existing literature. This involved extensive review of studies, more planning to adapt
the model selected to the context and learners, to create the process that was going to be
followed, to identify the resources that could be used to sequence and schedule what was going
to be implemented, and to insert it in the program to foster autonomous learning and help
students the content of the class. More time, organization, reflection, as well as comprising
teaching experience and findings in existing literature to reach these two goals were needed. The
implementation of the intervention was not novel for me because I have some experience in
introducing changes in my classes.
On the other hand, taking the role of a researcher, and everything this implied, was troublesome
because I had little experience in this area. One of the most difficult aspects was to perceive what
I did from the standpoint of a researcher and not of a teacher. Since I have been teaching for
some time, I naturally see what is done in the classroom from a teacher perspective. It required
some effort and guidance from my advisor to adopt a researcher and theoretical standpoint.
Considering and doing what the investigation required based on research and not according to my
teaching experience was a great challenge. In addition, planning, organizing, and conducting
research of this magnitude was troublesome for me at every stage of this process. I was familiar
with the procedure, but not with the amount of work and analysis it required. Because of the size
of the research, it was difficult sometimes for me to see it as one, and not in parts. The support I
received from my advisor was vital to overcome this and other problems. The most challenging
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aspect of the investigation was the data analysis. This was caused by two factors. The first one
was that I was neither knowledgeable nor experienced in the data analysis methods I used. I had
to learn about them and the steps that needed to be followed to analyse the data properly. The
second reason was the amount and variety of information collected. I had never gathered so
much information, nor had it been regarding different issues related to the same topic. Analysis
the data involved a great deal of comparing, selecting, contrasting, and analysing to answer the
research questions and obtain the results of the investigation. Becoming a researcher was a slow
process, but it is a role that I can take more easily now that I have conducted this investigation.
Developing the abilities needed to conduct research have made me more confident to combine it
with my teaching skills and experience to carry out more research projects in my classroom in the
future.
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: Intervention
Description of the model used
The treatment is going to be implemented during the Fall semester 2016. The intervention begins in
the third week of classes in late August and ends in mid-December, when the semester is over.
There are three terms during the semester, each one is six weeks long. There are no classes during
exams’ week. The treatment involves the implementation of a process model adapted from the one
created by Reinders (2010). This model was selected to be employed in the study because an
analysis made to process models created to promote autonomous learning showed that it is the
most complete model in relation to the number of levels that it includes, the elements included in it
that help to promote this approach to learning, and the one that could be adapted to the context
where the study is going to take place without removing any vital component that would
significantly affect the main structure of it; which could seriously affect its capacity to foster
autonomous learning. Although Reinders’ model has not been put into practice; as far as the
researcher knows, in any real learning environment, it has a sound theoretical framework to foster
autonomous learning that is the reason why scholars have used it as a reference for this topic. It
includes six levels of implementation: raising awareness, setting goals, planning learning,
monitoring progress, assessing learning and its practices, and reflecting about learning. Literature
on autonomous learning indicates that the implementation of this approach can be done through
levels of implementation (Nunan, 1997; Egel 2009; Onozowa, 2010) because it makes this process
gradual, it helps learners to progressively acquire the knowledge and skills they need in this
learning approach, as well as slowly adapt to this way of learning (Henderson and Clifford, 2012).
An analysis of the models that have been designed in this way showed that most of their levels
match the stages of the learning process. Dang (2012) and Onozowa (2010) explain that structuring
models with this principle results in learners conducting behavioral and cognitive actions that lead
them to reach their learning goals and develop the competencies they need to be more
autonomous at each stage of their learning process.
Adaptations made
Several adaptations had to be made to the model by Reinders (2010) to meet the conditions of
the context where this investigation is going to be done and the profile of the participants. One of
the changes made to the original model was to remove one of its levels. Instead of having six:
raising awareness, setting goals, planning learning, monitoring progress, assessing learning, and
reflecting about learning; the model employed in this study only has five: raising awareness,
planning learning, monitoring progress, assessing learning, and reflecting on learning. This model
does not involve students in the establishment of their learning goals because these are dictated
by the program and cannot be altered or removed. It is an institutional policy that has been
considered in the structuring of this model. Larsen-Freeman & Cameron (2008) and Yildirim
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(2012) state that institutional limitations of the context have to be taken into account when trying
to promote this approach. This is why the level setting goals was removed from the original one.
Another adaptation made to the original model was increasing the number of issues students
have to become aware of in the first level of implementation. Raising awareness about
participants’ learning styles, preferences, and preferred learning tasks was added in the present
model. Such knowledge is needed in order for students to choose appropriate learning strategies,
materials, and tasks that can help them learn more efficiently (Zulaihah & Harida, 2017).
The model employed in this study increases learners’ participation in the fourth level of
implementation; assessing learning. Subjects are required to be involved in more decisions
regarding the assessment of their learning such as selecting deadlines for assignments and tasks,
assessment instruments and criteria, whether they are assessed individually or in pairs, and the
number of graded assignments to be submitted. Participants are not expected to decide by
themselves all of these at the beginning of the treatment but eventually, towards the end of the
treatment they were asked to do so. This was added because not involving them in the decisions
made regarding the evaluation process prevents students from learning how to measure their
learning on their own and continue to depend on others for this task (Karababa & Arik, 2010).
Finally, although Reinders’ model requires students to reflect about their success in their learning
tasks and the problems they faced while learning, this is not enough to help them become better
learners. Yamashita (2015) argues that students also need to reflect about the learning practices
they employed in order to establish what helped them learn, what did not, why, and which
changes they need to make in order to improve their learning practices. Therefore, the
participants of this study will be asked to reflect about all of these issues to raise their awareness
of useful learning practices they employ, other ones they can employ, as well as any other
changes they need to make to enhance their learning. Reflecting on these issues is necessary to
have students realize what helps them learn and prevent them from repeatedly using the same
strategies and practices, regardless of their usefulness.
Levels of implementation included in the model
The first one is raising awareness. There is a general agreement that it is essential to help
students become aware of their learning and themselves in the fostering of autonomous learning
(Bertonldi, Kollar & Ricard, 1988; Nordlund, 2001; Murray, 2006; St. Louis, 2006; Iimuro & Berger,
2010; Silva, 2008). The second level is planning learning. This is found in most of the models
reviewed (Iimuro & Berger, 2010; Nordlund, 2001; Murray, 2006; St. Louis, 2006; Iimuro & Berger,
2010) and give learners the opportunity to make their own decisions. The third level is monitoring
learning. Reinders (2010) and Nunan (1997) contend that autonomous learners need to be able to
monitor their own progress and revise their learning plans accordingly. This was a level that was
present in most of the models analysed (Nordlund, 2001; Murray, 2006; St. Louis, 2006; Iimuro &
Berger, 2010). The next level is assessing learning. Although only some of the existing models
include it (Murray, 2006; St. Louis, 2006; Iimuro & Berger, 2010; Reinders, 2010), scholars agree
that it is necessary to involve learners in the decisions made about the assessment of their
learning (Little, 2004; Dang, 2012). The last level included is reflection on learning. Only two of the
models examined include this aspect (Nordlund, 2001; Reinders, 2010). Nevertheless, scholars
agree that having students reflect on their learning and their practices contributes to foster
autonomous learning (Öztürk, 2019; Yamashita, 2015; Tassinari, 2016).
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The following is a description of each level of implementation that make up the model employed
in this study. In addition, a table includes the decisions subjects were allowed to make regarding
their learning each term. This table shows how participants were asked to perform this practice
gradually, as well as to present what they were able to decide as the treatment continued.
a) Raising awareness
The first level of implementation is learner awareness. Its purpose is to raise participants’
consciousness about different issues related to the treatment and themselves. After students are
explained about the study that is going to be conducted and the treatment that is going to be
implemented, through an oral presentation subjects are going to learn what autonomous learning
is, how learning takes place in this approach, what assessment is like, what it implies for them to
learn in this way, the role they and the teacher are going to play, how it is going to be introduced
and developed throughout the treatment. In a different session, participants are going to be
guided to reflect about why they chose to attend this program, their strengths and weaknesses,
learning styles, preferred learning strategies, and their English level. Students are going to reflect
about the previous by answering questions on a piece of paper. They have to submit their
responses to the teacher to check they did the task. Their answers will be returned to students to
keep them. In addition, they are will be required to answer a learning styles test online to learn
what learning style they have (http://www.educationplanner.org/students/self-
assessments/learning-styles-quiz.shtml). The test gives students the result when they are done
taking it. It tells them what learning styles is their strongest and lists some of the activities that
help them learn. Students are going to be asked to submit these results and state whether they
agree with them, if they do not, they have to explain what they disagree. In addition, they will be
reminded this information when they are allowed to make decisions about their learning during
the treatment. During the second and third midterm, awareness will be raised about other issues
as well. At the beginning of the second and their term, participants will be asked to explain which
tasks they performed well at in the previous term, which were their favorite learning tasks, and
which learning practices helped them learnt. Awareness raising is going to be conducted mainly at
the beginning of the treatment; as it develops, subjects will be required to become conscious of
other issues related to their learning.
b) Planning learning
There are three terms during the Fall semester; because autonomous learning is going to be
introduced gradually, subjects’ involvement at each level of implementation will increase
progressively each term. Participants are going to be allowed to plan some of their learning the
first term, some more during the second one, and they will have almost complete control during
the third term. Therefore, they will be able to progressively decide how they are going to learn,
which learning materials and resources they are going to use, whether they work individually or
with somebody else, some of the tasks they are going to complete, and when they are going to
submit their assignments.
The following chart shows participants’ involvement during each term.
Term
Participants’ involvement
First
Selection of some of the rules they want to have in class.
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Whether they prefer to do some classroom activities on their own, in pairs,
or small teams.
Who they work with whenever they have to do classroom tasks or other
learning activities during the face-to-face sessions.
How they to work when doing so in small teams or in pairs.
The learning resources they use to search information when they are
required to; they could use the ones suggested by the teacher or any other
ones they wished to.
Creating a calendar where they wrote down the deadlines of the graded
assignments.
Second
Selection of most of the rules they want to have in class.
Whether they prefer to do some classroom activities on their own, in pairs,
or small teams.
Who they work with whenever they do classroom tasks or other learning
activities during the face-to-face sessions.
How they to work when doing so in small teams or in pairs.
The learning resources they use to search information when they are
required to; they could use the ones suggested by the teacher or any other
ones they wished to.
Whether they stay in the classroom or go somewhere else to work;
whenever they are asked to work independently on some class activities,
tasks or assignments.
Create a workplan in which subjects state when they are going to work and
complete the assignments they selected the value of and their type.
Third
Selection of most of the rules they want to have in class.
Whether they to do most of the classroom activities on their own, in pairs,
or small teams.
Who they work with whenever they do classroom tasks or other learning
activities during the face-to-face tutorials.
Whether they attend face-to-face sessions or work at home.
When they work on tasks and assignments.
How they to work when doing so in small teams or in pairs.
The learning resources they use to learn; they could use the ones suggested
by the teacher or any other ones they prefer.
Whether they stay in the classroom or go somewhere else to work;
whenever they are asked to work independently on some class activities,
tasks or assignments.
Create a workplan in which subjects state when they are going to work and
complete the assignments they selected the value of and their type.
a) Monitoring progress
In addition to having the teacher monitor participants’ progress, different instruments are going
to be used to help them monitor their work. These are the course outline, a work plan, and the
assessment rubrics. The purpose of giving subjects the class course outline is to let them know
what is going to be done in each face-to-face session, the deadlines of tasks and graded
assignments, the instructions for the mandatory assignments, and to know the sessions when
they were going to be given time to work in class. This helps them to organize their time as well as
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to monitor their work in class. If they know the topics that have to be studied, they can self-check
if they have learnt them. If they know the deadlines, they can establish how much time they have
to what they need to in order to complete each assignment and submit it on time. This is how the
course outline can assist learners to monitor their own progress. Furthermore, the work plan
students create intends to make students aware of the topics to be studied, select the tasks and
assignments they are going to complete, who they are going to do them with if they are to be
done with others, as well as establish the deadlines when these will be submitted. The purpose of
having students make some of the decisions related to their assessment is to give them the
opportunity to plan their work and organize their time to be able to complete the assignments
they chose to do to be assessed. It is a tool that intends participants to self-monitor their work
and allows the teacher to check the subjects’ learning process and efforts. Having students decide
the value of graded assignment attempts to make students become aware of how much work and
time they have to invest in learning the topics of the class to complete their assignments on time.
Finally, showing learners the rubrics the teacher uses to mark assignments aims to have students
become aware of the elements each assignment has to include and have them self-check that
they are including everything they are supposed to. In other words, rubrics can assist subjects to
monitor if their assignments meet the criteria they are going to be assessed with. The following
were the instruments used to help students monitor their work.
Course outline
At the beginning of each term, students are provided with a course outline (see appendix A.2)
which includes a day-to-day description of what is going to be done in class each day. It also
includes the instructions for each of the required assignments students are going to submit in
each term, as well as their deadlines.
Work plan
During the second term participants are going to be presented a work plan (see appendix A.3);
they are going to be asked to create their own. Its purpose is to help students organize their time
and work so that they can comply with all the requirements of the class and submit their
assignments on time. It also intends to have students self-monitor their own work to assist them
to become aware of whether they needed to work more, use their time more efficiently, or spend
more time on the tasks or assignments. In addition, the teacher can ask participants to show their
work plan and the progress they make to ensure they are following the plan they create, give
them suggestions, answer questions, and check their progress as well.
Rubrics
Learners are going to be presented and explained the rubrics (see appendix A.4) the teacher is
going to use to mark the different compulsory assignments they are asked to do. This is done
during the first sessions when the course outline is presented at the beginning of each term. After
each graded assignment is explained, the teacher presents the rubric that is going to be employed
to mark it. Then, any questions about the assignment or the rubrics will be answered. In addition,
the rubric is going to be posted online for students to be able to retrieve it during the term. The
purpose of providing participants with the assessing rubric was to create awareness among
learners regarding the elements that are taken into account to mark their assignments, give
subjects the instrument they need to self-assess their work, and use it a tool that can help them
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monitor their work on each assignment they do. During the third term, participants had rubrics
for the different assignments they chose to do.
The following chart shows subjects’ involvement in the monitoring of their work, as well as how it
increased each term.
Term
Participants’ involvement
First
Providing subjects with the class course outline so that they know which
topic is going to be studied in each session, the deadlines for the graded
assignments, and the instructions they have follow to complete each
assignment.
Number of drafts they submit before submitting their final assignments.
Allow participants to decide how they spend the time given whenever they
work inside the classroom towards completing any of their assignments.
Second
Providing subjects with the class course outline so that they know which
topic is going to be studied in each session, the deadlines for the graded
assignments, and the instructions they have follow to complete each
assignment.
Have students keep their work plan at hand and remind them to make sure
they meet the deadlines they established.
Number of drafts they deliver to get feedback before submitting their final
assignments.
Allow participants to decide how they spend the time given whenever they
work inside the classroom and have them show evidence of the progress
they made.
Third
Providing subjects with the class course outline so that they know which
topic is going to be studied in each session, the deadlines for the graded
assignments, and the instructions they have follow to complete each
assignment.
Have students keep their work plan at hand and remind them to make sure
they meet the deadlines they established.
Subjects choose the number of drafts they deliver to get feedback before
submitting their final assignments.
Allow participants to decide how they spend the time given whenever they
work inside the classroom and have them show evidence of the progress
they made.
a) Assessing learning
Students are involved in the decisions that are made in regard to their assessment. Considering
the approach employed to introduce autonomous learning, in this level participants are required
to decide some aspects of their assessment during the first term, and as the semester goes on,
they are given more control of this process. These and other decisions are made by subjects
gradually to the point that during the third term they make the majority of the decisions
regarding how they are assessed, when, and which instruments they are used to do so. The
following chart shows subjects’ involvement in the assessing of their learning, as well as how it
increased each term.
Term
Participants’ involvement
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First
Whether they want to do one of the graded assignments in individually or in
pairs, choosing the person they are going to work with if the latter were
chosen.
Selecting the visual aids or materials they use when they are asked to do an
oral presentation or any other graded assignments.
Selecting 25% of the evaluation criterion.
Showing and posting the rubrics they are going to be assessed with online
so that they know the requirements their graded assignments have to meet.
Second
Selecting the type of assignment they want to do for half of the graded
ones.
Establishing the value of each assignment they chose.
Selecting 50% of the evaluation criterion.
The deadlines for the assignments they select the value of (There was a final
deadline set by the teacher to submit all the assignments to give him
enough time to mark them before term scores have to be submitted).
Whether they want to do half of the graded assignments in individually or in
pairs, and choosing the person they are going to work with if the latter were
chosen.
Selecting the visual aids or materials they use when they are asked to do an
oral presentation or any other graded assignments.
Showing and posting the rubrics they are going to be assessed with online
so that they know the requirements their graded assignments have to meet.
Third
Selecting how many assignments they want to submit in addition to the one
mandated by the teacher.
Selecting the type of assignments they submit.
Establishing the value of each assignment they chose to do.
Selecting 75% of the evaluation criteria.
The deadlines for the assignments they select the value of (There was a final
deadline set by the teacher to submit all the assignments to give him
enough time to mark them before term scores have to be submitted).
Whether they send their graded assignments through email or come to the
classroom to present or submit them in person.
Whether they do the assignments they choose individually, in pairs, or small
teams and selecting the people they work with.
Selecting the visual aids or materials they use when they are asked to do an
oral presentation or any other graded assignments.
a) Reflecting on learning
At the end of each term, participants are going to reflect about their learning. The purpose of this
reflection is to have students analyze the decisions they made regarding their learning, the
learning practices they employed, and the changes they need to make to improve their learning
and become more efficient learners. By conducting this reflection subjects can become aware of
the consequences of their choices. which can lead them to identify which decisions were and
were not appropriate. Moreover, they can identify the learning tasks, activities, and other
learning practices that helped them learn. This is necessary to make informed decisions, which
can help them develop their decision-making skills. Finally, participants reflecting about their
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learning at the end the term contributes to make them realize which changes they need to make
in their learning process and practices to enhance their learning in general. These are the
questions learners are going to answer in their learning logs at the end of each term.
Term
Reflection questions
First
1. What was your performance like during the first term? Why?
2. What changes are going to make for the second term?
Second
1. Which tasks or assignments did you perform well at? Why?
2. How do you work better individually or working with somebody else?
Why?
3. What helped you learn? Why?
4. What would you change in your way of learning to make it more
efficient?
Third
1. Do you work better by yourself or by working with others? Who do you
work well with?
2. What helps you learn more: attending face-to-face tutorials, working
on your own using online materials, or a combination of both? Why?
3. Which changes do you need to make to be improve your learning?
4. How do you feel about making your own decisions about learning?
5. Which changes have you made to adapt to learning autonomously?
6. How does making your own decisions affect your learning?
7. What do you think about using self-study guides to learn?
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Course Outlines
1st Term Course Outline Fall 2016
Session 1
• Introduction of myself/welcome students to the class
• Getting to know students
• Reflection about their reasons for applying to this program: questions
• Presentation of the syllabus and course outline
• Explanation of the teaching approach used in this class
• Selection of classroom rules
Reading I: Subsystems of the language
Session 2
• Presentation of classroom rules
• Selection grading criteria
• Discussion of the subsystems of the language
Session 3
• Discussion about the subsystems of the language and the importance and use of such
information in a teaching scenario.
• Completion of the subsystems of the language chart (appendix one).
Assignment one: Chart on the subsystems of the language.
Session 4
• Instructions for the 2nd assignment: oral presentation (appendix two)
• Organizing the teams, assign stages to each team, inform them what the content of the
presentation will be and give them time to work on their presentations.
• Checking and feedback of oral presentations if needed
Assignment two: Team oral presentation. Due date: Session 7.
Session 5
• Checking and feedback on oral presentations on Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development: sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational and formal
operational stages.
Deadline assignment one
Session 6
• Checking and feedback of oral presentations on the observations done in regards to the
stages of cognitive development according to Piaget: sensorimotor, pre-operational,
concrete operational and formal operational stages.
Session 7
• Oral presentations
Reading three: Reading about the factors affecting language learning. Answer the following
questions for each factor:
a) How does each factor affect second/foreign language learning?
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Reflection questions
b) Can you (the teacher) do something about it to prevent such factors from negatively
affecting foreign language learning? Which ones are in your hands as a teacher and which
aren’t?
Reading four: Read the article by Little John: Motivation where does it come from where does it
go? Read it and write any questions you have about it, (not about vocabulary but content).
Session 8
• Oral presentations
• Presentation and explanation of the research project the teacher is conducted. Signing of
consent forms.
Session 9
• Oral presentations
• Discussion on the factors affecting language learning and the article on motivation.
Assignment three: Individually write a reflection paper on the factors that most affect language
learning. (See appendix 3 for instructions) Due date: Session 12.
Reading five (in teams): Research information about three learning theories: behaviorism,
cognitivism and constructivism. Find the following information about them: principles,
characteristics and educational implications.
Task: Poster presentation on the learning theories.
Session 10
• Discussion on the factors affecting second or foreign language learning
• Reading about three learning theories
Session 11
• Poster preparation
Session 12
• Poster presentation on learning theories
Session 13
• Learner profile
• Elements of a lesson plan
Assignment four: Lesson plan Due date: Session 15
Session 14
• Lesson plan formats
• Lesson planning and feedback
Session 15
• Lesson planning, feedback
Session 16
• General reflection on the first term
• Disclosure of final scores
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Assignment one: Read the article on the subsystems of the language, then complete the following
chart with the necessary information.
Appendix one: Chart on the subsystems of the language
My definition
Example
Importance
Language
The phonological system
The morphological system
Syntax
Semantics
Pragmatics
Standard English
Dialect
Register
Slang
Appendix two
Assignment two (teams): Instructions for the oral presentation
Oral presentations on the theory of cognitive development according to Jean Piaget:
You will do a power point presentation on one of the stages of cognitive development according
to Piaget. You will be told which stage you will present. The person who will do the presentation
will be selected at random. Make sure every team member knows all the information well. You
are the expert on the stage you are presenting; that means, you should be ready to answer any
questions students or the teacher have. Due session 7.
Present the following information regarding the stage you are going to present:
a. Name of the stage
b. Age range
c. What children can cognitively do
d. How they learn (especially languages)
e. How they should be taught
f. Any other relevant information
Oral presentations on the results of the observations regarding cognitive development: You will
observe a kid from one of the four stages of development according to Piaget. Before you do the
observation, make sure you know well everything regarding that stage. The purpose of your
observation is to find out if what Piaget says regarding the stages of cognitive development and
what they can do at each stage is true. Compare what Piaget states with what you observe.
Record what you observe; pay special attention on any behaviors that demonstrate what their
cognitive abilities are. Make sure you note down their behaviors as well as anything else that you
may consider important. Present your findings through power point.
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Observe and present the following:
a. Name
b. Age
c. Stage of cognitive development
d. What according to Piaget they can cognitively do
e. How they learn
f. What is their language production like
Appendix three
Assignment three (individual): Reflection paper
Based on what you read, what was discussed in class, your learning experience and your opinions;
answer the following questions in a reflection paper:
1. Which factors affect foreign language learning the most and why?
2. What will you do, as a language teacher, to prevent each factor you included in your paper
from affecting the foreign language learning process negatively in your classroom?
3. What can you do as a teacher to increase your students’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivation?
Task 1
As a team, research the following information on the learning theory you were assigned and
include it in a poster (include only key words not a lot of text in the poster):
a. Name of the learning theory
b. Its main focus of study
c. How learning takes place
d. Principles or general assumptions
e. Educational/classroom implications
Be ready to present your poster and explain the information included in it.
Assignment four (individual or in pairs): lesson plan
1. Decide whether you want to do this assignment individually or in pairs.
2. Select a group of learners to do a lesson plan for.
4. Do a learner profile of the group of learners you selected.
5. Clearly write the objective for the lesson plan.
6. Do a lesson plan that will help learners reach the objective you selected; make sure it includes
all the elements discussed in class: Use the Warm-up, High challenge, Low challenge, wrap up
format to do so.
2nd Mid Term Course Outline
Session I
Presentation of course outline
Explanation of the assignments
Selection of grading criteria
Forming microteaching teams
Selection of teaching methods and approaches for microteaching
Establishment of a work plan for the second term
Session II
Team reading about the methods or approaches selected
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Questions and feedback on the methods or approaches selected
Lesson planning for microteaching (Learner profile and objective of the lesson)
Session III
Lesson planning for microteaching and feedback
Session IV
Lesson planning for microteaching and materials design
Session V
Lesson planning for microteaching and materials design
Microteaching practice
Session VI
Total physical response microteaching
Session VII
Lesson planning/reflection paper/independent assignment feedback
Session VIII
The natural approach microteaching
Communicative Language Teaching microteaching
Session IX
Multiple intelligences microteaching
Session X
CLIL microteaching
Competency-based microteaching
Session XI
Lesson planning/reflection paper/independent assignment feedback
Session XII
Cooperative language learning microteaching
Deadline for: independent assignment, reflection paper, lesson plan
Session XIII
Task-based language teaching microteaching
Session XIV
To be announced
Session XV
Final scores
Assignments Instructions
Microteaching assignment
In teams of four, the most, you will teach a 30-40 min. lesson using one of the teaching methods
or approaches discussed in class. See the instructions for further information.
Deadline: According to schedule
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Instructions
1. Once you are in teams, select a teaching method or approach you are going to base your
microteaching on according to the list provided.
2. Read the information about the method or approach so that you know how to teach a lesson
accordingly. You have to be an expert on such method or approach.
3. Make a learner profile. You can select the features of the learners.
4. Get the objective of your lesson plan. The purpose of the lesson should be to teach something
new to, not to practice or reinforce it.
5. Do a lesson plan to teach the topic you have selected. Everything in the lesson has to be
according to the method or approach you selected. You cannot use or do something that does
not belong to the method. Any questions you have about whether an activity, materials or
resource is according to the method ask course leader.
6. Create all the necessary materials to teach the lesson.
7. Teach the lesson. All the members in the team should take part in the teaching process.
8. Be ready to answer any questions about your lesson.
Note: Your lesson should last between 30 and 40 min. Make sure you check the course outline to
know when you will teach your lesson.
Reflection paper (individual)
Instructions
1. Select the three methods or approaches you find the most useful, attractive, interesting,
effective, useful, etc., discussed during the second term; the ones you would use when you start
teaching. Make sure you have a clear understanding of how they work and how to teach
according to each one of them.
2. Explain the following about each one of them:
a. Why you selected/would use them (benefits, traits the other methods do not have,
preferences or past experiences that make you choose it, etc.).
b. Why and/or how each one of them will help students learn a foreign language.
c. Which learners (in what stage of cognitive development) you would use it with and
why.
Note: the paper should follow the conventions the teacher has requested for written
assignments. Your paper should not include definitions, descriptions of the approach or any
information that does not contribute to address the issues requested above.
Lesson plan assignment (individual or in pairs)
Instructions
1. Read all the teaching methods and approaches assigned for the class.
2. Make sure you understand how they work, what they are about, the roles of teacher and
learners, the procedure, etc.
3. Select one you particularly liked, enjoyed, found useful, effective, etc. It cannot be the one you
are doing the microteaching session according to.
4. Do a learner profile (You may select all the characteristics of learners).
5. Select an objective (it can be anything you want to teach but it has to be according to the
learner profile).
6. Revise the type of activities appropriate for the method or approach you selected. Choose the
most appropriate for the objective to teach and the type of learners you described in the learner
profile.
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7. Do the lesson plan according to the method or approach chosen. You cannot include any
activity, material, resource, etc., that does not fit the method or approach selected. You may or
may not follow the warm-up, high challenge, low challenge, wrap up sequence. It will depend
on the method or approach you selected.
8. Request feedback if needed.
9. Create the materials necessary to teach the lesson.
10. Submit your lesson plan.
Independent assignment (individual)
Instructions
1. Read all the teaching methods and approaches assigned for the class.
2. Make sure you understand how they work, what they are about, the roles of teacher and
learners, the procedure, etc.
3. Choose an assignment that will allow you to demonstrate that you have read and understood
all the teaching methods or approaches for this term, except for the ones used for the
microteaching session and the lesson plan, and that if asked, you can explain how to teach
according to each of the methods and approaches read. It can be a chart, an oral presentation, a
video, a graphic organizer, and the like; anything you choose to do, as long as it provides the
information needed.
4. The information to be included of each method and approach is the following:
a) Name
b) Procedure
c) Activities
d) Role of the learner
e) Role of the teacher
f) Explanation of why this approach helps students learn
5. Organize the information in such a way that is clear, organized and straight forward. Everything
has to be written in your own words. Get as creative as you can, but clear.
6. Submit your assignment according to your schedule.
Third Term Course Outline
Session I
• Disclosure of 2nd term scores
• Select evaluation criteria
• Explain compulsory assignment
• KWL chart on student-centered learning (SCL)
• Planning learning: action plan
Session II
• Research on SCL
Session III
• Discussion and learning about SCL
Session IV
• Comparison between a traditional classroom and a SCL classroom
• Elements of SCL
Session V
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181
• Elements of SCL
• Scaffolding
• ZPD
Mandatory Assignment: Student-centered lesson plan: Learner profile, objective
Session VI (Monday)
• Dimensions of learning: I
Mandatory Assignment: Student-centered lesson plan: Dimension I and II.
Session VII
• Dimensions of learning: II
• Dimensions of learning: III
Mandatory Assignment: Student-centered lesson plan: Dimensions III and IV
Session VIII
• Dimension IV and V
Mandatory Assignment: Student-centered lesson plan: Dimension V
Session IX
• SCL lesson planning and feedback
Session X
• SCL assessment
Session XI
Mandatory assignment: Due date
Session XII
• Interview
Session XIII
• Final scores
Description of assignments
Compulsory Assignment: Lesson plan
In order to put into practice your knowledge on SCL, individually or in pairs, you will plan a lesson
according to SCL. You have to do the following:
1. Create a learner profile of any class you want.
2. The objective of your lesson plan should be worded like this: By the end of the lesson students
will be able to…..
3. Create a lesson plan according to student-centered learning and the 5 dimensions of learning.
Make sure you clearly have students experience each dimension. It should be a 60-minute
lesson plan.
4. Add scaffolding on each dimension.
5. Create whichever materials you need to teach the lesson and add them to the lesson plan.
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Work plan
Work plan (Sample)
Instructions: Fill up the following work plan based on what you are going to learn or plan to do; to
gradually work on the compulsory assignments for this term. Write down the information you are
required in the chart, making sure you finish your assignments before the deadlines established in
the course outline (This is just a sample, your work plan can be as long as it needs to be). Bring it
to class so that the teacher can check your work plan and notes you have written on it during class
time.
Name ___________________________________________ Semester and group ________
Assignments: (These changed depending on the term and the content to be learnt)
1. Chart
2. Oral Presentation
3. Reflection paper
4. Lesson plan
Session
Work to be done
Comments/progress
Deadline
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
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Rubrics
Reflection paper rubric
Criteria
4
3
2
1
Points
Depth of
Reflection
Response demonstrates an in-
depth reflection on, and
personalization of, the theories,
concepts, and/or strategies
presented in the course
materials to date. Viewpoints
and interpretations are
insightful and well supported.
Clear, detailed examples are
provided, as applicable.
Response demonstrates a
general reflection on, and
personalization of, the theories,
concepts, and/or strategies
presented in the course
materials to date. Viewpoints
and interpretations are
supported. Appropriate
examples are provided, as
applicable.
Response demonstrates a minimal
reflection on, and personalization
of, the theories, concepts, and/or
strategies presented in the course
materials to date. Viewpoints and
interpretations are unsupported or
supported with flawed arguments.
Examples, when applicable, are not
provided or are irrelevant to the
assignment.
Response demonstrates a lack of
reflection on, or personalization
of, the theories, concepts, and/or
strategies presented in the course
materials to date. Viewpoints and
interpretations are missing,
inappropriate, and/or
unsupported. Examples, when
applicable, are not provided.
Required
Components
Response includes all
components and meets or
exceeds all requirements
indicated in the instructions.
Each question or part of the
assignment is addressed
thoroughly. All attachments
and/or additional documents
are included, as required.
Response includes all
components and meets all
requirements indicated in the
instructions. Each question or
part of the assignment is
addressed. All attachments
and/or additional documents
are included, as required.
Response is missing some
components and/or does not fully
meet the requirements indicated in
the instructions. Some questions or
parts of the assignment are not
addressed. Some attachments and
additional documents, if required,
are missing or unsuitable for the
purpose of the assignment.
Response excludes essential
components and/or does not
address the requirements
indicated in the instructions. Many
parts of the assignment are
addressed minimally,
inadequately, and/or not at all.
Structure
Writing is mostly clear, concise, and
well organized with good
sentence/paragraph construction.
Thoughts are expressed in a
coherent and logical manner. There
are no more than five spelling,
grammar, or syntax errors per page
of writing.
Writing is unclear and/or
disorganized. Thoughts are not
expressed in a logical manner.
There are more than five spelling,
grammar, or syntax errors per
page of writing.
Final score
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184
Oral presentation rubric
3
2
1
0
Quality of information
Covers topic thoroughly,
includes details that
support the topic
Includes essential
information, includes
some supporting details
Includes most essential
information, details are
somewhat sketchy
Lacks essential information
Organization
Well organized and
coherent, topics are in
logical sequence, includes
clear introduction and
conclusions
Organized, some topics are
out of logical order,
conclusions are generally
clear
Some organization, topics
jump around, conclusions
are unclear
Not organized, topics
make no sense
Oral presentation
Well prepared, speaks
clearly, makes eye contact
with audience, delivers
with ease, invites
questions
Engages audience, fluid
delivery, uses different
approach other than
simply reading screen,
invites questions
Clear and understandable,
uses limited delivery
techniques
Not clear, not
understandable
Grammar and spelling
No more than five errors
More than five grammar
and/or spelling errors
Total
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185
Reflection questions
Term
Reflection questions
First
3. What was your performance like during the first term? Why?
4. What changes are going to make for the second term?
Second
5. Which tasks or assignments did you perform well at? Why?
6. How do you work better individually or working with somebody else?
Why?
7. What helped you learn? Why?
8. What would you change in your way of learning to make it more
efficient?
Third
8. Do you work better by yourself or by working with others? Who do you
work well with?
9. What helps you learn more: attending face-to-face tutorials, working
on your own using online materials, or a combination of both? Why?
10. Which changes do you need to make to be improve your learning?
11. How do you feel about making your own decisions about learning?
12. Which changes have you made to adapt to learning autonomously?
13. How does making your own decisions affect your learning?
14. What do you think about using self-study guides to learn?
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186
BA Programme
Secundino Isabeles Flores Appendix A
187
Teaching Methods I syllabus
Universidad de Colima
Dirección General de Educación Superior
Nombre del Plantel
Nombre del Programa Educativo: Licenciatura en Enseñanza de Lenguas
Datos de identificación de la materia
Nombre de la materia: Didáctica de Inglés I
Nombre de la academia a la que pertenece: Academia de Didáctica
Semestre
Valor en
créditos
Horas semanales
Horas teóricas a
la semana
Horas prácticas
a la semana
Horas
semanales de
actividades de
aprendizaje
individual o con
tutoría o
asesoría
3ro
8
5
2
3
4
Materias antecedentes: Fundamentos de la Educación I, Adquisición De la Conciencia Lingüística I y II; y
Psicología Educativa.
Materias con las que se relaciona en el semestre:
Materias consecutivas: Didáctica del Inglés II, Observación y Práctica de la Enseñanza I y II, Taller de
Investigación Lingüística y Didáctica I y II, Diseño de Materiales I y II, Diseño de Programas, Evaluación del
Aprendizaje; y Seminario de Investigación I y II.
Propósitos de la materia
Propósito general u objetivos de la materia:
El objetivo principal de este curso es el de proveer a los futuros profesores de lenguas de tareas que le
ayuden a estar consiente de elementos importantes que se involucran en el proceso de enseñanza de
lenguas extranjeras, conocer la teoría existen relacionada con el aprendizaje de otro idioma, así como de
contar con los fundamentos teóricos para poder aplicarlos primero dentro de la materia consecutiva
Práctica de la Enseñanza y posteriormente en su desempeño profesional. Se pretende que los alumnos
conozcan las diferentes teorías del aprendizaje, los enfoques y las metodologías de la enseñanza, y los
principales elementos para planear una clase y enseñarla.
Competencias o elementos del perfil del egresado que desarrolla la materia:
Para lograr lo anterior, se trabaja durante la clase en los objetivos siguientes:
Profundizar en el conocimiento de la didáctica de las lenguas inglesa.
Aplicar el conocimiento adquirido.
Vincular la forma de trabajo de los docentes con los estudiantes.
Complementar el aprendizaje de las lenguas estudiadas y sus aspectos humanísticos.
Unidades de Aprendizaje
Unidad I: Bases teóricas y aspectos importantes en la enseñanza del inglés.
Objetivo: Dar al alumno bases teóricas sobre aspectos relevantes en la enseñanza del inglés.
Periodo: 12 de agosto al 13
de septiembre (5 semanas).
Fecha propuesta para la evaluación de la Unidad: 18 al 23 de septiembre
Contenidos a desarrollar
Estrategias didácticas y experiencias de
aprendizaje
Estrategias y criterios para la
evaluación del aprendizaje
Secundino Isabeles Flores Appendix A
188
Universidad de Colima
Dirección General de Educación Superior
Nombre del Plantel
Perspectives of linguistics
Subsystems of the language
Stages of cognitive
development
Factors that affect language
learning
Second Language acquisition
learning theories
Lesson planning
El aprendizaje centrado en el
estudiante es la principal enfoque que
se utilizará para impartir esta clase, sin
embargo de igual manera se realizarán
actividades de otros enfoques tales
como el aprendizaje basado en tareas,
en contenidos, trabajo cooperativo e
inteligencias múltiples.
La expectativa de esta clase es que
todos los alumnos co-participan
(aprenden y enseñen). Muchas de las
tareas son compartidas y evaluadas
por uno o más de sus compañeros de
clase. Los alumnos también realizarán
prácticas de micro enseñanza con sus
compañeros de acuerdo a las técnicas,
enfoques y métodos estudiados en el
curso. El maestro retroalimentará a los
alumnos después de exponer/entregar
su trabajo y/o después de haber sido
evaluado por sus compañeros.
Los alumnos entregarán un
trabajo por semana a partir de la
segunda semana de clase, cuatro
trabajos en total. En caso de ser
necesario durante la quinta
semana se aplicará un examen.
Los alumnos seleccionarán
individualmente como van a ser
evaluados. El profesor y los
alumnos negocian juntos el
número de trabajos van a
entregar en cada unidad.
Después, cada alumno decide que
trabajos van a entregar, el valor
que cada uno va a tener y si lo va
a realizar individualmente o con
alguien más. De igual manera los
alumnos deciden si van a tener un
examen al final de la unidad o no.
Las fechas de entrega de los
trabajos también es establecida
en conjunto por maestro y
alumnos.
Unidad II: Métodos y enfoques utilizados para la enseñanza del inglés.
Objetivo: Ayudar al alumno a conocer algunos de los métodos y enfoques utilizados en la enseñanza del
inglés, así como aplicar estos conocimientos en un salón de clase.
Periodo: 24 de septiembre al
25 de octubre (5 semanas).
Fecha propuesta para la evaluación de la Unidad: 28 al 31 de octubre.
Contenidos a desarrollar
Estrategias didácticas y experiencias de
aprendizaje
Estrategias y criterios para la
evaluación del aprendizaje
Secundino Isabeles Flores Appendix A
189
Universidad de Colima
Dirección General de Educación Superior
Nombre del Plantel
Métodos de Aprendizaje de
una Segunda Lengua
a. Audiolingual method
b. Suggestopedia
c. Total Physical Response
d. Communicative Language
Teaching
e. Multiple Intelligences
f. Cooperative Learning
g. Content-Based Learning
h. Competency-Based
Language
Teaching
h. Task-Based Learning
El aprendizaje centrado en el
estudiante es la principal enfoque que
se utilizará para impartir esta clase, sin
embargo de igual manera se realizarán
actividades de otros enfoques tales
como el aprendizaje basado en tareas,
en contenidos, trabajo cooperativo e
inteligencias múltiples.
La expectativa de esta clase es que
todos los alumnos co-participan
(aprenden y enseñen). Muchas de las
tareas son compartidas y evaluadas
por uno o más de sus compañeros de
clase. Los alumnos también realizarán
prácticas de micro enseñanza con sus
compañeros de acuerdo a las técnicas,
enfoques y métodos estudiados en el
curso. El maestro retroalimentará a los
alumnos después de exponer/entregar
su trabajo y/o después de haber sido
evaluado por sus compañeros.
Los alumnos entregarán un
trabajo por semana a partir de la
segunda semana de clase, cuatro
trabajos en total. En caso de ser
necesario durante la quinta
semana se aplicará un examen.
Los alumnos seleccionarán
individualmente como van a ser
evaluados. El profesor y los
alumnos negocian juntos el
número de trabajos van a
entregar en cada unidad.
Después, cada alumno decide que
trabajos van a entregar, el valor
que cada uno va a tener y si lo va
a realizar individualmente o con
alguien más. De igual manera los
alumnos deciden si van a tener un
examen al final de la unidad o no.
Las fechas de entrega de los
trabajos también es establecida
en conjunto por maestro y
alumnos.
Unidad III: Aprendizaje centrado en el estudiante
Objetivo: Ayudar al estudiante a conocer y aplicar sus conocimientos en la enseñanza centrada en el
estudiante.
Periodo: 4 de noviembre al 6
de diciembre (5 semanas).
Fecha propuesta para la evaluación de la Unidad: 6 al 11 de diciembre.
Contenidos a desarrollar
Estrategias didácticas y experiencias de
aprendizaje
Estrategias y criterios para la
evaluación del aprendizaje
Secundino Isabeles Flores Appendix A
190
Universidad de Colima
Dirección General de Educación Superior
Nombre del Plantel
Aprendizaje centrado en el
estudiante
a. Role of the teacher
b. Role of the learner
c. Environment
d. Materials
e. Scaffolding
f. Zone of proximal
development
g. Dimensions of learning
h. Assessment
El aprendizaje centrado en el
estudiante es la principal enfoque que
se utilizará para impartir esta clase, sin
embargo de igual manera se realizarán
actividades de otros enfoques tales
como el aprendizaje basado en tareas,
en contenidos, trabajo cooperativo e
inteligencias múltiples.
La expectativa de esta clase es que
todos los alumnos co-participan
(aprenden y enseñen). Muchas de las
tareas son compartidas y evaluadas
por uno o más de sus compañeros de
clase. Los alumnos también realizarán
prácticas de micro enseñanza con sus
compañeros de acuerdo a las técnicas,
enfoques y métodos estudiados en el
curso. El maestro retroalimentará a los
alumnos después de exponer/entregar
su trabajo y/o después de haber sido
evaluado por sus compañeros.
Los alumnos entregarán un
trabajo por semana a partir de la
segunda semana de clase, cuatro
trabajos en total. En caso de ser
necesario durante la quinta
semana se aplicará un examen.
Los alumnos seleccionarán
individualmente como van a ser
evaluados. El profesor y los
alumnos negocian juntos el
número de trabajos van a
entregar en cada unidad.
Después, cada alumno decide que
trabajos van a entregar, el valor
que cada uno va a tener y si lo va
a realizar individualmente o con
alguien más. De igual manera los
alumnos deciden si van a tener un
examen al final de la unidad o no.
Las fechas de entrega de los
trabajos también es establecida
en conjunto por maestro y
alumnos.
Bibliografía básica para el desarrollo de la Unidad:
Brandes, D. & Ginnis, P. (1996) A Guide to Student-Centered Learning. Cheltenham: Stanley Thornes
(Publishers) LTD.
Davies, Paul; Pearse, Eric (2000) Success in English Teaching. London: Oxford University Press.
Doff Adrian (2001) Teach English: A training course for teachers United Kingdom: Cambridge University
Press.
Echevarria, Jana; Vogt, MaryEllen & Short, Deborah (2000). Making Content Comprehensible for English
Language Learners: The SIOP Model. Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon.Halliwell, Susan (1998) Teaching
English in the Primary Classroom. New York: Longman.
Harmer, Jeremy. (2000). How to Teach English. Spain: Longman.
Harmer, Jeremy. (2000) The Practice of English Language Teaching. China: Longman.
Hubbard (2000) A training Course for TEFL. New York : Oxford University Press.
Larsen-Freeman, Dianne (2000) Techniques and Principles of Language Teaching. Oxford: England.
Lessow-Hurley, Judith (2004). The Foundations of Dual Language Instruction. 4th Edition. New York:
Longman.
McDonough, Jo and Christopher Shaw (2000) Materials and Methods in ELT. Great Britain: Blackwell.
Nunan, David. (1998) Language Teaching Methodology .Great Britain: Prentice Hall International.
Nunan, David. (1999) Second Language Teaching and Learning . Newbury House.
Ur, Penny. (1996) A Course in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Weimer, M. (2002) Learner-centered teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
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191
Ethics Committee Approval
Secundino Isabeles Flores Appendix B
192
: Data Collection Instruments
Learner Diary Questions
• Was there anything you liked this week? Why did you like it?
• What was the most difficult thing(s) you did this week? Why was it difficult?
• Was there anything that helped you learn this week?
• Was there anything that helped you learn this week? If so, what was it? Why do you think it helped
you learn?
• Was there something we did in class you liked this week? Why did you like it?
• Was there something you did not like in class this week? What was it? Why didn't you like it?
• How useful/useless has it been to be given time in the classroom to work on your assignments?
Have you really used the time to work? If not, what did you do during that time?
• How do you feel about having to work on your own about your assignments?
• How do you feel about learning with self-study guides?
• What is it like making your own decisions about your learning (grading criteria, number of
assignments, attending classes, doing assignments individually or in pairs, etc.)? easy? Difficult?
stressful? Why?
• What do you think about being given freedom and becoming responsible of your learning?
• Do you think you are ready to learn autonomously? if so, Why?
• What makes autonomous learning an effective teaching approach? Why?
• Would you use autonomous learning when you start teaching? Why? Why not?
• Do you like learning with this approach? Why? Why not?
• What have you become aware of?
• Would you like to continue working in the way you did for the lesson plan?
• What is your opinion about working autonomously? Did it help you learn?
• Do you think you it is easier now to learn in an autonomous way? Why?
• Do you think you have become an autonomous learner? Why?
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193
Questionnaire
Autonomous learning questionnaire
The purpose of this questionnaire is to collect your opinions about autonomous learning practices
used in the Teaching Methods class. This questionnaire is one of the instruments being used to
collect data that can help the researcher write his doctorate thesis. Your responses will be
confidential, only the researcher in charge of this study will read them. Your participation is
voluntary, if you do not wish to answer the questionnaire please return it to the researcher. If you
agree to complete it, please give it to the researcher when you finish answering the questions.
Thank you for your cooperation.
Name ______________________________________________________________
1. Read the following questions, then write your responses as honestly as you can.
1. As part of the class, you were asked to make your own decisions about aspects of the class and
your learning in general, how was it?
2. Why was it like that?
3. Do you think receiving training specifically on how to make decisions would have helped you?
Why?
4. What do you think about having to make your own decisions for the class? (selecting the grading
criteria, the deadlines, working individually, in pairs or small teams, how many assignments you
submitted, etc.)
5. In class, you were asked to work autonomously, what is your opinion about this?
6. Do you think making your own decisions has helped you become an autonomous learner? Why?
Why not?
7. How does making your own decisions help you become an autonomous learner?
8. Was there anything done in class that helped you learn in an autonomous way? (course outline,
teamwork, pair work, action plan, class activities, freedom to make decisions, feedback, etc.). If so
how/why did it help you?
9. Did you do something extra, you were not asked by the teacher, to learn more or more
efficiently? (look for information, watch videos, read related articles, ask people)
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194
Interview questions
Ice-breaking questions
How are you today?
What have you been up to lately?
What are you going to do during the break?
Are you done with school?
What did you do yesterday?
Interview questions
1. What was it like learning in the way you did in class?
2. How did you feel about selecting the grading criteria each term? About making decisions?
3. Did having to make your own decision regarding the number of assignments and their value
contribute to be a more autonomous learner? If so, in what ways? How did making such decisions
help them to be more independent learners?
4. Why when given free time to work on assignments, did you actually work in your assignments?
What motivated you to do so and not use it for other things or work on work for other classes?
What made you work autonomously?
5. Did you follow the course outline? Did you know what was going to be done in each session? Did
it help you organize your time? Learning? Efforts? Did it help to regulate your learning? Be more
independent in your learning? How about the action plan? Did it help?
6. Did the tasks from class made you learn autonomously? Were they working independently
because you have no option? Why?
7. During the third term, when you were allowed to decide whether you came to the face-to-face
sessions, did you attend them? Why? Why not? If you didn’t, did you work independently at home?
8. Out of class, did you do anything to complement or increase your learning about the topics from
the class? Or did you limit yourself to working with the materials provided by the teacher? Why
either? If you did the former, when was it? The whole semester?
9. Now that you are not taking the class with me anymore, do you still perform any behaviors from
autonomous learning? Which? Why?
10. How do you feel about making decisions about your learning now, after having been in class?
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195
11. Do you think, by the end of the semester you were a more autonomous learner? If so, what
helped you to become more autonomous?
12. How do you feel about the way autonomous learning was introduced?
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196
Researcher diary
Date:
Term:
Purpose of the session:
1. Notes:
(Some possible questions to help writing notes)
Which activities made students work independently?
How long were students working in an autonomous way?
What was their behavior like as they were working independently?
What questions/doubts came up as they were working in such way?
Did they go beyond what they were asked for? What did they do?
What is it like for students making decisions?
Has having them made their own decisions contributed to developing their autonomous learning? If
so, in what ways?
2. Things that need to be observed in future session, asked students about or pay attention to
Secundino Isabeles Flores Appendix B
197
Consent form for students
Secundino Isabeles Flores List of References
199
List of References
Abdelrazeq, A. (2018). Autonomous Learning Levels of Students Majoring in EFL and the Role of
their Teachers in Developing Autonomous Learning. Journal of Educational and
Psychological Studies, 12(4), 724-738.
Ahmed, M. (2012). Theories And Strategies of Good Decision Making. International Journal of
Scientific and Technology Research, 1, 51-54.
Ajideh, P. (2009). Autonomous learning and metacognitive strategies essentials in ESP class.
English Language Teaching, 2(1), 162-168.
Al-Busaidi, S.S., & Al-Maamari, F.S., (2014). Exploring University Teachers’ Understanding of
Learner Autonomy. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 4(10), 2051-2060.
Al-Saadi, H. (2011). From Spoon Feeding to Self-Feeding: Helping Learners Take Control of Their
Own Learning. Arab World English Journal, 2(3), 95-114.
Aliaga, M., & Gunderson, B. (2002). Interactive Statistics. Thousand Oaks, USA: Sage Publications.
Alibakhshi, G. (2015). Challenges in Promoting EFL Learners' Autonomy: Iranian EFL Teachers’
Perspectives. Issues in Language Teaching (ILT), 4(1), 79-98.
Allison, D. (1998). Investigating learners’ course diaries as explorations of language. Language
teaching research, 2(1), 24-47.
Alonazi, S. M. (2017). The Role of Teachers in Promoting Learner Autonomy in Secondary Schools
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