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Validity of a mobile-based specific test to estimate metabolic thresholds in boxers
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the validity of a boxing-specific test to predict anaerobic threshold (AT) using the heart rate deflection point (HRDP) in boxing athletes with mobile technology. Ten male boxing athletes performed the boxing-specific incremental test (TBOX). Maximal heart rate (HR MAX), HRDP, pace, maximal punch frequency (FP MAX), and punch frequency relative to HRDP (FP AT) were measured. Participants also performed an incremental running test on a treadmill (IT) as a reference test. Paired t-tests were performed to verify differences between the mean values of HR MAX and HRDP during TBOX and IT. Pearson linear correlation was applied to test correlations and the Bland and Altman visual analysis was used to verify the level of agreement. A significant level of p < 0.05 was adopted. The average HRDP was 174 +/- 7 bpm, which corresponded to 92% of the observed HR MAX. FP AT and FP MAX presented values between 39 +/- 4 and 73 +/-8 blows, respectively. No differences were found, and strong correlations were evidenced between TBOX and IT for HR MAX (p = 0.281; r = 0.73) and heart rate response related to HRDP (p = 0.096; r = 0.85). The 95% limits of agreement for the differences between TBOX and IT for HR MAX should be considered with bias by 2.1 +/- 9.7 found between -7.65 and 11.85, as well as the 95% limits of agreement for the differences between TBOX and IT for HRDP with bias -2.3 +/- 7.68 found between -9.98 and 5.38. HR MAX and HRDP obtained during TBOX leads us to infer that the test was well founded to estimate parameters associated with the aerobic power and aerobic capacity of boxing athletes. In addition, TBOX shows significant applicability for the aerobic assessment of boxers based on real competition movements and can be useful to determine and control training intensities.
... Additionally, the world's current situation has reshaped the intervention and monitoring approaches related to physical activity, with an emphasis on remote training models and the use of applications and wearable technologies being among the latest trends in the fitness market [10]. These market trends, added to the expanded possibilities of Industry 4.0, provide opportunities for the integration of mobile technologies with wearable technologies, allowing greater access to the acquisition of metrics, and biological, and mechanical parameters in real-time tracking data [11]. ...
... The Safe Runner App was developed to identify internal and external load parameters during incremental running testing, assist in aerobic capacity and power assessments during maximal incremental testing, and assist in controlling aerobic adaptations [11], which is an example of an innovative proposal. When paired with a Bluetooth chest strap heart monitor, the App generates instant data regarding the aerobic fitness parameters obtained in an incremental test performed on a treadmill. ...
Background
Mobile Applications (App) have reshaped approaches to the intervention and monitoring of physical training. The Safe Runner App is an example. However, evidence of the reliability of the Safe Runner App to obtain aerobic parameters still needs to be investigated.
Aims
The present study aimed to analyze the accuracy and reproducibility of power parameters and aerobic capacity derived from incremental testing on a treadmill using an application for mobile devices.
Methods
Twenty participants performed a maximum incremental test and retest. Maximum oxygen consumption (VO2MAX), maximum heart rate (HRMAX), maximum velocity (VMAX), anaerobic threshold heart rate (HRAT), and anaerobic threshold velocity (VAT) were estimated. A two-way ANOVA was used for dependent samples or the Friedman test for non-parametric data, and effect size (Cohens-d), intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), and Bland–Altman were used to verify reliability.
Results
No differences between the test and retest (p > 0.05) were observed for all variables assessed. The variables VO2MAX (d = 0.05), HRMAX (d = 0.01), and VMAX (d = 0.05) showed a trivial effect size, while HRAT (d = 0.11) and VAT (d = 0.16) showed to be trivial/low. The ICC values for VO2MAX (0.996), HRMAX (0.955), HRAT (0.939), VMAX (0.996), and VAT (0.913) demonstrated reliability. The Bland–Altman plots demonstrated an agreement of the variables. The variables VO2MAX, HRAT, and VAT were identical when comparing the Safe Runner App and Excel software.
Conclusion
The Safe Runner App is reliable in identifying aerobic training parameters.
... Boxing is a sport that demands high levels of physical ability, including strength, speed, precision, and endurance. Anaerobic endurance, in particular, is essential because boxing involves a series of intense movements that occur over short but repeated periods of time (de Oliveira et al., 2024). In practice, anaerobic endurance plays a role in carrying out a series of intense attacks, because in hitting the boxer does not breathe oxygen. ...
The purpose of this study was to analyze the use of interval training in Punching Bag drills on anaerobic endurance in boxers. This type of research is quasi-experimental, with pretest-posttest. The experimental group (EG) is a group with Punching Bag drills training with interval training, while the control group (CG) is a group with Punching Bag drills training but does not use intervals or free training. Data collection used a 300-meter sprint. The sample consisted of 7 EG boxers and 7 CG boxers, with characteristics of age 18 – 24 years, height 160 – 174 centimeters, weight 52 – 66 kilograms, training experience 3.2±2.7 years. The training program was conducted for 6 weeks, 3 meetings per week. EG and CG were also given the same opportunity in the form of 15 rounds x 3 minutes, 1 minute recovery (table 1). The results of Wilcoxon Test (p<0.05) showed that EG had an effect on anaerobic 0.017<0.05 with an increase in time of 9.11 seconds. CG also had an effect on anaerobic 0.042<0.05 with an increase in time of 4.82 seconds. However, there was a difference in groups using the Mann-Whitney test 0.010<0.05. These findings reinforce the benefits of interval training in increasing anaerobic energy expenditure. This study suggests the integration of interval training into boxing training to improve recovery, strength, and endurance. Given the limited sample size, training program, and previous training conditions of the athletes, future studies are needed for further verification.
... 75 Associated with this trend, data show that the market wellness and sports sector moved around 4.2 trillion dollars in 2017. 76 Besides market wellness expansion, an increase in scientific investigations on technological solutions has been observed (especially in wearable devices, which are increasingly used in different areas) 77 and also in the assessment of combat sports athletes. 25 Regarding biomechanical assessment, as presented in this study, there has been a significant increase in studies, particularly in the last 2 years. ...
New technologies have amplified the possibilities for processing and incorporating data and scientific methods in algorithms through the integration of the use of mobile technology and a wide range of wearables that allow acquisition metrics in real-time. These technologies arise as a possible alternative to supply market demand and to present practical solutions to problems that coaches and athletes face in their daily routines. Concerning biomechanical assessment in combat sports (i.e. reaction time, velocity, and force), the literature is scarce regarding studies that carried out surveys of new assessments and monitoring technologies, with solutions for coaches and athletes. Therefore, the current study aimed to investigate, through a literature review, mobile technologies available on the market for biomechanical analyses in combat sports modalities. Significant growth has been observed in the number of studies involving mobile technologies with practical tools for biomechanical assessment in combat sports athletes. However, only seven technological proposals presented scientific reliability studies, and six assessed validity, showing the necessity of more original articles to investigate scientific validation. As a suggestion, a flowchart is presented with operational guidelines for the research and development of new technologies for biomechanical assessment and monitoring in combat sports in real-time.
... This procedure was the same as reported in previous studies (Sant' Ana et al., 2017Sant' Ana, Sakugawa & Diefenthaeler, 2021). For the upper body specific test, the same app was used, which has also applied to boxers (de Oliveira et al., 2022). The upper body fatigue protocol functioned exactly as mentioned above, using the validated incremental punching protocol . ...
In combat sports, strikes or counter-strikes response time (RT) can be related to
performance and sporting success. Moreover, training sessions are usually highly
fatiguing, which is expected to impair basic skills, such as RT. Thus, this study aimed
to investigate the effect of fatigue on punches and kicks RT of karate practitioners.
Twelve individuals of both sexes from different levels (three yellow belts, three red
belts, two orange belts, two green belts, one brown belt, and one black belt) were
selected. Participants were aged 22 ± 3 years old, with a stature of 169.1 ± 6.5 cm, and
a body mass of 65.5 ± 10 kg. Six visits were held with each participant. On the first
2 days, the RT of punches and kicks was measured by a validated smartphone app
(TReaction). For the subsequent visits, a randomized incremental test for the upper
or lower body was adopted as motor fatigue protocol, immediately followed by
punches and kicks RT tests, also in random order. For induction of lower and upper
body-specific muscle fatigue, the ITStriker app was used, which operates by emitting
sound signals transmitted by a smartphone. One-way repeated measures ANOVA
was performed, and significance was set at p ≤ 0.05. Regarding the mean punches RT,
significant effects between situations for the upper (F(2,22) = 11.5; ω2 = 0.23; p < 0.001)
and lower body (F(2,22) = 14.2; ω2 = 0.18; p < 0.001) fatigue protocols were found.
The negative effect of the lower body fatigue protocol in punches RT was evident
regardless of the order of the tests (punch RT first: Δ = 10.5%; t = 4.4; p < 0.001;
d = 1.0; kick RT first: Δ = 11.4%; t = 4.8; p < 0.001; d = 1.1). Regarding mean kicks RT,
significant effects between situations for the lower (F(2,22) = 16.6; ω2 = 0.27; p < 0.001)
but not for the upper (F(2,22) = 2.3; ω2 = 0.02; p = 0.12) body fatigue protocols. Kicks
RT were negatively affected by the lower body fatigue protocol regardless of the RT
order applied (punch RT first: Δ = 7.5%; t = 3.0; p = 0.01; d = 0.8; kick RT first:
Δ = 14.3%; t = 5.7; p < 0.001; d = 1.5). Upper body fatigue does not impair punches or
kicks RT. Thus, it is concluded that the specificity of fatigue protocols and striking
order should be considered while performing RT demanding techniques in karate
practice. Specifically, lower body motor fatigue may impair both kicks and punches
RT, which highlights the role of lower limbs in punches performance. Otherwise, upper body motor fatigue seems to induce impairments that are limited to the specific motor actions of this body segment.
This study aimed to verify the effect of a pace training session at an intensity corresponding to the kick frequency at the anaerobic threshold (KFAT) on the internal load response and motor response performance of the roundhouse kick. Twelve black belt taekwondo athletes underwent two evaluation sessions: (1) performed the progressive specific test for taekwondo (PSTT) to identify the heart rate deflection point (HRDP) and the KFAT; (2) performed three 2-min rounds with a 1-min interval. Heart rate (HR) throughout each round and motor response performance before and after sessions were measured. The Student's T-test or Wilcoxon test was used, and p < 0.05 was adopted. During round 1, a lower internal load was observed (167 ± 10 bpm) compared with HRDP (179 ± 8 bpm; p = 0.035). During rounds 2 (178 ± 10 bpm; p = 0.745) and 3 (179 ± 8 bpm; p = 1), no differences were observed for an internal load and HRDP. Motor response performance showed no differences. However, a potentiation in the post countermovement jump test compared with rounds 1 (p = 0.012) and 2 (p = 0.028) was observed. The internal load (HR) observed at the intensity corresponding to KFAT can be considered in the prescription of training when the aim is to control the internal load responses without inducing fatigue.
Background: The TReaction app purposes to determine strike response time with a low cost and easy application in combat
sports. However, there is a need to verify the validity and accuracy of the response time obtained by the TReaction app. Objective: To test the validity and reliability of the TReaction app in measuring the motor response time in combat sports. Methods: Two athletes performed 59 strikes to assess the response time from visual stimulus using the TReaction app simultaneously with a high speed camera. Accuracy of the measure was verified using a simulator programmed to discharge
visual stimuli and obtain the response time. Person correlation, Student t test for dependent samples, and the Bland-Altman
analysis were established. The accuracy was verified by the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC). The Effect size (g) and the typical error of measurement (TEM) were calculated. The significance level was set at p<0.05. Results: No significant difference (p=0.556) was found between both systems. The methods presented a very strong correlation (r=0.993). A magnitude of the differences was trivial (g<0.25) and the TEM was 1.4%. These findings indicate the accuracy of the measures of changing computer screen and the smartphone flash to determine the beginning of the task, as well as the response time. Conclusions: Thus, our findings suggest that the TReaction app is valid to evaluate the response time in combat sports athletes.
Aim: The aim of the present study was to verify the agreement between the ventilatory method (VT) and the alternative method of heart rate deflection point (HRDP) in determining the anaerobic threshold (AT) during incremental treadmill test in dyslipidaemic patients. Methods: Twenty-seven dyslipidaemic patients (61.50 ± 10.46 years) performed an incremental treadmill test, in which the AT was determined using both methods. Bland-Altman statistics was adopted in order to verify the agreement between the methods. Results: Agreement in AT determination between the VT and HRDP methods was observed (p < 0.05) for heart rate (138.00 ± 23.80 and 136.26 ± 22.18 bpm, respectively), oxygen uptake (31.00 ± 10.33 and 31.00 ± 11.17 ml.kg−1.min−1), and treadmill velocity (7.67 ± 1.71 km.h-1and 8.00 ± 1.75 km.h-1). Conclusion: Our results suggest that the HRDP method can be adopted for the determination of the AT in dyslipidaemic patients, showing agreement with the VT method.
This study aimed at examining physiological responses (i.e., oxygen uptake [VO2] and heart rate [HR]) to a semi-contact 3 × 3-min format, amateur boxing combat simulation in elite level male boxers. Eleven boxers aged 21.4 ± 2.1 years (body height 173.4 ± 3.7, body mass 74.9 ± 8.6 kg, body fat 12.1 ± 1.9, training experience 5.7 ± 1.3 years) volunteered to participate in this study. They performed a maximal graded aerobic test on a motor-driven treadmill to determine maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max), oxygen uptake (VO2AT) and heart rate (HRAT) at the anaerobic threshold, and maximal heart rate (HRmax). Additionally, VO2 and peak HR (HRpeak) were recorded following each boxing round. Results showed no significant differences between VO2max values derived from the treadmill running test and VO2 outcomes of the simulated boxing contest (p > 0.05, d = 0.02 to 0.39). However, HRmax and HRpeak recorded from the treadmill running test and the simulated amateur boxing contest, respectively, displayed significant differences regardless of the boxing round (p < 0.01, d = 1.60 to 3.00). In terms of VO2 outcomes during the simulated contest, no significant between-round differences were observed (p = 0.19, d = 0.17 to 0.73). Irrespective of the boxing round, the recorded VO2 was >90% of the VO2max. Likewise, HRpeak observed across the three boxing rounds were ≥90% of the HRmax. In summary, the simulated 3 × 3-min amateur boxing contest is highly demanding from a physiological standpoint. Thus, coaches are advised to systematically monitor internal training load for instance through rating of perceived exertion to optimize training-related adaptations and to prevent boxers from overreaching and/or overtraining.
The regular monitoring of physical fitness and sport-specific performance is important in elite sports to increase the likelihood of success in competition. This study aimed to systematically review and to critically appraise the methodological quality, validation data, and feasibility of the sport-specific performance assessment in Olympic combat sports like amateur boxing, fencing, judo, karate, taekwondo, and wrestling. A systematic search was conducted in the electronic databases PubMed, Google-Scholar, and Science-Direct up to October 2017. Studies in combat sports were included that reported validation data (e.g., reliability, validity, sensitivity) of sport-specific tests. Overall, 39 studies were eligible for inclusion in this review. The majority of studies (74%) contained sample sizes <30 subjects. Nearly, 1/3 of the reviewed studies lacked a sufficient description (e.g., anthropometrics, age, expertise level) of the included participants. Seventy-two percent of studies did not sufficiently report inclusion/exclusion criteria of their participants. In 62% of the included studies, the description and/or inclusion of a familiarization session (s) was either incomplete or not existent. Sixty-percent of studies did not report any details about the stability of testing conditions. Approximately half of the studies examined reliability measures of the included sport-specific tests (intraclass correlation coefficient [ICC] = 0.43–1.00). Content validity was addressed in all included studies, criterion validity (only the concurrent aspect of it) in approximately half of the studies with correlation coefficients ranging from r = −0.41 to 0.90. Construct validity was reported in 31% of the included studies and predictive validity in only one. Test sensitivity was addressed in 13% of the included studies. The majority of studies (64%) ignored and/or provided incomplete information on test feasibility and methodological limitations of the sport-specific test. In 28% of the included studies, insufficient information or a complete lack of information was provided in the respective field of the test application. Several methodological gaps exist in studies that used sport-specific performance tests in Olympic combat sports. Additional research should adopt more rigorous validation procedures in the application and description of sport-specific performance tests in Olympic combat sports.
BACKGROUNDː This is the first study to independently assess the concurrent validity and reliability of the My Jump 2 app for measuring drop jump performance. It is also the first to evaluate the app’s ability to measure the reactive strength index (RSI).
METHODSː Fourteen male sport science students (age: 29.5 ± 9.9 years) performed three drop jumps from 20 cm and 40 cm (totalling 84 jumps), assessed via a force platform and the My Jump 2 app. Reported metrics included reactive strength index, jump height, ground contact time, and mean power. Measurements from both devices were compared using the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), Pearson product moment correlation coefficient (r), Cronbach’s alpha (α), coefficient of variation (CV) and Bland-Altman plots.
RESULTSː Near perfect agreement was seen between devices at 20 cm for RSI (ICC = 0.95) and contact time (ICC = 0.99) and at 40 cm for RSI (ICC = 0.98), jump height (ICC = 0.96) and contact time (ICC = 0.92); with very strong agreement seen at 20 cm for jump height (ICC = 0.80). In comparison with the force plate the app showed good validity for RSI (20 cm: r = 0.94; 40 cm; r = 0.97), jump height (20 cm: r = 0.80; 40 cm; r = 0.96) and contact time (20 cm = 0.96; 40 cm; r = 0.98).
CONCLUSIONSː The results of the present study show that the My Jump 2 app is a valid and reliable tool for assessing drop jump performance.
The study was undertaken with a view to investigate the physiological responses of amateur boxers during specific activity in the boxing arena, with special reference to their physiological evaluation in the laboratory. The study was carried out on 6 elite Indian National boxers in 3 phases. In phase 1, the VO2max of the boxers was evaluated in the laboratory following a graded running protocol on a treadmill. In Phase 2, the boxers were evaluated in the boxing arena, during simulated boxing on a punching bag for 4 rounds of 2 min duration with 1 min rest pauses in between. The movements were kept similar to actual boxing and the punching frequencies were kept fast and individualized. The physiological variables were recorded on a COSMED K4 RQ portable telemetric gas analyzer (Cosmed, Italy). In Phase 3, heart rate and blood lactate responses of the boxers were observed during sparring for 2X6 rounds in the boxing ring, for 3 times during the training phase, to observe the lactate tolerance capacity. After the end of activi ty in each phase, a blood sample was collected from the fingertip for estimation of whole blood lactate on an YSI portable 1500 sport model lactate analyzer (YSI, USA). The mean VO2max of the boxers was 59.5 ± 4.7 ml/kg/min on the treadmill. The mean peaks VO2 of the boxers in 2X4 simulated rounds were 56.1, 57.5, 57.7 and 59.3 ml/kg/min, respectively. The mean heart rate and blood lactate were 192 bpm and 13.6 mMol/L, and were observed to be higher than most of the intermittent team events. The present study highlighted that the amateur boxers participating in 2X4 rounds, should be able to tolerate a high blood lactate concentration (14-15 mMol/L) and a high heart rate (190-200 b/min) over a total duration of one bout (11 min). The on court training in amateur boxing imparted high demands on cardiorespiratory and metabolic variables. 1)
The aim of the study was to determine the physical and physiological responses to simulated amateur boxing of 3 × 3-min rounds. Using an externally valid technical and ambulatory demand, 28 amateur boxers (mean ± SD; age 22.4 ± 3.5 years, body mass 67.7 ± 10.1 kg, stature 171 ± 9 cm) completed the protocol following familiarisation. The physiological load was determined continuously via collection of mean (HRmean) and peak (HRpeak) heart rate, breath-by-breath oxygen uptake ( O2), aerobic energy expenditure (EEaer), excess carbon dioxide production (CO2excess), ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and post-performance blood lactate. Physical performance was quantified as the acceleration delivered to the target by punches. HRmean and HRpeak were found to exceed 165 and 178 b min⁻¹, absolute O2 > 124.6 ml kg⁻¹, EEaer > 30.7 kcal min⁻¹ and acceleration via 78 punches >2697 g during each round. Mean blood lactate (4.6 mmol l⁻¹) and CO2excess (438.7 ml min⁻¹) were higher than typical resting values reflecting a notable anaerobic contribution. RPEs reinforced the intensity of exercise was strenuous (>6–8). For all measures, there were typical increases (p < 0.05; moderate ES) across rounds. Accordingly, boxers might consider high-intensity (>90% O2max) interval training in anticipation such exercise yields improvements in aerobic conditioning. Moreover, the current simulation protocol – the boxing conditioning and fitness test – could be used as a form of training per se and as a means to monitor intervention-based changes in aspects of boxing-related physiology and performance.
As research to-date has typically considered the technical features of
amateur boxing performance with respect to contest outcome only, this
study examined the offensive and defensive technical demands with respect
to the independent and interactive effects of contest outcome, weight class
and ability. Appraising eight offensive and four defensive actions and their
corresponding outcomes (successful/unsuccessful), the technical demands
of competitive boxing from 92 English amateurs (age: 22.3 ± 3.9 y; body
mass: 67.2 ± 13.0 kg) across 11 weight categories (48 – 91+ kg) and two
standards of competition (regional and national) were notated using
computerized software. Data analysis reinforced that amateur boxing
produces high technical loads (e.g. ~ 25 punches and ~ 10 defences per
minute) and that performance is influenced significantly by the study’s
independent variables. In particular, boxing standard (ability) was
positively associated with external load (frequency of offensive and
defensive actions), and winning was associated with high offensive and low
defensive frequencies, whereas weight class had an inconsistent impact on
technical performance. It is recommended that appraisals of performance
and approaches to training and competition should take heed of our
observations and that future research considers the role of other
independent variables, including opposition quality and ‘style’, likely to
affect boxing performance.
The aim of this review was to present data concerning performance analysis (time-motion and technical-tactical analysis) and physiological responses (i.e., blood lactate concentration [BLC], heart rate, and oxygen consumption) during novice and elite male simulated and official amateur boxing competitions in any age category. The present review shows that boxing competition is a high-intensity intermittent striking combat sport. Typically, the activity-to-rest ratio was higher in elite (18:1) than in novice (9:1) boxers and significant differences were observed between rounds (first round = 16:1, second round = 8:1, and third round = 6:1) in novice boxers. Thus, total stop-time and total stop-frequency increased over subsequent rounds in novice boxers. The technical-tactical aspects in elite and novice boxing bouts were different between rounds and dependent on the match outcome (i.e., winners vs. losers). Particularly , the current review highlights that triple-punch combinations, total combinations, block-and counter-punch combinations, total punches to the head, technical performance effectiveness, and defensive-and offensive-skills effectiveness may have contributed to win in novice and elite boxing competitions. Higher frequencies of technical movements were also observed in elite compared with novice boxers. From a physiological point of view, BLC increased significantly from postround 1 compared with postround 3 in novice boxing match. BLC was also higher in official than in simulated elite boxing matches in senior compared with junior boxers and in medium heavyweight category compared with light-and medium-weight categories in junior boxing competition. A higher percentage of maximal heart rate (%HR max) and maximal oxygen uptake (V _ O 2 max) were reported in round 3 compared with rounds 2 and 1 in elite boxing competition. In conclusion, these data are useful for both technical– tactical and physical conditioning sessions. Coaches and fitness trainers are encouraged to adjust their training according to these particular characteristics, specifically in terms of age, participants' level, weight categories, and combat contest type.
Professional boxing is a popular pan-global sport that attracts considerable interest and revenue. It is a high-intensity sport that requires a range of well-adapted physiological characteristics as likely pre-requisites for successful performance. Serious consideration has been given to medical aspects and potential health risks from partaking in training and competition. However, despite this there are no comprehensive sources of applied sport science research on the preparation of professional boxers for competition. In this review we present research in physiology and strength and conditioning to form a knowledge base for those involved in preparing professional boxers for competition.
Boxing is one of the oldest combat sports. The aim of the current review is to critically analyze the ama-teur boxer's physical and physiological characteristics and to provide practical recommendations for training as well as new areas of scientific research. High-level male and female boxers show a propensity for low body fat levels. Although studies on boxer somatotypes are limited, the available information shows that elite-level male boxers are characterized by a higher proportion of mesomorphy with a well-developed muscle mass and a low body fat level. To help support the overall metabolic demands of a boxing match and to accelerate the recovery process between rounds, athletes of both sexes require a high level of cardiorespiratory fitness. International boxers show a high peak and mean anaerobic power output. Muscle strength in both the upper and lower limbs is paramount for a fighter's victory and is one of the keys to success in boxing. As boxing punches are brief actions and very dynamic, high-level boxing performance requires well-developed muscle power in both the upper and lower limbs. Albeit limited, the available studies reveal that isometric strength is linked to high-level boxing performance. Future investigations into the physical and physiological attributes of boxers are required to enrich the current data set and to help create a suitable training program. Key Points High-level boxers present low body fat and high muscle mass percentages. Elevated cardiorespiratory fitness is important to amateur boxers to support the metabolic demand of the combat and to provide a faster recovery between rounds. Well-developed muscle strength, muscle power and anaerobic power and capacity are key components to success in boxing.
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: The peak heart rate (HRpeak) assessed in maximum laboratory tests has been used to determine the aerobic exercise intensity in field situations. However, HRpeak values may differ in field and laboratory situations, which can influence the relative intensity of the prescribed workloads. The objective of this study was to measure the HRpeak responses in laboratory and field maximum tests, analyzing their influence in the exercise prescription. METHODS: Twenty-five physically active men aged 21-51 yrs (28.9 ± 8 yrs) executed a 2,400 m field test in a running track and an individualized maximum treadmill ramp protocol. All tests were performed within two weeks, in a counterbalanced order. Before each test, the temperature and air humidity were checked, and the subjects were told no to engage in any physical activity 48 hours before. Differences between HRpeak and environmental conditions (temperature and humidity) in field and laboratory situations were respectively tested by paired and simple Student's t tests (p < 0.05). RESULTS: HRpeak values were significant higher in the field test than in the laboratory protocol, reaching 10 beats per minute in some cases. These differences may be partially accounted for a significant higher temperature and air humidity in the field conditions. CONCLUSION: In conclusion, maximum field tests seem to elicit higher HRpeak values than laboratory protocols, suggesting that the former procedures are more likely precise to determine the relative intensity of aerobic effort in physical training.
Investigate the physiological responses and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) in elite karate athletes and examine the relationship between a subjective method (Session-RPE) and two objective heart-rate (HR)-based methods to quantify training-load (TL) during international karate competition.
Eleven karatekas took part in this study, but only data from seven athletes who completed three matches in an international tournament were used (four men and three women). The duration of combat was 3 min for men and 2 min for women, with 33.6±7.6 min for the first interval period (match 1-2) and 14.5±3.1 min for the second interval period (match 2-3). HR was continuously recorded during each combat. Blood lactate [La(-)] and (RPE) were measured just before the first match and immediately after each match.
Means total fights time, HR, %HRmax, [La(-)], and session-RPE were 4.7±1.6 min, 182±9 bpm, 91±3%, 9.02±2.12 mmol.L(-1) and 4.2±1.2, respectively. No significant differences in %HRmax, [La(-)], and RPE were noticed across combats. Significant correlations were observed between RPE and both resting HR (r=0.60; P=0.004) and mean HR (r=0.64; P=0.02), session-RPE and Banister training-impulse (TRIMP) (r=0.84; P<0.001) and Edwards TL (r=0.77; P<0.01).
International karate competition elicited near-maximal cardiovascular responses and high [La(-)]. Training should therefore include exercise bouts that sufficiently stimulate the zone between 90 and 100% HRmax. Karate coaches could use the RPE-method to follow competitor's competition loads and consider it in their technical and tactical training.
The present study was conducted to study the morphological, physiological and biochemical characteristics of Indian National boxers as well as to assess the cardiovascular adaptation to graded exercise and actual boxing round. Two different studies were conducted. In the first study [N = 60, (junior boxers below-19 yrs, n = 30), (senior boxers-20-25 yrs, n = 30)] different morphological, physiological and biochemical parameters were measured. In the second study (N = 21, Light Weight category- <54 kg, n = 7; Medium weight category <64 kg, n = 7 and Medium heavy weight category <75 kg, n = 7) cardiovascular responses were studied during graded exercise protocol and actual boxing bouts. Results showed a significantly higher (p < 0.05) stature, body mass, LBM, body fat and strength of back and grip in senior boxers compared to juniors. Moreover, the senior boxers possessed mesomorphic body conformation where as the juniors' possessed ectomorphic body conformation. Significantly lower (p < 0.05) aerobic capacity and anaerobic power were noted in junior boxers compared to seniors. Further, significantly higher (p < 0.05) maximal heart rates and recovery heart rates were observed in the seniors as compared to the juniors. Significantly higher maximum heart rates were noted during actual boxing compared to graded exercise. Blood lactate concentration was found to increase with the increase of workload during both graded exercise and actual boxing round. The senior boxers showed a significantly elevated (p < 0.05) levels of hemoblobin, blood urea, uric acid and peak lactate as compared to junior boxers. In the senior boxers significantly lower levels of total cholesterol, triglyceride and LDLC were observed as compared to junior boxers. No significant change has been noted in HDLC between the groups. The age and level of training in boxing has significant effect on Aerobic, anaerobic component. The study of physiological responses during graded exercise testing may be helpful to observe the cardiovascular adaptation in boxers. Key PointsStudy on Indian boxersLaboratory testing.Physical, physiological and biochemical monitoring.Performance analysis during actual boxing and laboratory testing.
Despite worldwide popularity of amateur boxing, research focussed on the physiological demands of the sport is limited. The physiological profile of Senior and Junior England international amateur boxers is presented. A gradual (8 to 21-days) and rapid (0 to 7-days) phase of body weight reduction was evident with 2.2 ± 0.3 % of the 7.0 ± 0.8 % weight loss occurring over the final 24-hours. An increase in body weight >4% was observed following a recovery period. High urine osmolality values (> 1000 mOsm·kg-1) were recorded during training and competition. High post-competition blood lactate values (>13.5 mmol·l-1) highlighted the need for a well-developed anaerobic capacity and the importance of not entering the ring in a glycogen depleted state. The aerobic challenge of competition was demonstrated by maximum heart rate values being recorded during 'Open' sparring. Mean body fat values of 9-10% were similar to those reported for other weight classified athletes. Normal resting values were reported for hematocrit (Senior 48 ± 2 % and Junior 45 ± 2 %), haemoglobin (Senior 14.7 ± 1.0 g·dl-1 and Junior 14.5 ± 0.8 g·dl-1), bilirubin (Senior 15.3 ± 6.2 μmol·l-1) and ferritin (Senior 63.3 ± 45.7 ng·ml-1). No symptoms associated with asthma or exercise-induced asthma was evident. A well-developed aerobic capacity was reflected in the Senior VO2max value of 63.8 ± 4.8 ml·kg-1·min-1. Senior lead hand straight punching force (head 1722 ± 700 N and body 1682 ± 636 N) was lower than the straight rear hand (head 2643 ± 1273 N and body 2646 ± 1083 N), lead hook (head 2412 ± 813 N and body 2414 ± 718 N) and rear hook (head 2588 ± 1040 N and body 2555 ± 926 N). It was concluded that amateur boxing performance is dependent on the interplay between anaerobic and aerobic energy systems. Current weight making methods may lead to impaired substrate availability, leading to reduced competitive performance and an increased risk to a boxers health.
The purpose of the study was to develop an aerobic fitness assessment test for competitive Karate practitioners and describe the preliminary findings. Five well-trained, competitive Karate practitioners participated in this study. A protocol simulating common attack strikes used in competition Karate sparring was developed from video analysis. In addition, pilot testing established a specific sequence of strikes and timings to be used in the test. The time to perform the strike sequence remained the same, whilst the time between strike sequence performances was progressively reduced. The aim of the test was to increase intensity of exercise through a decrease in recovery. On two separate occasions, absolute and relative peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak), peak ventilation (VEpeak), maximum heart rate (HRM), and time to exhaustion (TE) obtained during the test were recorded. Subjective feedback provided by the participants was positive in that participants felt the test accurately simulated actions of a competitive sparring situation, and as a result athletes felt more motivated to perform well on this test. There was no significant between test difference in absolute VO2peak, relative VO2peak, HRM and TE (p > 0.05), indicating a potentially high reproducibility with the new test for these variables (test 1- test 2 difference of 0.04 L·min-1, 1 ml·kg-1·min-1, -3 beats·min-1, and 28 s; respectively). However, VEpeak displayed potentially less reproducibility due to a significant difference observed between tests (test 1-test 2 difference of -2.8 L·min-1, p < 0.05). There was a significant relationship between TE and relative VO2peak (R2 = 0.77, p < 0.001). Further developments to the test will need to address issues with work rate/force output assessment/monitoring. The new test accurately simulates the actions of competitive Karate sparring.
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: The peak heart rate (HRpeak) assessed in maximum laboratory tests has been used to determine the aerobic exercise intensity in field situations. However, HRpeak values may differ in field and laboratory situations, which can influence the relative intensity of the prescribed workloads. The objective of this study was to measure the HRpeak responses in laboratory and field maximum tests, analyzing their influence in the exercise prescription. METHODS: Twenty-five physically active men aged 21-51 yrs (28.9 ± 8 yrs) executed a 2,400 m field test in a running track and an individualized maximum treadmill ramp protocol. All tests were performed within two weeks, in a counterbalanced order. Before each test, the temperature and air humidity were checked, and the subjects were told no to engage in any physical activity 48 hours before. Differences between HRpeak and environmental conditions (temperature and humidity) in field and laboratory situations were respectively tested by paired and simple Student's t tests (p < 0.05). RESULTS: HRpeak values were significant higher in the field test than in the laboratory protocol, reaching 10 beats per minute in some cases. These differences may be partially accounted for a significant higher temperature and air humidity in the field conditions. CONCLUSION: In conclusion, maximum field tests seem to elicit higher HRpeak values than laboratory protocols, suggesting that the former procedures are more likely precise to determine the relative intensity of aerobic effort in physical training.
Muscular exercise requires transitions to and from metabolic rates often exceeding an order of magnitude above resting and places prodigious demands on the oxidative machinery and O2-transport pathway. The science of kinetics seeks to characterize the dynamic profiles of the respiratory, cardiovascular, and muscular systems and their integration to resolve the essential control mechanisms of muscle energetics and oxidative function: a goal not feasible using the steady-state response. Essential features of the O2 uptake (VO2) kinetics response are highly conserved across the animal kingdom. For a given metabolic demand, fast VO2 kinetics mandates a smaller O2 deficit, less substrate-level phosphorylation and high exercise tolerance. By the same token, slow VO2 kinetics incurs a high O2 deficit, presents a greater challenge to homeostasis and presages poor exercise tolerance. Compelling evidence supports that, in healthy individuals walking, running, or cycling upright, VO2 kinetics control resides within the exercising muscle(s) and is therefore not dependent upon, or limited by, upstream O2-transport systems. However, disease, aging, and other imposed constraints may redistribute VO2 kinetics control more proximally within the O2-transport system. Greater understanding of VO2 kinetics control and, in particular, its relation to the plasticity of the O2-transport/utilization system is considered important for improving the human condition, not just in athletic populations, but crucially for patients suffering from pathologically slowed VO2 kinetics as well as the burgeoning elderly population. © 2012 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 2:933-996, 2012.
Unlabelled:
The energy expenditure of amateur boxing is unknown.
Purpose:
Total metabolic cost (Wtot) as an aggregate of aerobic (Waer), anaerobic lactic (W[lactate]), and anaerobic alactic (WPCr) energy of a 3 × 2-min semicontact amateur boxing bout was analyzed.
Methods:
Ten boxers (mean ± SD [lower/upper 95% confidence intervals]) age 23.7 ± 4.1 (20.8/26.6) y, height 180.2 ± 7.0 (175.2/185.2) cm, body mass 70.6 ± 5.7 (66.5/74.7) kg performed a semicontact bout against handheld pads created from previously analyzed video footage of competitive bouts. Net metabolic energy was calculated using respiratory gases and blood [lactate].
Results:
Waer, 526.0 ± 57.1 (485.1/566.9) kJ, was higher (P < .001) than WPCr, 58.1 ± 13.6 (48.4/67.8) kJ. W[lactate], 26.2 ± 7.1 (21.1/31.3) kJ, was lower (P < .001) than Waer and WPCr. An ~70-kJ fraction of the aerobic energy expenditure reflects rephosphorylation of high-energy phosphates during the breaks between rounds, which elevated Wtot to ~680 kJ with relative contributions of 77% Waer, 19% WPCr, and 4% W[lactate].
Conclusions:
The results indicate that the metabolic profile of amateur boxing is predominantly aerobic. They also highlight the importance of a highly developed aerobic capacity as a prerequisite of a high activity rate during rounds and recovery of the high-energy phosphate system during breaks as interrelated requirements of successful boxing.
Is determination of exercise intensities as percentages of V̇O2max or HRmax adequate? Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., Vol. 31, No. 9, pp. 1342-1345, 1999. Often exercise intensities are defined as percentages of maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O2max) or heart rate (HRmax).
Purpose: The purpose of this investigation was to test the applicability of these criteria in comparison with the individual anaerobic threshold.
Methods: One progressive cycling test to exhaustion (initial stage 100 W, increment 50 W every 3 min) was analyzed in a group of 36 male cyclists and triathletes (24.9 ± 5.5 yr; 71.6 ± 5.7 kg; V̇O2max: 62.2 ± 5.0 mL·min-1·kg-1; individual anaerobic threshold = IAT: 3.64 ± 0.41 W·kg-1; HRmax: 188 ± 8 min). Power output and lactate concentrations for 60 and 75% of V̇O2max as well as for 70 and 85% of HRmax were related to the LAT.
Results: There was no significant difference between the mean value of IAT (261 ± 34 W, 2.92 ± 0.65 mmol·L-1), 75% of V̇O2max (257 ± 24 W, 2.84 ± 0.92 mmol·L-1), and 85% of HRmax (259 ± 30 W, 2.98 ± 0.87 mmol·L-1). However, the percentages of the IAT ranged between 86 and 118% for 75% V̇O2max and 87 and 116% for 85% HRmax (corresponding lactate concentrations: 1.41-4.57 mmol·L-1 and 1.25-4.93 mmol·L-1, respectively). The mean values at 60% of V̇O2max (198 ± 19 W, 1.55 ± 0.67 mmol·L-1) and 70% of HRmax (180 ± 27 W, 1.45 ± 0.57 mmol·L-1) differed significantly (P < 0.0001) from the IAT and represented a wide range of intensities (66-91% and 53-85% of the IAT, 0.70-3.16 and 0.70-2.91 mmol·L-1, respectively).
Conclusions: In a moderately to highly endurance-trained group, the percentages of V̇O2max and HRmax vary considerably in relation to the IAT. As most physiological responses to exercise are intensity dependent, reliance on these parameters alone without considering the IAT is not sufficient.
The aim of this study was to examine absolute and relative reliability and external responsiveness of the Karate specific aerobic test (KSAT). This study comprised 43 male karatekas, 19 of them participated in the first study to establish test-retest reliability and 40, selected on the bases of their karate experience and level of practice, participated in the second study to identify external responsiveness of the KSAT. The latter group was divided into two categories: national level group (Gn) and regional level group (Gr). Analysis showed excellent test-retest reliability of time to exhaustion (TE), with intraclass correlation coefficient ICC(3,1) >0.90, standard error of measurement SEM <5%: (3.2%) and mean difference (bias) ± the 95% limits of agreement: -9.5±78.8 s. There was a significant difference between test-retest session in peak lactate concentration (Peak [La]) (9.12±2.59 mmol.l vs 8.05±2.67 mmol.l; p<0.05), but not in peak heart rate (HRpeak) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) (196±9 bpm vs 194±9 bpm and 7.6±0.93 vs 7.8±1.15; p>0.05), respectively. National level karate athletes (1032±101-s) were better than regional level (841±134-s) on time to exhaustion (TE) performance during KSAT (p<0.001). Thus, KSAT provided good external responsiveness. The area under the receiver operator characteristics (ROC) curve was >0.70 (0.86; CI 95%: 0.72-0.95). Significant difference was detected on Peak [La] between national (6.09±1.78mmol.l) and regional level (8.48±2.63mmol.l) groups, but not in HRpeak (194±8 bpm vs 195±8 bpm) and RPE (7.57±1.15 vs 7.42±1.1) respectively. The result of this study indicates that KSAT provides excellent absolute and relative reliabilities. The KSAT can effectively distinguish karate athletes of different competitive levels. Thus, the KSAT may be suitable for field assessment of aerobic fitness of karate practitioners.
Minimal measurement error (reliability) during the collection of interval- and ratio-type data is critically important to sports medicine research. The main components of measurement error are systematic bias (e.g. general learning or fatigue effects on the tests) and random error due to biological or mechanical variation. Both error components should be meaningfully quantified for the sports physician to relate the described error to judgements regarding 'analytical goals' (the requirements of the measurement tool for effective practical use) rather than the statistical significance of any reliability indicators. Methods based on correlation coefficients and regression provide an indication of 'relative reliability'. Since these methods are highly influenced by the range of measured values, researchers should be cautious in: (i) concluding acceptable relative reliability even if a correlation is above 0.9; (ii) extrapolating the results of a test-retest correlation to a new sample of individuals involved in an experiment; and (iii) comparing test-retest correlations between different reliability studies. Methods used to describe 'absolute reliability' include the standard error of measurements (SEM), coefficient of variation (CV) and limits of agreement (LOA). These statistics are more appropriate for comparing reliability between different measurement tools in different studies. They can be used in multiple retest studies from ANOVA procedures, help predict the magnitude of a 'real' change in individual athletes and be employed to estimate statistical power for a repeated-measures experiment. These methods vary considerably in the way they are calculated and their use also assumes the presence (CV) or absence (SEM) of heteroscedasticity. Most methods of calculating SEM and CV represent approximately 68% of the error that is actually present in the repeated measurements for the 'average' individual in the sample. LOA represent the test-retest differences for 95% of a population. The associated Bland-Altman plot shows the measurement error schematically and helps to identify the presence of heteroscedasticity. If there is evidence of heteroscedasticity or non-normality, one should logarithmically transform the data and quote the bias and random error as ratios. This allows simple comparisons of reliability across different measurement tools. It is recommended that sports clinicians and researchers should cite and interpret a number of statistical methods for assessing reliability. We encourage the inclusion of the LOA method, especially the exploration of heteroscedasticity that is inherent in this analysis. We also stress the importance of relating the results of any reliability statistic to 'analytical goals' in sports medicine.
The heart rate deflection point (HRDP) is a downward or upward change from the linear HR-work relationship evinced during progressive incremental exercise testing. The HRDP is reported to be coincident with the anaerobic threshold. In 1982, Conconi and colleagues suggested that this phenomenon could be used as a noninvasive method to assess the anaerobic threshold. These researchers developed a field test to assess the HRDP, which has become popularised as the 'Conconi test'. Concepts used to define and assess the anaerobic threshold as well as methodological procedures used to determine the HRDP are diverse in the literature and have contributed to controversy surrounding the HRDP concept. Although the HRDP may be assessed in either field or laboratory settings, the degree of HR deflection is highly dependent upon the type of protocol used. The validity of HRDP to assess the anaerobic threshold is uncertain, although a high degree of relationship exists between HRDP and the second lactate turnpoint. The HRDP appears to be reliable when a positive identification is made; however, not all studies report 100% reproducibility. Although the physiological mechanisms explaining the HRDP are unresolved, a relationship exists between the degree and direction of HRDP and left ventricular function. The HRDP has potential to be used for training regulation purposes. Clinically, it may be incorporated to set exercise intensity parameters for cardiac rehabilitation.
This study examined the effects of serial reductions in energy and fluid intake on two simulated boxing performances separated by 2 days recovery. Eight amateur boxers (age: 23.6 +/- 3.2 years; height 175 +/- 5 cm; body mass [BM] 73.3 +/- 8.3 kg [Mean +/- SD]) performed two simulated boxing bouts (BB) under normal (N-trial) and restricted (R-trial) diets in a counterbalanced design over 5 days. The trials were separated by a 9-day period of normal dietary behavior (X-trial). BM was recorded on days 1, 3, and 5 of each trial. Simulated bouts of three, 3-min rounds with 1-min recovery were completed on days 3 (BB1) and 5 (BB2) of each 5-day trial. Punching force (N) was recorded from 8 sets of 7 punches by a purpose-built boxing ergometer. Heart rate (fC) was monitored continuously (PE3000 Polar Sports Tester, Kempele, Finland), and blood lactate (BLa) and glucose (BG) were determined 4-min post-performance (2300 StaPlus, YSI, Ohio). Energy and fluid intakes were significantly lower in the R-trial (p < .05). Body mass was maintained during the N-trial but fell 3% (p < .05) during the R-trial. There were no significant differences in end-of-bout fC or post-bout BG, but BLa was higher in the N- than the R-trial (p < .05). R-trial punching forces were 3.2% and 4.6% lower, respectively, compared to the corresponding N-trial bouts, but the differences did not reach statistical significance. These results suggest that energy and fluid restrictions in weight-governed sports do not always lead to a significant decrease in performance, but because of the small sample size and big variations in individual performances, these findings should be interpreted with care.
We examined, within the middleweight class, the relationship between ranking in boxing competition performance and some physiological factors.
Eight elite Italian amateur boxers (first series of AIBA ranking) were assessed in 2 testing sessions, a week apart. In the first testing session all subjects underwent anthropometric measurements from which body fat percentage, upper arm and forearm muscle cross-sectional areas were estimated. In the second testing session all subjects performed grip strength measures and a maximal treadmill test to assess oxygen consumption (VO2), blood lactate and heart rate at maximal effort, at individual anaerobic threshold, and at individual ventilatory threshold. The athletes were ranked following the criteria of world amateur AIBA ranking. In this ranking the first ranked boxer had the highest score gained participating in international tournaments.
A Spearman rho correlation analysis revealed that the VO2 at individual anaerobic threshold (46.0+/-4.2 ml x kg(-1) x min(-1), r=0.91) and the hand-grip strength (58.2+/-6.9 kg, r=0.87) were highly related (p<0.01) to boxing competition ranking. VO(2max) (57.5+/-4.7 ml x kg(-1) x min(-1), r=0.81) and wrist girth (17.6+/-0.6 cm, r=0.78) were moderately (p<0.05) related.
These data suggest that there are two basic factors related to boxing performance: physical fitness as indicated by individual anaerobic threshold and maximal oxygen consumption, and upper-body muscular strength as indicated by hand-grip strength.
This study investigated whether the progressive specific taekwondo test (PSTT) is a valid test to measure peak oxygen consumption (VO2PEAK) and the heart rate deflection point (HRDP) in taekwondo athletes. Eighteen male black belt athletes (25.3 ± 4.8 years; 8.2 ± 4.7 years of practice; 171.8 ± 4.7 cm; 76.1 ± 8.2 kg, and 13.1 ± 2.9% body fat) involved in regional and national level competitions performed the PSTT and an incremental treadmill test (IT). The following variables were analyzed: VO2PEAK, respiratory quotient, oxygen consumption at the HRDP (VO2HRDP), peak heart rate (HRPEAK), HRDP, and peak post-test blood lactate concentration. During the PSTT the peak kick frequency (FKPEAK) and kick frequency at the HRDP (FKHRDP) was also obtained. During the IT, the peak speed and the speed at the HRDP were identified by the DMAX method (the first and last points of the curve were connected by a straight line and the most distant point of the curve to the line was considered as the heart rate deflection point). No differences were observed between VO2 responses during the PSTT and IT (p>0.05). VO2PEAK and VO2HRDP presented bias (1.3 ml·kg-1·min-1 and -0.78 ml·kg-1·min-1, respectively) derived from the Bland & Altman plots, with the 95% limits of agreement indicating that the differences between the two measures can reach 11% for VO2PEAK and 17% for VO2HRDP. The PSTT is a valid tool to assess aerobic power and capacity in taekwondo athletes based on direct comparisons to a treadmill test. The test presents more specific variables for the assessment and training of taekwondo athletes, such as FKPEAK and FKHRDP, which can be used to determine and control the effects of training and help coaches in prescribing training programs.
Reaction time and response time are considered important abilities and can potentially affect combat performance. This study investigated the effect of a specific fatigue protocol on reaction time, response time, performance time, and kick impact. Seven male athletes reported to the laboratory on two different days. During day one, athletes performed a specific progressive taekwondo test, and on day two, a protocol for determining reaction time, response time, performance time, and kick impact before and after a time to exhaustion test at an intensity level corresponding to the maximal kick frequency obtained during the specific progressive taekwondo test. Muscle activation from rectus femoris and kick impact of the preferred limb were assessed. No differences were observed for response time and performance time. However, kick impact decreased (43 ± 27 to 13 ± 10 g, p < 0.01) while reaction time increased (145 ± 51 to 223 ± 133 ms, p < 0.05). Moderate correlation was observed between kick impact and response time (r = 0.565; p < 0.01), and kick impact and performance time (r = 0.494; p < 0.05). Results indicate that coaches and athletes may use taekwondo training programmes on coordination-based exercises leading to improve response time and to reduce fatigue effects in order to improve technique effectiveness and enhance the possibilities of scoring in a competitive situation.
This issue of Sport in History is the product of a symposium entitled ‘Boxing, History and Culture: New Themes and Perspectives’ held in June 2010 at De Montfort University and organized by the International Centre for Sports History and Culture. The symposium was an attempt to highlight and reflect upon a notable increase in recent years in scholarly research on the culture and history of boxing. It brought together academics from a range of disciplines, as well as boxing writers and some participants, all of whom were either involved in researching, or simply interested in, aspects of boxing's past. It generated stimulating discussion and raised important questions not only about the gaps in our knowledge of the history of the sport but also about the contrasting approaches to the subject taken by literary scholars, sociologists, sports studies academics and cultural and social historians. Yet the synergies between these perspectives was equally evident, a point that has been underlined subsequently by the organization of similar inter-disciplinary events. This issue includes articles by four of the speakers at the symposium alongside three additional pieces connected to its themes. Its appearance is testament both to the absence of an established academic historical literature on boxing in Britain and the vitality of current research on the topic.
Often exercise intensities are defined as percentages of maximal oxygen uptake ((V) over dot O-2max) or heart rate (HRmax). Purpose: The purpose of this investigation was to test the applicability of these criteria in comparison with the individual anaerobic threshold. Methods: One progressive cycling test to exhaustion (initial stage 100 W. increment 50 W every 3 min) was analyzed in a group of 36 male cyclists and triathletes (24.9 +/- 5.5 yr; 71.6 +/- 5.7 kg; W. increment 50 W every 3 min) was analyzed in a group of 36 male cyclists and triathletes (24.9 +/- 5.5 yr; 71.6 +/- 5.7 kg; (V) over dot O-2max; 62.2 +/- 5.0 mL.min(-1).kg(-1); individual anaerobic threshold = IAT: 3.64 +/- 0.41 W.kg(-1); HRmax: 188 +/- 8 min). Power output and lactate concentrations for 60 and 75% of (V) over dot O-2max as well as for 70 and 85% of HRmax were related to the IAT. Results: There was no significant difference between the mean value of WT (261 +/- 34 W, 2.92 +/- 0.65 mmol.L-1), 75% of (V) over dot O-2max (257 +/- 24 W, 2.84 +/- 0.92 mmol.L-1), and 85% of HRmax (259 +/- 30 W, 2.98 +/- 0.87 mmol.L-1). However, the percentages of the IAT ranged between 86 and 118% for 75% (V) over dot O-2max and 87 and 116% for 85% HRmax (corresponding lactate concentrations: 1.41-4.57 mmol.L-1 and 1.25-4.93 mmol.L-1, respectively). The mean values at 60% of (V) over dot O-2max (198 +/- 19 W, 1.55 +/- 0.67 mmol.L-1) and 70% of HRmax (180 +/- 27 W, 1.45 +/- 0.57 mmol.L-1) differed significantly (P < 0.0001) from the WT and represented a wide range of intensities (66-91% and 53-85% of the IAT, 0.70-3.16 and 0.70-2.91 mmol.L-1, respectively). Conclusions: In a moderately to highly endurance-trained group, the percentages of (V) over dot O-2max and HRmax vary considerably in relation to the IAT. As most physiological responses to exercise are intensity dependent, reliance on these parameters alone without considering the IAT is not sufficient.
The purpose of the study was to compare the %[latin capital V with dot above]O2max versus %HRmax regression equations developed from data collected during incremental work on six exercise modes: treadmill (T), cycle (C), skier (S), shuffle skier (SS), stepper (ST), and rower (R). Ten active males were habituated to all modes and then performed an incremental test to maximum on each mode. Mode order was assigned by Latin square sequences and the tests were separated by at least 72 h. [latin capital V with dot above]O[sb]2[/sb] and HR were recorded at each increment. Regression analyses were performed using SAS-GLM. Regressions for T, S, SS, and ST were not significantly different. C had a lower intercept and higher slope, while R had a higher intercept and lower slope than the other exercise modes. These results suggest that weight bearing exercise modes have similar %[latin capital V with dot above]O2max-%HRmax regressions. However, weight supported and arm exercise modes appear to have different regressions. (C)1995The American College of Sports Medicine
The purpose of this study was to quantify the physiological requirements of various boxing exercises such as sparring, pad work, and punching bag. Because it was not possible to measure the oxygen uptake (VO₂) of "true" sparring with a collecting gas valve in the face, we developed and validated a method to measure VO₂ of "true" sparring based on "postexercise" measurements. Nine experienced male amateur boxers (Mean ± SD: age = 22.0 ± 3.5 years, height = 176.0 ± 8.0 cm, weight = 71.4 ± 10.9 kg, number of fights = 13.0 ± 9.5) of regional and provincial level volunteered to participate in 3 testing sessions: (a) maximal treadmill test in the LAB, (b) standardized boxing training in the GYM, and (c) standardized boxing exercises in the LAB. Measures of VO₂, heart rate (HR), blood lactate concentration [LA], rated perceived exertion level, and punching frequencies were collected. VO₂ values of 43.4 ± 5.9, 41.1 ± 5.1, 24.7 ± 6.1, 30.4 ± 5.8, and 38.3 ± 6.5 ml·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹ were obtained, which represent 69.7 ± 8.0, 66.1 ± 8.0, 39.8 ± 10.4, 48.8 ± 8.5, and 61.7 ± 10.3%VO₂peak for sparring, pad work, and punching bag at 60, 120, and 180 b·min⁻¹, respectively. Except for lower VO₂ values for punching the bag at 60 and 120 b·min⁻¹ (p < 0.05), there was no VO₂ difference between exercises. Similar pattern was obtained for %HRmax with respective values of 85.5 ± 5.9, 83.6 ± 6.3, 67.5 ± 3.5, 74.8 ± 5.9, and 83.0 ± 6.0. Finally, sparring %HRmax and [LA] were slightly higher in the GYM (91.7 ± 4.3 and 9.4 ± 2.2 mmol·L⁻¹) vs. LAB (85.5 ± 5.9 and 6.1 ± 2.3 mmol·L⁻¹). Thus, in this study simulated LAB sparring and pad work required similar VO₂ (43-41 ml·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹, respectively), which corresponds to ~70%VO₂peak. These results underline the importance of a minimum of aerobic fitness for boxers and draw some guidelines for the intensity of training.
In clinical measurement comparison of a new measurement technique with an established one is often needed to see whether they agree sufficiently for the new to replace the old. Such investigations are often analysed inappropriately, notably by using correlation coefficients. The use of correlation is misleading. An alternative approach, based on graphical techniques and simple calculations, is described, together with the relation between this analysis and the assessment of repeatability.
Statistical guidelines and expert statements are now available to assist in the analysis and reporting of studies in some biomedical disciplines. We present here a more progressive resource for sample-based studies, meta-analyses, and case studies in sports medicine and exercise science. We offer forthright advice on the following controversial or novel issues: using precision of estimation for inferences about population effects in preference to null-hypothesis testing, which is inadequate for assessing clinical or practical importance; justifying sample size via acceptable precision or confidence for clinical decisions rather than via adequate power for statistical significance; showing SD rather than SEM, to better communicate the magnitude of differences in means and nonuniformity of error; avoiding purely nonparametric analyses, which cannot provide inferences about magnitude and are unnecessary; using regression statistics in validity studies, in preference to the impractical and biased limits of agreement; making greater use of qualitative methods to enrich sample-based quantitative projects; and seeking ethics approval for public access to the depersonalized raw data of a study, to address the need for more scrutiny of research and better meta-analyses. Advice on less contentious issues includes the following: using covariates in linear models to adjust for confounders, to account for individual differences, and to identify potential mechanisms of an effect; using log transformation to deal with nonuniformity of effects and error; identifying and deleting outliers; presenting descriptive, effect, and inferential statistics in appropriate formats; and contending with bias arising from problems with sampling, assignment, blinding, measurement error, and researchers' prejudices. This article should advance the field by stimulating debate, promoting innovative approaches, and serving as a useful checklist for authors, reviewers, and editors.
The purpose of the study was to compare the %VO2max versus %HRmax regression equations developed from data collected during incremental work on six exercise modes: treadmill (T), cycle (C), skier (S), shuffle skier (SS), stepper (ST), and rower (R). Ten active males were habituated to all modes and then performed an incremental test to maximum on each mode. Mode order was assigned by Latin square sequences and the tests were separated by at least 72 h. VO2 and HR were recorded at each increment. Regression analyses were performed using SAS-GLM. Regressions for T, S, SS, and ST were not significantly different. C had a lower intercept and higher slope, while R had a higher intercept and lower slope than the other exercise modes. These results suggest that weight bearing exercise modes have similar %VO2max-%HRmax regressions. However, weight supported and arm exercise modes appear to have different regressions.
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