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Prototyping
– a guide for entrepreneurs
Steen Paust & Steen Korsgaard
University of Southern Denmark
Department of Entrepreneurship and
Relationship Management. 2020
Table of Contents
Introduction ................................. 3
What is Prototyping? ................. 4
Why use Prototyping? .................7
How to Prototype? ...................... 9
Roadmap for Prototyping ........ 12
Get started with
Prototyping ................................. 19
Activity of Lifestyle
& Design Cluster
Layout: Grask Center, SDU
Cover image: Wikifactory
Prototyping – a guide for entrepreneurs
3
As a new entrepreneur you are faced with several questions
you often do not have a complete answer to: What is my
product or my service? Which idea is best? Are we solving
the right problem with the right solution? Who should I sell
to? What should the price and payment model be? How
do I get my product or service to my customers? The list of
unanswered questions is long, and the path from idea to a
nished solution can be dicult to spot.
In order to succeed as an entrepreneur, it is of course crucial
that you nd good answers to these questions - and prefe-
rably as quickly, cheaply and eciently as possible. This is
where prototyping comes into play as one of the methods
you can use to clarify the issues that need to tie your future
business together, but more importantly help constantly
assess whether you are on the right track with the devel-
opment of the product or service.
Many entrepreneurs have made plans, strong market ana-
lysis, and probably also interesting pitches, but they often
fail as they take their assumptions about what creates value
for the user or customer for granted. While such analytical
tools can be powerful for understanding and collaborating,
they do not tell you everything you need to know to create
the best solution for your potential customers.
In recent years there has been a shift in modus operandi
towards a ‘fail fast, succeed sooner’-approach, which is cha-
racterized by ongoing experiments and earlier involvement
of external parties, and where continuous work with proto-
typing has become the central cornerstone of the workow
for both large and small companies.
With our years of experience as researchers, educators and
our work with entrepreneurship, we have countless times
experienced that targeted and well-thought-out prototyping
can be a crucial method, that helps entrepreneurs further
in their process. Prototyping can clarify key issues about
product, service, customers, business model, etc.
We would like to pass on these experiences in this guide. First,
we will review what prototyping is, why it is a useful tool,
how prototyping can be used, and point out the challenges
and pitfalls that lie in using prototyping wrong.
Introduction
Prototyping is problem
solving. It's a culture
and a language. You can
prototype pretty much
anything.
A new product or a
service, or a special
promotion. What
matters is to move
forward so you
achieve a bit of your goal.
Not to waste time.
– Tom Kelley,
Partner at IDEO
Prototyping – a guide for entrepreneurs
4
Prototyping is problem solving and by using prototypes in
various forms you keep developing your work with the product
or service on an informed basis and understanding. Proto-
typing provides a contemporary alternative to the classic
approach that focuses on analysis and long-term planning.
A prototype is a representation, in any material or format,
designed to create understanding, explore, or communicate
your idea in a way that others can interact with it.
The term ‘prototype’ often makes us think of something that
is almost done. If you visit an industrial fair, you will often
see almost nished prototypes on display, and it is worth
remembering that these prototypes have the specic pur-
pose of demonstrating the product and examining whether
users nd the solution attractive enough for purchase. Before
showing that prototype at the industrial fair, the product
and the idea may have been through many iterations of
prototypes, which we often do not see as a wider audience,
but which often play an essential role in the nal solutions.
But most prototypes are typically very unnished and are
used to explore and challenge the assumptions we work with
throughout the process.
Common to prototyping, regardless of which specic pro-
totype is used, is that the prototype moves the idea outside
the entrepreneur's own thoughts. Prototyping is thus about
What is
Proto-
typing?
An example: Bricks, wooden blocks and pizza boxes
Are bricks, blocks of wood or pizza boxes prototypes? The short answer is that
they can be - depending on what function we use them for.
Function is more important than form when we talk about prototypes. The
cheaper and simpler we can create a prototype the better. In other words, if
we want to investigate whether our new solution has appropriate dimensions
and weight for the use situation, we can use or modify already existing objects,
such as a brick or a wooden block to simulate this – that is if it has the same
dimensions and weight. If we want to investigate how a laptop plays into the
workow of some particular people we might be able to settle for pizza boxes
that are weight-adjusted, rather than 3D printing good-looking but expensive
plastic models.
The key is to make it as simple as possible, while keeping in mind that the audi-
ence must be able to understand the concept. The bottom line is that bricks,
wooden blocks and pizza boxes are random things until we use them to simula-
te or instantiate something else.
Prototyping – a guide for entrepreneurs
5
externalizing ideas, and manifesting what the future pro-
duct, the future service or business model may look like. In
prototyping you select the most relevant information into the
prototype. Prototypes are therefore not limited to specic
characteristics or attributes such as formats, materials or
production techniques, but become prototypes based on
the function and purpose we try to fulll.
Prototyping is not just about the prototype as an object,
but the entire process around the use of the prototype. It is
throughout the process that prototyping helps us answer
questions and discover unknown aspects of our idea. Whether
a prototype is good or bad therefore depends on the roles it
plays, rather than how complex and nished it is.
The best prototype in each situation is therefore one that
in the simplest, fastest and cheapest way can make your
abstract idea more tangible and help uncover your specic
learning needs or purposes.
The focus on having an experimental approach in product or
service development is seen in many of the popular appro-
aches to business development, which have gained ground
in recent years.
Approaches such as Design Thinking, Lean Startup, Design
Sprints and Pretotyping are all popular approaches that have
become a regular part of the workow of both large and
small companies.
Prototypes or prototyping?
In this guide, we are primarily talking about prototyping and not prototypes.
We do this because we want to focus on prototyping as a process that aims to
provide knowledge or clarication on issues that are important to bring your
entrepreneurial project forward.
Although prototyping as a process obviously centers around a prototype (for
example, a mockup, a beta version, a roleplay or anything else we bring into
play), the prototyping process involves decisions before, during and after the
prototype.
Prototyping extends beyond the prototype, as the process also helps us to
answer and ask questions. What we do with it, who we do it with, and for what
purpose. Too many people focus on the prototype and forget why we make it.
That is why we focus on the process rather than the object.
Prototyping – a guide for entrepreneurs
6
Common to all these popular approaches is the central role
of prototyping, although the purposes and uses of prototy-
ping diers slightly across the approaches.
Popular approaches to prototyping
• Design Thinking is a human-centered approach that seeks to create soluti-
ons based on human problems, where prototyping can play into all phases of
the process. In Design Thinking, prototyping can play a role both in the very
early exploration of problems and areas that can be improved, as well as in
the later creative process, where users are engaged in the co-creation of
solutions. Prototyping in Design Thinking therefore ranges widely from more
exploratory use to more test-focused prototypes.
• Lean Startup is an approach to transforming ideas into products and asso-
ciated business models. It is based on a “build-measure-learn model". Here,
prototyping acts as a means to fast, cost-eective and ongoing testing of
the hypotheses. Prototyping in Lean Startup is particularly centered around
the so-called Minimum Viable Product that is applying to test critical as-
sumptions rather than to explore.
• Design Sprints is an approach to rapid and systematic development, ba-
sed on the overarching design thinking philosophy. Design Sprints highlight
prototyping for quick, simple and cost-eective testing of what works and
what does not. Prototyping in Design Sprints is inspired by Design Thinking,
and therefore ranges widely from more exploratory use to more test-focused
prototypes.
• Pretotyping is an approach to rapid development of new products using
quick and simple pretotypes. These must help build the right thing before we
build it right. Pretotypes nd themselves somewhere between abstract ideas
without form and more rened prototypes, which is why the purpose of
pretotyping is to gather valuble information and fail quickly using the most
simple and cheap pretotypes, so that we can gain insights into whether we
should continue or stop.
Prototyping – a guide for entrepreneurs
7
The great benet of prototyping lies in the fact that it can
help you reduce the likelihood of making costly mistakes in
your business development, while increasing the likelihood
of delivering the right thing to the right people. The journey
from idea to real solution is typically long and lled with a
lot of obstacles along the way. Problems often arise because
ideas are based on gut feelings, historical data, past success
stories, or on hidden assumptions that turn out not to be
true in the face of reality.
It is important to remember that every business concept
contains several assumptions, which typically have to do with
customers wanting the solution, that the idea is nancially
viable, and that it is technically possible for us to create and
deliver the solution. If we understand our own assumptions
and draw on them to experiment with prototyping, then
the project develops with the market, and we avoid large
investments in the wrong solutions or on the wrong foun-
dations. We learn to fail in much smaller and cheaper steps,
so that we can improve in smaller steps, and can focus on
building the business.
Whether we are developing on the business model or the
associated product or service, prototyping can help us in
experimentation. Studies in the development of business
models have shown that successful development is a matter
of continuously experimenting and adapting based on the
learning it provides, rather than being a matter of making
early, comprehensive analyzes and plans.
This is further supported by prototyping research, where
scholars have demonstrated how an approach characteri-
zed by iterative and simple prototyping is directly linked to
innovation in product development.
When we build prototypes in dierent versions, it also creates
learning tools that allow us to investigate a future we have
not yet built. It is impossible to know in advance which ideas
will work, but the logic behind prototyping is to try to create
some concrete experiences of what the future may look like,
which we then can use to explore or test our image of the
future. It helps us gain direct insight, so we avoid wasting
resources or developing the wrong product.
We can sketch before we paint and think while we build. In
this way, invite the contingencies and surprises that may
arise when an idea suddenly has to face reality. Sometimes
this even opens doors for things we did not know we did not
know. The same can be true when we let other people interact
with the idea. In this way, we improve the possibility that
they can give us essential feedback we can learn from. If we
do not have something concrete to collaborate or interact
arround, then we risk talking about separate things even
Why use
Prototy-
ping?
Prototyping – a guide for entrepreneurs
8
though we may think we are talking about the same thing.
Prototypes can help us as means to collaborate and mobilize.
Popularly said, a picture says more than a thousand words.
David Kelly from IDEO argues that a prototype says more
than a thousand pictures, and is central in collaboration,
social meetings and mobilization of relevant actors. What
separates the good idea from the bad idea often depends
on the needs and experiences of the users. An idea is only as
good as other people think it is – we need others to agree.
Prototyping helps us get out of the box so we can interact and
develop with potential users and relevant actors as quickly
as possible. But when we must interact or draw on others,
it takes tangible things to show, test, discuss or explore. This
An example: Standing Moon Landing
In the 1960s, the American company Grumman faced a whole new one type of
task. The company had been commissioned to design the lunar landing craft
(the so-called Lunar Excursion Module) for NASA's Apollo program, who would
later write history by leading the rst humans to the surface of the moon and
home again.
From designing vessels that would normally operate under terrestrial conditi-
ons, Grumman was suddenly faced with having to design a module that would
operate exclusively in space. One of the big challenges concerned the heavy
weight of the module, which especially came from the large windows needed
for the astronauts to see from their seats.
The assumption was that the seats were a central part of the cockpit design,
as the driving analogy for the development team was to seek inspiration from
jet-powered aircrafts. To explore the possibilities, Grumman chose to build a
very simple, full-scale cardboard model of the cockpit that could help explore
geometry and decor.
The important thing was not the materials, but the function of their mockup -
regardless of the many resources and competencies available. This should turn
out to bring big surprises. Using their quick mockup of simple materials, it sud-
denly became clear that the astronauts could stand up, as the legs are good at
absorbing shocks on impact, allowing for a much larger eld of view, and thus
the ability to redene the size and role of the windows in the landing module.
In this way, the initial question of window design suddenly became a question
of whether the astronauts needed to sit down at all, which was a radical idea
at the time, and again aected the nal design of the windows. The seats
were taken out, the windows became smaller and triangular, and the module
went from soft shapes to angular shape. From having developed with inspirati-
on from jet-powered aircraft, the analogy changed to instead seek inspiration
from helicopters.
Prototyping – a guide for entrepreneurs
9
is especially important if we seek to create radically new
solutions where market analyzes and opinions do not give
us signicant insights into developments.
The purposes of using prototyping are many. Through a study
of the literature in prototyping, we have identied some of
the typical positive inuences that the use of prototyping
has. However, it is important to remember that a prototype
can play well in several areas at the same time.
Prototyping: Positive inuences
• Testing and evaluating: Prototyping helps us improve our concepts and
products using prototypes that can engage users early on, and as a tool for
testing and evaluating various aspects of our ideas and solutions, which can
support us in reducing and avoid mistakes, identify opportunities for improve-
ment, and refute or conrm our assumptions and hypotheses.
• Exploring: Prototyping helps us explore situations, users, ideas and problems
by creating and using prototypes as openings to imagine, generate and
discover new alternatives, new possibilities and new understanding, espe-
cially in phases where the specic requirements for potential solutions and
understanding of problems are not yet fully dened.
• Communicating: Prototyping facilitates communication between actors by
using tangible prototypes as representative means that can be used to share
and explain ideas and mediate social interaction and relationships by esta-
blishing common focus, limiting confusion, and qualifying feedback.
• Learning: Prototyping gives us access to valuable insights from mistakes,
successes, and unexpected surprises. It improves our understanding of
problems and solutions by generating new knowledge or reinforcing existing
knowledge.
• Reify: Prototyping forces us to create prototypes that can act as cognitive
collaborators and means to convert abstract ideas into concrete form that
can create space for reection between hand and mind.
• Simplify: Prototyping reduces complexity by allowing us to break down lar-
ge, complex tasks and issues, give us ongoing results, and simplify coordina-
tion, collaboration and the integration of dierent actors at dierent stages.
Prototyping – a guide for entrepreneurs
10
As an entrepreneur, today you have almost unimaginable
opportunities to work with dierent forms of prototyping.
This is primarily due to the following factors:
→ The understanding of prototyping has expanded to in-
clude the nal stages of product development (where
the prototypes can be considered as early test versi-
ons of products) to also apply in the early stages of a
development process. In the early-stage prototyping
can be used to build knowledge about elements of the
business model, explore the problems and challenges
of customers, and nd potential solutions.
→ The context for prototyping has expanded from pri-
marily to be used for testing and evaluation of die-
rent technical dimensions of physical products to also
be used in the context of digital solutions, processes,
services and experiences.
→ The emergence of new concepts and approaches to
innovation, entrepreneurship and development pro-
cesses, such as Lean Startup, Design Thinking, Design
Sprints and Pretotyping, all of which involve dierent
forms of prototyping as central cornerstones in the
realization of solutions and products.
→ The availability of new technologies and services such
as 3D printing, Cloud solutions and freemium access
to services (such as Prototype on Paper that allow
interaction with customers and own ideas) has given
ordinary entrepreneurs access to a wide range of op-
portunities for new ways of doing prototyping.
→ New opportunities through crowdfunding both alo-
ne and in collaboration with various companies that
allow entrepreneurs and startups to market validate
with a prototype and nance the remaining develop-
ment before full-scale production.
→ Increased availability of various facilities through the
emergence of new makerspaces. FabLabs and incuba-
tors have spread across most of the country and have
often made relevant materials and techniques avai-
lable to aliated entrepreneurs and businesses.
As a result, you as an entrepreneur will probably often be
met with calls to make prototypes and referred to places
where you can get support. But before you embark on a
fast and fun 3D print of your product idea, an A / B test, or
a design an interactive roleplay for your future customers,
it's a good idea to spend some time getting to know how
prototyping works, what advantages and disadvantages are
associated with the dierent options for prototyping, and
not least reect on what learning needs are most urgent
How to
Proto-
type?
Prototyping – a guide for entrepreneurs
11
for you in your current stage of development.
In all these options for prototyping, there is a possibility that
you will spend too much time on building prototypes and
too little time on developing your business. A lot of entre-
preneurs love to get new ideas, build things, or experiment
with concepts and materials, but if you are not attentive,
the creative work of building prototypes can divert your at-
tention from the central task of building your business. And
maybe you do not notice it at all.
Prototyping feels like business development because it in-
volves lots of creativity, enthusiasm and construction work.
But if it's the wrong thing you build, the wrong areas of your
business you generate ideas on, or if creativity does not
translate into action, well then, it's wasted time that can
end up ruining your business. Prototypes are characterized by
incompleteness, and there is no one-size-ts-all process of
prototyping to follow. There is simply no one perfect formula
for prototyping. Whether a prototyping process is good or
less good depends on various factors, all of which determine
how eective the given process is in helping you further in
your development. In other words, we know that the choices
we make, which dictactes how we prototype can make big
dierences in the time frame, costs, and ecency of our
prototyping eorts, while at the same time, dierent tech-
niques and methods can lead to dierent results.
That said, there are some basic principles that can guide and
adapt your prototyping to make it as eective as possible
for your current situation and the audience you need to
interact with - whether the audience is yourself, internally
or external teams or potential users. When you start pro-
totyping it is important to be aware that your process can
take many dierent directions. The goal is to try to choose
the right process for your current situation, but at the same
time expect to be surprised along the way, which can give
variations of paths and approaches - also beyond what you
had expected. That is the power of prototyping.
During the prototyping process we often run into problems
and surprises, which may call for a revisit of previous pha-
ses, or new assumptions. It may arise either in the problem
understanding or in our solution proposals, which may call
for other directions than what we expected. Your design
process will most often take dierent directions depending
on the purpose of each prototype, and the process will vary
depending on what the purpose is, what audience you are
interacting with, and what underlying assumptions you have.
Below, the process is visualized in a way that should help you
get started with your prototyping. Keep in mind, however,
that although the process is often visualized in a linear fashion
If you are not aware, the
creative work of building
prototypes can divert
your attention from the
central task of building
your business.
Prototyping – a guide for entrepreneurs
12
from A to B, it is rarely the case. Prototyping should instead
be seen as an iterative process where we must be prepared to
go back and forth between the dierent steps and phases.
In the traditional development process, this might be seen
as costly missteps or setbacks, but in prototyping, it is this
exibility to go back and forth that provides the strength.
Roadmap for Prototyping
• Who is my audience
and how well do I
understand them?
• Underlying
assumptions?
• Generative exploration
of the design space?
• Analytical evaluation
of the design space?
• Insights?
• Surprises?
• Assumptions?
• Next step?
• Charateristics of the
prototype?
• Method, technique
and tool?
• Material s?
• Combinations of
prototypes?
• Time and place?
• Contex t?
• Unit of measure?
Purpose
Decision
Priority Design
Experimen ting
Phase 1 - Prioritizing:
When you start prototyping, it is very important to focus
on what the purpose is. We need to go beyond our immedi-
ate gut feeling, hidden assumptions and bias, which might
otherwise end up shaping our analyzes and plans if we do
not examine them. The best way to overcome these things
is by bringing them to light so you can explore and challenge
them through prototyping.
Prototyping is a conscious and purposeful process, rather than
thoughtless experimentation, but it should not be limited
by too much structure and overcondence in the underlying
Prototyping – a guide for entrepreneurs
13
premises behind our purpose. The goal is to plan a bit to get
a clear direction then prototype the rest. When you need to
nd out which prototyping is best for your current situation,
you can often start from reection on the current stage of
development of the venture or project, the audience you
need to interact with, and your assumptions underlying the
proposed solution or the user issues and desires.
Start by asking yourself who the audience consists of, how
well you understand them, as well as what blind spots and
assumptions you have in either your understanding of their
problem or in your ideas for solutions to them.
Once you have an idea of who your audience is and what
assumptions you are dealing with. It will help you make de-
cisions about what learning needs you have so that they
can be prioritized towards the purpose that is most critical
to focus on. Depending on what purpose you have, it will
aect what process you embark on.
Phase 2 – Purpose:
Once you have an idea of what learning needs are most
important to move forward with, then it is important to
consider whether the given purpose calls for opening or clo-
sing the design space. The design space can be seen as the
space constituted by the problems in a problem "space" and
the possible solutions in a solution "space". Prototyping can
be used to both open and diverge or close and converge the
design space, but it depends on what our learning purpose
calls for.
The generative exploratory approach is particularly useful for
learning purposes that have to do with building and exploring
alternatives, especially in the early phases, where time and
resources are very limited (we have not yet invested in a
direction and the uncertainty is particularly high). For examp-
le, if the purpose is to generate many dierent solutions to a
problem, then it calls for a generative and exploratory pro-
totyping that can open the design space and create options.
This type of purpose calls for a form of audition, where we
should seek to explore dierent things to get an idea of
where we can move forward. It can both be an exploration
of the problem that can give us ideas for alternative pro-
blems that we might need to focus on instead, or it can be
an exploration of the variety of possible solutions.
The analytical evaluation approach is particularly useful for
learning purposes that seek to test or evaluate, especially
in later stages, once we have claried what the problem is,
what any solutions might look like, and now want to isolate
more specic questions related to the ideas. For example,
if the purpose is to test specic questions or assumptions,
Prototyping can be used
to both open and diverge
or close and converge the
design space, but it de-
pends on what our lear-
ning purpose calls for.
Prototyping – a guide for entrepreneurs
14
then it points to an approach characterized by breaking
down and focusing, which can narrow the design space and
help us make nal choices. Such a purpose calls for a form
of interview, where we usually have an idea of what we are
looking for and what specic function the solution should
be part of, so we should go after evaluating specic things
to get an idea of which impresses most.
Phase 3 – Design:
Once we have an idea of what the learning needs are and
what approach in prototyping it calls for, then it's time to
build prototypes. Here, it is central to focus on the most
simple, fastest and cheapest way, which can help us move
forward with the learning purpose.
While it may be tempting to want to learn how to code, or
to acquire advanced 3D facilities, the simplest way to get
started can be by drawing on a piece of paper. The starting
point for what we need to build and how we do it most e-
ciently should be found by looking at your learning purpose,
your audience, your competencies and materials. Draw on
simple techniques and materials so you do not limit yourself
to what they can and cannot do - especially if you are trying
to get as many ideas out of your head as possible - and try
to make simple prototypes and build many of them. Keep
in mind that even simple materials can often be used for
more than one specic purpose, but often they can be used
dierently, or inspire other ideas, which then call for other
materials.
It is important, especially when exploring ideas, that we go
for quantity over quality. The goal is to get as many ideas
developed so that we can interact with them, turn them
around, and in that way better evaluate, and maybe even
discover new aspects of an idea, or possibilities for com-
binations between the ideas. The prototype cannot show
everything at once, nor is the purpose of prototyping. Alt-
hough it can be tempting to build many elements into one
complete solution, the goal is to build one or a few elements
related to the learning purpose into a prototype, and then
alternatively build several prototypes at the same time.
Research has shown that simpler prototypes give better end
results, but they also give power to more actors, so everyone
has a better opportunity to come up with relevant inputs.
If there are too many elements in play at once in the same
prototype, then it will be dicult to give feedback to the
audience, and the feedback that may occur will be dicult
for you to benet from, as it is unknown, which elements
the positive or negative feedback are related to. At the same
It is important, especial-
ly when exploring ideas,
that we go for quantity
over quality. The goal is
to get as many ideas de-
veloped so we can
interact with them, turn
them around, and in that
way better evaluate, and
maybe even discover new
aspects of an idea.
Prototyping – a guide for entrepreneurs
15
time, feel free to use other materials for the prototype than
those you expect in end solutions. In this way, it is made
clear to everyone that it is an unnished prototype, so that
you avoid becoming too xated or fall in love with a specic
prototype, which limits your further journey. The task is to
nd the best match between technique and method that
suits the learning purpose and the audience. For example,
if the learning purpose points in the direction of rapid pro-
totyping to investigate how a website could be built, then
rather draw on paper prototypes than start coding.
The degree to which prototypes should be tangible, inter-
active and functional, and how much they should resemb-
le elements and aspects of a potentially nished solution,
simply depends on the purpose and the audience. It is always
the learning purpose and the audience that dictates. The
appropriate level of how much the prototype looks like so-
mething denitive is depending on the given audience for
the prototypes, and the purpose of interacting with them.
For example, if the audience for the prototypes is primarily
yourself and your team, then they often do not have to look
like anything special, as the design team is usually invol-
ved in what is being worked on. If the audience is external,
potential partners or users, so it will often require that the
prototypes look like something they can relate to - at least
on the specic dimensions, features or roles that you are
exploring or evaluating. Keep in mind that prototyping is an
iterative process, so start simple, as both the degree of how
tangible the prototypes are and how much they resemble
nality will typically increase during the design process.
Finally, it is important to be aware that when we make de-
cisions and build in the design phase, new ideas sometimes
open up, which can lead to new or dierent assumptions,
which may call for us to revisit our priorities in previous phases.
The task is to nd the best
match between technique
and method that suits the
learning purpose and the
audience.
Examples of simple choices
• Website or app: Simple keynote, powerpoint or paper-prototypes
• Service or experience: Storyboards, roleplay, bodystorming or
proxy objects to explore
• Physical space and interior design: Modify existing rooms, bricks/LEGO,
drawings or paper
• Physical products and machines: Modify existing objects, paper, photos
Prototyping – a guide for entrepreneurs
16
Phase 4 – Experimenting:
Once we have built the prototypes to explore or test speci-
c purposes, then it is central to get the stage set right so
that we increase the chance that the prototype works as
intended. If you are trying to put interactive prototypes into
play with an audience that needs to interact and potentially
modify them, then it is central to keep the context in mind
so they do not become confused about what you would
like their attention focused on. For example, if you want to
investigate potential user experience of your solution, then
it will be relevant to consider whether you want to investi-
gate it by inviting them in, or by letting them bring home
the prototype over a period of time. Should it be put into
action in a natural or an articial context? Depending on
how we put the prototypes in play with the audience, it can
provide dierent insights, so the goal is to seek the match
between the activity, the prototype, and the purpose. At the
same time, it will be necessary to consider which contexts,
times and places best suit your given audience, so that you
improve their experience of the prototypes.
Sometimes you will nd that it calls for further prototyping
of prototypes if you need to put the prototype properly into
action. For instance, it can be useful to bring the prototy-
pe to life with roleplays or storyboards, which calls for the
design of these in relation to either the current situations,
where users typically experience the problem that calls for
your solution, or the design of a roleplay for the potential
future scenario of how the solution would work if it existed
in a fully developed form.
If the purpose of the prototype is testing and evaluating
very specic questions or assumptions, then it can often be
useful to establish some clear goals in advance. For example,
if we are trying to test whether potential users' willingness
to sign up for our new catering concept, then the prototype
can be designed as a minimum viable product (see Lean
Startup), which has a clearly dened goal for how many
potential users must sign up. The key is that we remember
that prototypes are just one element in the user experience.
Realizing this we can put the prototypes in action in ways
that can realize their function in relation to the learning
purpose and the given audience - regardless of whether the
audience is you, an internal or an external one.
Phase 5 – Decision:
Once we have exposed the prototypes to the audience, it is
time to interpret the new knowledge so that you can evaluate
and make decisions. It is important that you reect on how
If the purpose of the
prototype is to test and
evaluate specic
questions or assumptions,
then it can often be useful
to establish
some clear goals for
success in advance.
Prototyping – a guide for entrepreneurs
17
you create meaning from the information obtained, which
will often be large and confusing amounts, and how you
translate this information into new action and progress - both
for you, your potential team, and your potential stakeholders.
A good way to evaluate the information obtained is to ask
yourself: What insights has it provided? What insights are
surprising compared to what you expected either relative
to users' problems or the potential solutions? What worked
well and less well? What new solutions or improvements do
it point in the direction of? What assumptions have emerged
either in the process itself or from the interaction?
These questions can give an indication of whether you can
continue with the development of one or more of your ideas,
or whether you should change something, or drop the current
direction of solution altogether. When the process indicates
that solution proposals should be dropped altogether, it can
often be related to the fact that your understanding of the
users' problem may be based on incorrect premises, which
should give rise to an exploration of the problems and the
situation or situations in which the problems arise.
Keep in mind that even though it may seem as if the proto-
typing has failed, it will often be necessary mistakes that
we have found cheap, simple and easy after all, rather than
having developed and invested in directions based on po-
tentially wrong grounds.
Overview of the characteristics by the good process
→Purposeful and intentional:
The prototyping process is a means to an end. Once
you have a clear idea of what prototyping should help
you with, you will help yourself and those involved to
make quick decisions so that the process can speed
up in the simplest way. If you do not have the purpose
and thought behind the process, then you risk an inef-
cient and costly journey that leaves the whole pro-
cess to chance. However, remember that the logic of
prototyping is to avoid too much planning, so specify
the purpose, and prototype the rest - it is usually only
on the journey itself that surprises and insights emer-
ge.
→The good match between structure and exibility:
Allow prototyping to be an iterative process where
the goal is not necessarily to go through the phases
from end to end in each course. When we work with
prototyping, we will most often encounter challenges,
When the process
indicates that solution
proposals should
completely be dropped,
then it can often relate to,
that your
understanding of users'
problem perhaps is based
on wrong premises
Prototyping – a guide for entrepreneurs
18
surprises or mistakes that raise new relevant questi-
ons and assumptions that may be necessary to get
o the table before we move on. In the same way the
interaction with various materials will also often give
us some insights, even before something is actually
tested by others, which will give rise to updates our
learning needs and priorities.
→ Collaboration and communication with all involved:
By involving the relevant parties, whether it is internal
or external, as early as possible we make sure to give
everyone the opportunity to participate in the devel-
opment, provide more perspectives on both issues and
solution proposals, and even open for co-creation of
solutions.
→Quick actions rather than analysis:
When we act, we provide the opportunity to make
vital mistakes early, which is essential in learning, and
thus help the process further. It is through mistakes
and thinking with our hands that we can become
aware of whether we lack certain insights or work
from premises about what users' problems are or
what a valuable and workable solution should be able
to. Try to act as quickly as possible, as greater time
consumption is not associated with more success in
the end.
→Quantity over quality:
Regardless of whether we are trying to explore or test,
a key characteristic of the good prototyping process
is a focus on quantity over quality. The goal is to get
as many ideas developed so that we can interact with
them, turn them around, and in that way better as-
sess, and maybe even discover new sides of an idea, or
possibilities for combinations between the ideas.
→ Separation of construction work from experimenta-
tion:
It is often benecial to separate our creation of proto-
types from our evaluation and testing of these, when
we develop creative solutions. By providing space to
unfold the construction work and be creative before
we evaluate and judge, then we increase the chance of
Regardless of whether we
are trying to explore or test,
a key characteristic of the
good prototyping process
is a focus on quantity over
quality.
Prototyping – a guide for entrepreneurs
19
Prototyping can be a rewarding and eective way to grow
your business, but it can also be a dead end that sucks energy
and resources out of your entrepreneurial process - and that
even without you necessarily discovering it before it's too
late. Based on the research and our experience of working
with entrepreneurs, we have gathered the following good
advice for your future work with prototypes:
Dene prototypes broadly and focus on
prototyping:
There are almost endless possibilities when it comes to pro-
totypes, and the possibilities for dierent types of prototypes
are constantly evolving as new technologies emerge. Whether
a given prototype is eective or good depends on whether it
helps us answer the most pressing questions we face.
It is important to think of prototyping as a process and not
limit it to the given prototype object, but instead view pro-
totypes broadly dened as representations of a design idea
regardless of what form or material it consists of. If you focus
too much on the specic prototype and what it is technically
possible to create, then it can end in costly defeats if the
prototype fails in the encounter with the outside world. Keep
in mind that the simplest representation can sometimes be
at least as eective as a complex prototype.
The specic purpose is alpha omega:
Always keep a specic learning purpose in mind when pro-
totyping. That way you avoid ending up in a vicious spiral of
endless experimentation, where the vast amount of poten-
tial feedback can paralyze and confuse rather than support
and accelerate. It is therefore essential to keep its purpose
in mind when deciding which techniques may be useful to
us in the development of one or more prototypes. If we use
prototyping without having an assumption or a learning
purpose in mind, then at the same time we also leave the
prototyping process completely to chance.
Set aside time for prototyping:
It is important to set aside time for prototyping in your de-
velopment process if you want to avoid developing soluti-
ons that are potentially not valuable to your users or that
risk being developed as solutions to the wrong issues for
users. However, it has a double meaning to set aside time
for prototyping, as it both indicates to prioritize prototyping
in development work, but at the same time we should also
seek to push the pace up when prototyping, as it can be
benecial to avoid failling in love with a given solution or
getting lost in the details.
Get
started
with
Proto-
typing
Prototyping – a guide for entrepreneurs
20
Attack the premise of the learning purpose:
Be aware that there may be underlying premises under the
immediate learning purpose. For example, the learning pur-
pose may be to test whether someone signs up for pre-pur-
chase on our upcoming app but be careful to attack the
premise of why the problem in question even calls for us to
have to develop an app later. It can often prove essential
to explore these underlying premises, and here prototyping
can also be used.
Set learning objectives based on the current stage
of development:
When setting learning objectives, be careful not to go into
solution mode too quickly. We humans often tend to want
to think convergently quickly and gather our ideas into po-
tential solutions. Although prototyping has great strengths
in the gradual validation and testing of our ideas for solu-
tion proposals, it is also an extremely powerful method for
exploration that is often necessary before we set up possible
solutions.
Know your audience to prepare prototypes:
It is important to have some insight into the audience who
will be interacting with the prototype or for whom you want
to showcase the prototype to. No matter how much insight
you have into the users, be sure to build with a focus on the
users.
It is pivotal to make decisions about which aspects that are
necessary to instantiate with the prototype and which aspe-
cts are merely nice to have, but not necessarily required for
it to serve the purpose. For example, if the learning purpose
is to see how many people pre-order a non-existent solution
in order to examine user interest, then it is necessary for
the prototype to appear as a real product, even if it is not.
On the other hand, if the purpose is to investigate what a
given size of a pocket tting product should have, then it is
not necessary to build anything other than a wooden block
of the given size.
Know your prototype to prepare your audience:
Be clear and aware of what the purpose of the prototyping
activity is, and what it cannot answer. It is an essential part
of the prototype's use to communicate clearly to the audi-
ence what the specic purpose of the prototype is. This is
particularly important as the purpose of the prototype is
not always clear, especially for actors who are not part of
the prototype's creation, or for prototypes where they do
not immediately resemble a nal solution. Here you can
prepare the audience by making it clear to them what the
purpose of the prototype is, and what the purpose is not.
No matter how much
insight you have into the
users, be sure to build
with a focus on the users.
Prototyping – a guide for entrepreneurs
21
The context plays into how eectively the prototype works
in meeting other people, so be sure to pay attention to how
the context surrounds the prototype.
Build only what is needed:
Only incorporate the features of the prototype and proto-
typing process that are necessary to explore and test the
specic learning objective and move it forward quickly, so
you avoid becoming emotionally attached to a particular
prototype. If you spend too much time, you risk becoming
too attached to the individual solution. If you simultaneously
build too many features into the prototype at once, then you
risk using too many resources in the wrong direction, while
the many features make it challenging to assess feedback,
as this can relate to several elements of the prototype. Go
for making them as simple and unnished as possible so
that they retain a exibility.
Build several prototypes:
The strength of prototyping lies especially in its ability to
explore problems and solutions, but in working with hands
and materials, we also allow ourselves to avoid getting stuck
on an idea prematurely.
It is important to be cautious about this kind of xation, and
provoke it, as we may end up building prototypes that show
what we want to see. By quickly experimenting with dierent
materials and prototypes, we can overcome the xation on
a specic idea, and open the door for good solutions that
may lie in combinations or aspects of dierent ideas.
Apply simple materials and techniques:
Especially in the early divergent stages it's about capturing a
lot of questions and ideas, which often involves post-it notes,
quick mockups, cardboard models and paper prototypes.
The important thing is to use whatever you may have avai-
lable, which allows you to quickly communicate your thoughts
without being slowed by the material and production process
itself. The easier, faster and simpler you make these tools, the
easier it is to perceive them as unnished, and throw them
away again without being locked into potentially erroneous
imaginations too soon.
Similarly, it is important to draw on the techniques that are
both simple and accessible rather than rely on more advan-
ced techniques that often require specic competencies,
which can slow our prototyping eorts. A cardboard model
can work at least as well as an advanced, laser-cut model
if the purpose is to interact with relevant actors about the
solution.
By quickly trying out
dierent materials and
prototypes, we can
overcome the xation on
a specic idea, and open
the door for good soluti-
ons that may lie in combi-
nations or aspects of dif-
ferent ideas.
Prototyping – a guide for entrepreneurs
22
Make many simple materials available:
In addition to use the simple materials you have available;
you can make sure to have many dierent simple materials
available. It enhances the ability to combine in dierent
ways, and quickly draw on dierent materials without be-
coming dull.
If you only surround yourself with one or a few simple mate-
rials or techniques, such as, e.g., 3D printing facilities, then
you often tend to build prototypes based on this technique
without exploring alternative materials or techniques. Make
sure to have several dierent materials e.g., cardboard, pa-
per, crayons, post-its, tinfoil, etc. available. These types of
materials will be both open to simulation of all sorts of ideas,
but at the same time also give rise to manifestation of a
wide range of ideas without being slowed by techniques
and materials.
Take advantage of the missing links in the proto-
type:
While the specic parameters built into a prototype can help
fulll all or part of the learning purpose, be aware that the
shortcomings of a prototype can also tell a story. They can
create positive surprises or prove to be key elements that
need to be integrated and tested in subsequent iterations.
We hope this guide has inspired the work of prototyping.
The potential for working with prototyping is great for many
entrepreneurs. But there are many pitfalls and there is a
risk of wasted time and wasted resources. With this guide
in hand, you can hopefully avoid the worst of these, and
unleash the potential of your business.
If you only surround you-
rself with one or a few
simple materials or tech-
niques, such as, e.g., 3D
printing facilities, then
you often tend to build
prototypes based on this
technique without explo-
ring alternative materials
or techniques.