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Evaluation of Nitrite Concentration in Edible Bird’s Nest (White, Yellow, Orange, and Red Blood)

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Abstract

The color of edible bird's nest is associated with its nitrite concentration, but this relationship remains inconclusive. This investigation aimed to evaluate the nitrite content in edible bird's nest of four different colors: white, yellow, orange, and red blood. Fifty-eight edible bird's nest samples were obtained from five swiftlet farmhouses in Borneo Island, Indo-nesia and analyzed for nitrite content using Genesys 30 visible spectrophotometer. Results showed that the dark-colored edible bird's nests (yellow, orange, and red blood) had higher nitrite concentrations of 304, 317, and 309 ppm, respectively , compared with the white-colored one (15 ppm). Therefore, the color of edible bird's nest was associated with its nitrite concentration. This study provided updated information about the nitrite concentration in edible bird's nest of various colors.
Makara Journal of Science Makara Journal of Science
Volume 26
Issue 1
March
Article 7
3-30-2022
Evaluation of Nitrite Concentration in Edible Bird’s Nest (White, Evaluation of Nitrite Concentration in Edible Bird’s Nest (White,
Yellow, Orange, and Red Blood) Yellow, Orange, and Red Blood)
Siti Gusti Ningrum
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universitas Wijaya Kusuma Surabaya, Surabaya 60225, Indonesia
,
sitiningrum@uwks.ac.id
Bagus Uda Palgunad
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universitas Wijaya Kusuma Surabaya, Surabaya 60225, Indonesia
Rochiman Sasmita
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universitas Wijaya Kusuma Surabaya, Surabaya 60225, Indonesia
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Ningrum, Siti Gusti; Palgunad, Bagus Uda; and Sasmita, Rochiman (2022) "Evaluation of Nitrite
Concentration in Edible Bird’s Nest (White, Yellow, Orange, and Red Blood),"
Makara Journal of Science
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Vol. 26: Iss. 1, Article 7.
DOI: 10.7454/mss.v26i1.1311
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Makara Journal of Science, 26/1 (2022), 6872
doi: 10.7454/mss.v26i1.1311
68 March 2022 Vol. 26 No. 1
Evaluation of Nitrite Concentration in Edible Bird’s Nest
(White, Yellow, Orange, and Red Blood)
Siti Gusti Ningrum*, Bagus Uda Palgunad, and Rochiman Sasmita
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universitas Wijaya Kusuma Surabaya, Surabaya 60225, Indonesia
*E-mail: sitiningrum@uwks.ac.id
Received January 22, 2022 | Accepted March 1, 2022
Abstract
The color of edible bird’s nest is associated with its nitrite concentration, but this relationship remains inconclusive. This
investigation aimed to evaluate the nitrite content in edible bird’s nest of four different colors: white, yellow, orange, and
red blood. Fifty-eight edible bird’s nest samples were obtained from five swiftlet farmhouses in Borneo Island, Indo-
nesia and analyzed for nitrite content using Genesys 30 visible spectrophotometer. Results showed that the dark-colored
edible bird’s nests (yellow, orange, and red blood) had higher nitrite concentrations of 304, 317, and 309 ppm, respec-
tively, compared with the white-colored one (15 ppm). Therefore, the color of edible bird’s nest was associated with its
nitrite concentration. This study provided updated information about the nitrite concentration in edible bird’s nest of
various colors.
Keywords: contamination, public health, food safety
Introduction
During the COVID-19 outbreak, edible bird’s nest (EBN)
has been considered to boost immunity [1]. The main
components of EBN are amino acids, carbohydrates, min-
eral salts, and glycoproteins [2]. Consumer demand for
EBN has expanded significantly in recent years [3]. Ini-
tially, EBN is consumed only by the Chinese. After some
time, the Dayaks people in Borneo Island, Indonesia have
started to consume EBN. As a result, EBN has become
an essential commodity in the export food trade from In-
donesia to China.
In trade, red blood, yellow, and orange EBNs are pricier
than white EBN [4] because of their positive influence on
the health of a particular community. Different explana-
tions have been suggested; one of which is that red blood
EBN represents swiftlet bleeding diluted with saliva [5].
A previous work [6] reported that the color of EBN is
related to its nitrite concentration.
The risk of carcinogenic nitrosamine formation is one of
the adverse effects of high nitrite content in EBN [7]. In-
creased nitrite absorption was observed in patients with
bladder cancer [8], pancreatic cancer, and gastric cancer
[9]. Therefore, the maximum acceptable levels for this
compound have been proposed. In food trading, China
has set the allowable nitrite content value in EBN to be
less than 30 ppm to enter the country; this number is
lower than the 80 ppm Indonesian National Standard No.
8998:2021 [10].
Most EBNs are commonly produced from Borneo Island
in Indonesia [5], where one swiftlet house could produce
111 kg/year [11]. However, almost no data are available
on the nitrite levels of various EBNs from Borneo swift-
let farmhouses. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate
and compare the nitrite concentration in white, yellow,
orange, and red blood EBNs of Borneo origin to provide
information to consumers, healthcare professionals, and
food manufacturers. This report may improve the future
trading of EBNs.
Methods
Sample preparation. All samples including white, yellow,
orange, and red blood uncleaned EBNs were collected
from five swiftlet farmhouses in South Borneo (Table 1).
The representative EBNs are depicted in Figure 1. All
feathers in the samples were first removed using tweezers.
In brief, 1 g from each cleaned EBN was gently grinded
on a mortar until fragments were obtained. Afterward, 0.5
mg of each sample was added with a 3 mL of saturated
NaCl (Merck, Germany) solution, followed by aquadest
to reach a final volume of 50 mL [12].
Standard curve. A standard curve was constructed by
diluting the nitrite standard solution (1 ppm) (Merck,
Evaluation of Nitrite Concentration in Edible Bird’s Nest 69
Makara J. Sci. March 2022 Vol. 26 No. 1
Table 1. Sample Collection of Edible Bird Nest from Five Swiftlet Farmhouses in South Borneo
Swiftlet Farmhouses
N
White
Yellow
Red blood
1
15
4
4
3
2
7
4
0
3
3
16
4
4
4
4
13
4
3
3
5
7
4
1
1
Total n
58
16
12
14
Figure 1. Representative Picture of the EBNs: A. White Nest,
B. Yellow Nest, C. Orange Nest, D. Blood Nest
Germany) with 0.6 mL of saturated NaCl (Merck, Ger-
many) solution, 0.5 mL of sulfanilamide (Merck, Ger-
many) solution, 0.5 mL of naphthyl ethylene diamine
(Merck, Germany) solution, and aquadest in six concen-
tration levels (0, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, and 0.6 µg/L). The
standard solutions were allowed to stand for 15 min and
then placed in a cuvette to determine their absorbance us-
ing Genesys 30 visible spectrophotometer (Thermo Sci-
entific, USA) at 541 nm wavelength [13].
Nitrite extraction and spectrophotometry. All samples
were tested using Elmasonic S 30 H (Elma, Germany) at
40 °C for 30 min with occasionally stirring [14]. The
samples were then removed from the sonicator and
cooled down to room temperature. Sample extracts were
prepared using Whatman filter sheets no. 42 (GE
Healthcare, Germany). Nitrite concentration was meas-
ured in 1 mL of each extract using Genesys 30 visible
spectrophotometer (Thermo Scientific, USA) at 541 nm
wavelength [15].
Data analysis. Differences in nitrate levels among various
farms and EBN colors were statistically analyzed using
ANOVA, followed by Tukey HSD test. All statistical
data were processed using SPSS for Windows 23.0.
Results and Discussion
Nitrite is of great concern because its high content in food
can cause bladder cancer [8], pancreatic cancer, and
gastric cancer [9] in humans. Indonesia is the most
important supplier of EBN and the source of around 80%
of the global nest supply to various countries, including
China [15]. Borneo Island, which belongs to Indonesia
Island, has become the most crucial EBN producer
because of its many nesting sites [5, 16]. For EBN export
trading to the People’s Republic of China (PRC), the
hazardous substance content must be below a certain
level. The PRC government has set a limit of not more
than 30 ppm nitrite. With this regulation, the EBN
industry must naturally reduce the nitrite concentration in
EBNs [17].
Nitrite is normally present in any swiftlet nest or cave and
could be synthesized from ammonia by bacteria through
anaerobic fermentation. Nitrite is created in the nest and
absorbed by the swiftlet nesting habitat, particularly from
the decomposing organic debris on the floor [6]. Bird
dropping fermentation and natural ecological elements,
such as air, water, and soil, have caused the penetration
of nitrite into EBNs [7]. The lack of good farming
practices in swiftlet farmers can be a factor in the high
nitrite concentration of raw uncleaned (RUC) EBNs,
which are collected from caves and farms (swiftlet home)
without any cleaning technique, and raw cleaned (RC)
EBNs, which are cleaned by sorting, soaking, feather and
impurity removal, molding, drying, grading, and
packaging [4]. The variations in nitrite levels may be
attributed to a variety of factors, including differences in
the environmental factors of cave and swiftlet farm, such
as humidity, pH, and climate; age of harvested EBNs
(harvesting time); contamination during harvest; and
cleaning processes for the collected EBNs [16].
Appropriate management of swiftlet housing, such as
regularly removing the swiftlet guano while leaving the
cave guano uncleaned, may contribute to the decrease
nitrite content in house nesting. In addition, the proper
ventilation of swiftlet housing contributes to reducing
bacterial anaerobic fermentation and lowering the nitrite
levels [7].
In this work, 58 EBN samples were collected from five
swiftlet farmhouses (Table 1). The linear regression
equation for nitrite was y = 0.9963x0.0024, and the linear
correlation coefficient for nitrite was 0.99999. The highest
mean of clean white EBN was 19.9400 ± 4.96674 ppm
(Table 2). This value is still below the maximum limit for
nitrite levels set by the PRC government. The nitrite level
in this study was lower than the previous results of 100
ppm for RC EBNs from Hong Kong market [17] and 93
70 Ningrum, et al.
Makara J. Sci. March 2022 Vol. 26 No. 1
ppm for RUC EBNs from South Borneo, Indonesia [18].
By contrast, the nitrite level in the present work agreed
with the previous values of 7.922 ppm for RC EBN
from three houses-EBN in Malaysia [6]. The current data
also showed that white EBN had the lowest nitrite
concentration among the groups (Figure 2), indicating
that all the investigated swiftlet farmhouses have applied
good management practices.
Table 2. Multiple Comparisons of Nitrite Levels of Swiftlet Farmhouses-EBN (White) Derived from Different Sources using
Tukey’s HSD test. N = 4 for Each Group
EBN Samples (I)
EBN Samples (J)
Nitrite Concentration (ppm per g of Sample)
Mean
Mean Difference (I-J)
SD
P Value
SF 1
19.9400
4.96674
SF 2
4.60750
2.56890
0.412
SF 3
4.81500
2.56890
0.371
SF 4
6.82250
2.56890
0.109
SF 5
6.36500
2.56890
0.148
SF 2
15.3325
2.25229
SF 1
4.60750
2.56890
0.412
SF 3
.20750
2.56890
1.000
SF 4
2.21500
2.56890
0.906
SF 5
1.75750
2.56890
0.957
SF 3
15.1250
4.20100
SF 1
4.81500
2.56890
0.371
SF 2
.20750
2.56890
1.000
SF 4
2.00750
2.56890
0.932
SF 5
1.55000
2.56890
0.972
SF 4
13.1175
3.57852
SF 1
6.82250
2.56890
0.109
SF 2
2.21500
2.56890
0.906
SF 3
2.00750
2.56890
0.932
SF 5
.45750
2.56890
1.000
SF 5
13.5750
2.40772
SF 1
6.36500
2.56890
0.148
SF 2
1.75750
2.56890
0.957
SF 3
1.55000
2.56890
0.972
SF 4
.45750
2.56890
1.000
SF: swiftlet farmhouse; HSD: honestly significant difference
Figure 2. Multiple Comparisons of the Nitrite Levels of Swiftlet Farmhouses-EBN (White, Yellow, Red Blood, and Orange)
Derived from Different Sources using Tukey’s HSD Test
Evaluation of Nitrite Concentration in Edible Bird’s Nest 71
Makara J. Sci. March 2022 Vol. 26 No. 1
Some commercial EBNs generally have a white or
yellowishwhite color [19]. EBNs also exhibit a variety
of colors such as bright yellow, red blood, and orange,
which have more expensive market price than those with
white color [2022]. In the food market, red blood EBN
is the most expensive type with cost ranging from US$
1000 to US$ 15 000 per kilogram [4]. According to
historical records from 1700 (Qing dynasty in China), red
blood EBN provides more health benefits than white
EBN [23]. However, this special EBN has a hidden threat.
The nitrite content in EBNs of various colors was also
examined. Figure 2 shows the nitrite levels from the
lowest to the highest as follows: white, yellow, red, and
orange EBN. Tukey HSD test revealed that the nitrite
content in the yellow, red blood, and orange EBNs was
significantly higher by 30 folds compared with that in
white EBN. Moreover, orange EBN contained the
highest nitrite level for this group. The nitrite level in the
orange EBN group was not significantly different from
that in the yellow and red blood EBN groups.
This study compared nitrite concentrations in EBNs of
different colors obtained from five swiftlet farmhouses.
Results showed that orange EBN had higher nitrite
concentration than yellow and red blood EBNs; however,
the difference was not statistically significant. This work
also found that the yellow, orange, or red blood EBN had
significantly higher nitrite yield than white EBN. This
finding agreed with previous works [6, 7, 17, 20].
Therefore, yellow, orange, or red blood EBN should not
be traded to China because of their high nitrite
concentrations. In 2011, Chinese authorities reported
nitrite contamination in Zhejiang Province, thus raising
public concern about the safety of EBN consumption.
The highest reported nitrite concentration in red blood
EBN has reached 11 000 ppm, which led to the
immediate ban on importing EBNs [23].
The color of cave EBN is associated with its nitrite and
nitrate contents [6]. Several studies have conducted tests
in these types of EBN, particularly red blood EBN.
Another work [22] reported that the Fe ion oxidation in
AMCase-like protein plays remarkably in EBN color
change. The other factor affecting the color change of
EBN is the nitration of tyrosyl residue to the 3-
nitrotyrosyl (3-NTyr) residue in the glycoprotein [21]. 3-
Ntyr acts as an indicator of the color change from yellow
to red in acid to red in alkali occurring at around pH 7.
As a result of nitrite accumulation, EBN changes its color
from white to yellow to orange to red [19]. Thus,
environmental conditions play a significant role in the
dark color formation of EBN. The elevated nitrite levels
on EBN may be due to the contaminating nitrate and
microbial nitrate reductase from the environment.
This study suggested that color is an indicator of the
nitrite level in EBNs. The high nitrite concentrations in
dark EBNs (yellow, orange, and red blood EBN) can be
a hidden threat to human health. In addition, this work
successfully proved that dark EBNs from Indonesia have
high nitrite levels, and not all EBNs are good for human
consumption due to their nitrite levels. Therefore, nitrite
concentration for each batch must be controlled at the
industrial level. The results highlight the concerns over
nitrite concentration in EBNs as a novel food for human
consumption and provide information for future research
in the food industry.
Conclusion
Yellow, orange, and red blood EBNs have higher nitrite
concentrations than white EBN and thus require
additional treatment to reach the quality standards.
Despite the nutrition advantages of these types of EBN,
the toxication risk of their high nitrite content can
threaten public health. Good nitrite control in the EBN
industry may mitigate this risk.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank LPPM UWKS for
providing financial support for this study (grant number
of 19 year 2 Maret 2021).
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... Selama wabah COVID-19, sarang burung walet (EBN, edible bird's nest) dianggap dapat meningkatkan kekebalan tubuh (Ningrum et al., 2022). Penelitian secara ilmiah mengenai Sarang burung walet terbukti melalui penelitian yang dilakukan oleh Wahyuni et al. (2021) (Paydar et al., 2013). ...
... Larutan sampel hasil penyaringan digunakan untuk pengukuran kadar (Ningrum et al., 2022). ...
Article
Sarang dari burung walet yang berwarna putih adalah sarang yang terbuat dari air liur burung walet spesies Collocalia fuchipaga . Dari segi keamanan pangan, terdapat cemaran kimia yang harus diperiksa pada sarang burung walet yang dapat mempengaruhi kesehatan manusia, yaitu nitrit. Tujuan dari penelitian ini yaitu untuk memeriksa kadar nitrit pada sarang burung walet yang diambil dari rumah burung walet asal Kabupaten Sintang. Penentuan kadar nitrit dalam sampel dilakukan secara kuantitatif dengan menggunakan spektrofotometri UV-Vis. Analisis nitrit menggunakan Spektrofotometri menunjukkan bahwa kandungan nitrit bervariasi pada 4 sampel sarang walet dari 4 lokasi yang berbeda secara berturut-turut yaitu 77,823 mg/kg ; 14,795 mg/kg ; 46,645 mg/kg dan 218,112 mg/kg, serta nitrit yang terkandung pada sampel walet yang telah dilakukan proses pencucian berulang pada sampel lokasi 1 yaitu sebesar 4,148 mg/kg. Hasil ini menunjukkan bahwa terdapat satu sampel sarang burung walet tidak bersih melewati batas keamanan yang diatur oleh pemerintah Indonesia yaitu 80 mg/kg. Penelitian ini juga menunjukkan bahwa praktik budidaya yang baik harus diperkenalkan kepada petani burung walet dan pentingnya proses pencucian berulang sebelum mengolah walet kepada masyarakat. Kata Kunci: Keamanan Pangan, Uji Kualitatif, Sintang, Collocalia fuchipaga, Analisis Nitrit The white swallow's nest is a nest made from the saliva of the Collocalia fuchipaga species. In terms of food safety, there are chemical contaminants that must be examined in swiftlet nests that can affect human health, namely nitrites. This study aims to examine the levels of nitrites in swallow nests taken from swallow houses from Sintang Regency. Determination of nitrite levels in samples was carried out quantitatively using UV-Vis spectrophotometry. Nitrite analysis using spectrophotometry showed that the nitrite content varied in 4 swallow nest samples from 4 different locations, namely 77.823 mg/kg; 14.795 mg/kg ; 46.645 mg/kg and 218.112 mg/kg, as well as the nitrite content in swallow samples that have been subjected to repeated washing processes at sample location 1 which is 4.148 mg/kg. These results indicate that there is one sample of unsanitary swiftlet nests that exceeds the safety limit set by the Indonesian government, namely 80 mg/kg. This research also shows that good swallow nest cultivation practices must be introduced to swiftlet farmers and the importance of repeated washing processes before processing swallows to the community.
... The color of EBN is an essential indicator of the presence of nitrite (Quek et al., 2015). Yellow, orange, and red swiftlet nests have higher nitrite concentrations than white EBN (Ningrum et al., 2022). Several factors affect EBN nitrite levels, including humidity, pH, climate, EBN's harvested age, and the cleaning process (Yeo et al., 2021). ...
... Nitrite is synthesized from ammonia by bacteria through anaerobic fermentation. Swiftlets also drop elements such as water and soil, which can cause nitrite penetration into the EBN (Ningrum et al., 2022). In addition to their natural presence, nitrites can be found in food due to their use as preservatives to prevent spoilage and maintain color in meat and meat products such as smoked beef, ham, corned beef, hamburgers, and smoked fish (Quek et al., 2015). ...
... The color of EBN is an important attribute and indicator when customers choose EBN [1]. Previous studies have shown that in swiftlet farms, nitrite, nitrate [8][9][10][11] and iron ions [12] can affect the color of bird's nests. In primary processing, high temperatures during drying can affect the color change of EBN [13]. ...
... Previous studies reported nitrite content in house nest was between 0.2-317.08 ppm [1,3,11], and cave EBN was between 0.4 -843.8 ppm [1,3]. N element ( Table 1) was not detected in cave EBN (RCcave). ...
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Edible Bird's Nest (EBN) are known to have high nutritional values and medicinal properties. Raw cleaned (RC) EBN is EBN that has undergone cleaning processes. In this study, five types of RC EBN products were characterized by structural and chemical analyses. These are different grades of RC EBN products, including four products from house nest and one product from cave nest. RC EBN products from house nests were cup-shaped EBN (RCha), white EBN Biscuits (RChb), yellowish fragments (RChc) and rejected RC EBN (RChd), from cave nests were cup-shaped EBN (RCcave). The characterization includes physicochemical analysis (morphology, elemental composition, and color) and chemical analysis (nitrite concentration, antioxidant activity, total sialic acid content, total glycoprotein content and total polysaccharide content). Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images showed that no contaminants were found for all RC EBN products and that each RC EBN product has different structure. All RC EBN products have < 30 ppm nitrite and are export compliant. All RC EBNs showed antioxidant activity, DPPH and ABTS free radical scavenging activity, among which RCha and RChb had the highest (P < 0.05) antioxidant activity. RCcave shows the lowest (P < 0.05) total sialic acid, total glycoprotein and total polysaccharide content among RC EBN products.
... Meanwhile, the diferences in nitrite levels of EBN products are infuenced by many factors, particularly the harvesting time, contamination during harvest, and various cleaning procedures for the collected EBNs. External environmental factors such as humidity, temperature, pH, and climate also afect the diferences in contaminants' concentration between swiftlet houses and caves' EBN [58]. Hence, regular cleaning and appropriate management of swiftlet farms and cave nests are required to minimise contamination of nitrite and nitrite into EBN products. ...
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Edible bird’s nest (EBN) is an animal product with the world’s highest market price due to its value. The nests are made exclusively from the saliva secreted by swiftlet, a species of bird native to Southeast Asia. For over a century, EBN has been consumed in many parts of the world as a nutritious food. The high economic value of EBN attracts people to invest and engage in the bird nest industry. Currently, China is the largest importer of EBN, while Southeast Asian countries, namely, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand, are the three largest exporters of EBN. An analysis of EBN’s compositions from most previous studies revealed that protein, carbohydrate, moisture, fat, and ash in EBN from the three central producing countries did not have apparent differences in their origins and were comparable to each other. Before 2011, EBN trade with China was unregulated. Consequently, the industry encountered problems due to the high nitrite content in EBN. Since then, these three countries have taken great measures to deal with this food safety issue and formulated a standard operating procedure (SOP) to meet the specific criteria listed for exporting EBN to China. Hence, this review discusses the quality and safety standards of EBN from the three countries and China’s standards for EBN importation.
... A standard curve was prepared as described as previous study [17] by dissolving a standard nitrite solution (1 ppm) (Merck, Germany) with 0.6 mL saturated NaCl solution (Merck, Germany), 0.5 mL sulfanilamide solution (Merck, Germany), 0.5 mL naphthyl ethylene diamine solution (Merck, Germany) and distilled water down to 6 concentration levels (0 µg/L, 0.2 µg/L, 0.3 µg/L, 0.4 µg/L, 0.5 µg/L, and 0.6 µg/L). The standard solution was allowed to stand for 15 min and then placed into a cuvette. ...
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Background: In Surabaya, the edible bird's nest industry has witnessed significant growth in recent years, driven by increasing demand for this highly prized delicacy, known for its nutritional and medicinal benefits. As the industry expands, effective cleaning methods for edible bird's nests become paramount. Contaminants, impurities, and feathers can compromise the quality and purity of edible bird's nests, affecting their market value and consumer appeal. Contribution: In response to this challenge, applying SEAMON as an edible bird's nest cleanser has emerged as a promising solution. SEAMON, a specific cleaning agent for edible birds' nests, offers the potential to revolutionize the cleaning process within the edible birds' nest industry. This innovative approach addresses the cleanliness and hygiene standards required for edible bird's nests, ensuring that consumers receive the highest quality product. Method: The SEAMON application was carried out at the edible bird's nest industry in Surabaya, East Java, on July 2, 2023, with twelve samples of edible bird's nests with heavy feather characteristics. All samples were tested for nitrite analysis using a Genesys 30 visible spectrophotometer. Results: Based on the results of its application, this innovation has the potential as an edible bird’s nest cleaning agent to clean hydrogen peroxide residue and can reduce nitrite levels in the white edible bird’s nest. Conclusion: This washing liquid is the first cleanser specifically for white edible bird’s nests, and another advantage is that it is food grade, so edible bird’s nests cleaned with SEAMON is safe for human consumption.
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Edible bird’s nest (BN) is a Chinese traditional medicine with innumerable health benefits, including anti-viral, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and immunomodulatory effects. A small number of studies have reported the anti-viral effects of EBN against influenza infections using in vitro and in vivo models, highlighting the importance of sialic acid and thymol derivatives in their therapeutic effects. At present, studies have reported that EBN suppresses the replicated virus from exiting the host cells, reduces the viral replication, endosomal trafficking of the virus, intracellular viral autophagy process, secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, reorient the actin cytoskeleton of the infected cells, and increase the lysosomal degradation of viral materials. In other models of disease, EBN attenuates oxidative stress-induced cellular apoptosis, enhances proliferation and activation of B-cells and their antibody secretion. Given the sum of its therapeutic actions, EBN appears to be a candidate that is worth further exploring for its protective effects against diseases transmitted through air droplets. At present, anti-viral drugs are employed as the first-line defense against respiratory viral infections, unless vaccines are available for the specific pathogens. In patients with severe symptoms due to exacerbated cytokine secretion, anti-inflammatory agents are applied. Treatment efficacy varies across the patients, and in times of a pandemic like COVID-19, many of the drugs are still at the experimental stage. In this review, we present a comprehensive overview of anti-viral and anti-inflammatory effects of EBN, chemical constituents from various EBN preparation techniques, and drugs currently used to treat influenza and novel coronavirus infections. We also aim to review the pathogenesis of influenza A and coronavirus, and the potential of EBN in their clinical application. We also describe the current literature in human consumption of EBN, known allergenic or contaminant presence, and the focus of future direction on how these can be addressed to further improve EBN for potential clinical application.
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The objective was to investigate nitrite contents of edible bird’s nest product for human consumption. The investigated edible bird’s nest included 19 samples from multiple lots of commercially local products. Nitrite concentrations were determined by spectrophotometry. Nitrite was detected in low concentration (10.752±1.515 ppm). Detection of adulteration which is residue of hydrogen peroxide was conducted in the present study. Hydrogen peroxide was detected by rapid test which specific for hydrogen peroxide. From 19 sample tested, there was no residue of hydrogen peroxide contained in the products. These results provide new information for evaluating nitrite and hydrogen peroxide in local edible bird’s nest products regarding potential public health consequences.
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Edible bird’s nest (EBN) is recognized as a nourishing food among Chinese people. The efficacy of EBN was stated in the records of traditional Chinese medicine and its activities have been reported in many researches. Malaysia is the second largest exporter of EBNs in the world, after Indonesia. For many years, EBN trade to China was not regulated until August 2011, when a safety alert was triggered for the consumption of EBNs. China banned the import of EBNs from Malaysia and Indonesia due to high level of nitrite. Since then, the Malaysia government has formulated Malaysia Standards for swiftlet farming (MS 2273:2012), edible bird’s nest processing plant design and management (MS 2333:2010), and edible bird’s nest product quality (MS 2334:2011) to enable the industry to meet the specified standards for the export to China. On the other hand, Indonesia's EBN industry formulated a standard operating procedure (SOP) for exportation to China. Both countries can export EBNs to China by complying with the standards and SOPs. EBN contaminants may include but not limited to nitrite, heavy metals, excessive minerals, fungi, bacteria, and mites. The possible source of contaminants may come from the swiftlet farms and the swiftlets or introduced during processing, storage, and transportation of EBNs, or adulterants. Swiftlet house design and management, and EBN processing affect the bird’s nest color. Degradation of its optical quality has an impact on the selling price, and color changes are tied together with nitrite level. In this review, the current and future prospects of EBNs in Malaysia and Indonesia in terms of their quality, and the research on the contaminants and their effects on EBN color changes are discussed.
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Mursidah, Lahjie AM, Masjaya, Rayadin Y, Ruslim Y. 2020. The ecology, productivity and economic of swiftlet (Aerodramus fuciphagus) farming in Kota Bangun, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 21: 3117-3126. Swiftlet nest is a high-value non-timber forest product produced from the saliva of swiftlet birds. While the demands for this commodity continue to increase in global market, careless harvesting techniques have diminished the swiftlet population and the production of swiftlet nests, threatening its sustainability. One effort to solve this problem is by developing swiftlet farming which involves building swiftlet. This research aimed to analyze the ecology, productivity, and financial feasibility of swiftlet farming of different-sized swiftlet houses in Kota Bangun Subdistrict, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. This research used qualitative and quantitative analysis methods. Data were collected using purposive sampling to determine the location, sample of swiftlet houses, and interviews with respondents. Quantitative analysis on the financial performance of swiftlet farming was analyzed using the net Benefit-Cost Ratio (net B/C), Net Present Value (NPV), Internal Rate of Return (IRR) and Payback Period (PP) methods. The results showed that swiftlet nest production in Kota Bangun begins in the third year and ends between 27 and 45 years later, depending on the age and size of the house as well as the quality of the timber. The swiftlet house with a size of 512 m 2 had the net B/C of 4.06, NPV of IDR 1,403.79 million, IRR of 30%, and PP of 5.44 years. The swiftlet house with a size of 1,600 m 2 had the net B/C of 2.27, NPV of IDR 1,774.83 million, IRR of 24.09%, and PP of 9.4 years. Our study suggests that swiftlet farming is financially highly feasible, especially for the swiftlet house with a size of 512 m 2 .
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In the context of impact on human health, nitrite/nitrate and related nitrogen species such as nitric oxide (NO) are a matter of increasing scientific controversy. An increase in the content of reactive nitrogen species may result in nitrosative stress—a deleterious process, which can be an important mediator of damage to cell structures, including lipids, membranes, proteins and DNA. Nitrates and nitrites are widespread in the environment and occur naturally in foods of plant origin as a part of the nitrogen cycle. Additionally, these compounds are used as additives to improve food quality and protect against microbial contamination and chemical changes. Some vegetables such as raw spinach, beets, celery and lettuce are considered to contain high concentrations of nitrates. Due to the high consumption of vegetables, they have been identified as the primary source of nitrates in the human diet. Processed meats are another source of nitrites in our diet because the meat industry uses nitrates/nitrites as additives in the meat curing process. Although the vast majority of consumed nitrates and nitrites come from natural vegetables and fruits rather than food additives, there is currently a great deal of consumer pressure for the production of meat products free of or with reduced quantities of these compounds. This is because, for years, the cancer risks of nitrates/nitrites have been considered, since they potentially convert into the nitrosamines that have carcinogenic effects. This has resulted in the development and rapid expansion of meat products processed with plant-derived nitrates as nitrite alternatives in meat products. On the other hand, recently, these two ions have been discussed as essential nutrients which allow nitric oxide production and thus help cardiovascular health. Thus, this manuscript reviews the main sources of dietary exposure to nitrates and nitrites, metabolism of nitrites/nitrates, and health concerns related to dietary nitrites/nitrates, with particular emphasis on the effect on nitrosative stress, the role of nitrites/nitrates in meat products and alternatives to these additives used in meat products.
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Edible bird’s nest (EBN) which is solidified swiftlet’s saliva contains high nutritional value. It is widely consumed in countries like Malaysia, Indonesia, and Thailand. However, previous proximate analysis of Malaysia EBN was not representative of all the regions in Malaysia. In recent years, safety issues such as high nitrate and nitrite contents, presence of heavy metal, adulteration, fungal infection, and cancer cell stimulation were associated with EBN. Hence, this study aimed to determine the proximate analysis, safety profile during normal weather and hazy periods, and its effect on cancer cells stimulation in Malaysia-farmed EBN. Seven raw cleaned EBN samples were sourced from 6 different regions in Malaysia. Proximate analysis and safety profile were performed using official AOCA methods and Malaysian Standard. High protein (53.03–56.37%) and carbohydrate content (27.97–31.68%) with an acceptable level of moisture (10.8–14.04%) and ash (2.22–3.38%) were reported. A good safety profile was obtained with low nitrite and nitrate levels, with undetectable heavy metals and no significant growth of pathogenic microorganism except mould. Epidermal growth factor was detected but below the quantification level with the chicken EGF ELISA kit. The microculture tetrazolium (MTT) assay was performed for growth stimulation assessment comparing human EGF and EBN. There was no significant cell growth observed in cancer cells after EBN treatment. In conclusion, EBN Malaysia has a good nutritional profile, free of heavy metals, and an acceptable level of nitrate, nitrite, and microorganism profile except for mould contents. Furthermore, the in vitro study indicated that EBN was not associated with cancer cell growth.
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This study was aimed to determine the influence of the washing method under running water on nitrite levels of edible bird’s nest (EBN). Total of 40 samples of EBN were divided into four groups with different washing frequency, control group without washing treatmet (P0), once, twice, and three times washing treatment (P1, P2, and P3) respectively. Each washing was performed for 30 seconds under running water. Nitrite levels assessment was carried out by spectrophotometry at 540 nm of wavelength. The results showed that the average nitrite levels of EBN in P0, P1, P2, and P3 were 93.12±4.40 ppm, 65.24±3.38 ppm, 63.60±3.81 ppm, and 30.87±2.11 ppm, respectively. The nitrit level in edible bird’s nest decreased significantly (P<0.05) by using three times washing.
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Edible bird's nest (EBN) swiftlet existed naturally 48,000 years ago in caves as their natural dwellings. Nowadays, edible bird's nest has become a very important industry due to its high nutritional, medicinal and economic value. Additionally, edible bird's nest has a long quality guarantee period. Obviously, the nutritional components and medicinal functions vary depending on geographical origins. Recently, the global demand for edible bird's nest has markedly increased, accompanied by the increasing attention of all key players of the global food trade system, i.e., producers, consumers, traders and the authorities to obtain safe and high-quality edible bird's nest. Hence, this target can be accomplished via the enforcement of an efficient and universal geo-tracing technique. Current methods of the geo-tracking of edible bird's nest, i.e., automation, physical and analytical techniques have several limitations and all of them fail to discriminate different quality grades of edible bird's nest. Meanwhile, in many studies and applications, polymerase chain reaction-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (PCR-DGGE) has proven to be a “cutting edge” technique for greatly enhance food traceability from field to fork through its ability in distinguishing the food products in terms of their quality and safety. This article provides an overview of (1) edible bird's nest as a multiuse strategic food product, (2) quality issues associated with edible bird’s nest including implications that the site of acquisition of the edible bird’s nest has food safety implications, (3) current regulations and geo-tracking approaches to ensure the safety and quality of edible bird’s nest with the special focus on polymerase chain reaction-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis technique as a vigorous and universal geo-tracing tool to be suggested for edible bird's nest geo-traceability.
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Edible bird's nest (EBN)is a traditional Chinese cuisine that attracts numerous attentions at the local point of view extending to worldwide level. Huge demand from EBN enables it to secure name labels among different types of other foodstuffs, which were found to be rich with carbohydrate, protein and amino acid. Today, EBN has been used as ingredients in cosmetics and pharmaceutical products. Malaysia is the world's third largest supplier of EBN after Thailand and Indonesia. Therefore, the government included certain initiatives in order to comply with several laws and standards as fundamental guidelines. Currently, contemporary EBN issues are becoming a pandemic in this industry and create chaos for consumers and operators. The issues include adulterations, banning, integrity of halal and haram, allergic reactions and heavy metal intoxication. The researchers identified several approaches in order to detect and authenticate EBN using advanced technologies and high-end instrumentations. The approaches were improved by certain chemometric analysis, which produces convincing and reliable data. Current situation and future views of EBN are also discussed in the study.