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African Geographical Review
ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rafg20
Managing the environment: issues and priority
actions for sustainable waste management in
Uganda
Sampson Edodi
To cite this article: Sampson Edodi (2022): Managing the environment: issues and priority
actions for sustainable waste management in Uganda, African Geographical Review, DOI:
10.1080/19376812.2022.2054438
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/19376812.2022.2054438
Published online: 27 Mar 2022.
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RESEARCH ARTICLES
Managing the environment: issues and priority actions for
sustainable waste management in Uganda
Sampson Edodi
Department of Development Studies, Faculty of Interdisciplinary Studies, Mbarara University of Science and
Technology, Mbarara, Uganda
ABSTRACT
Several priority actions are required to ensure a healthy environment for
all. One of the priority actions is to collect and manage wastes eectively
and eciently. In this theoretical study, we give a global waste manage-
ment outlook, examined Africa’s waste management outlook and the
impact of improper waste management, and focus on the issues and
priority actions for sustainable waste management in Uganda. Further,
the paper put forward that rst, we should design the public sector waste
reduction framework, which currently exists in most societies including
the United Nations Environment. Second, design the private sector waste
reduction framework, which is currently lacking in most societies. And
third, develop an overlapping mechanism that would generate a stronger
and more productive collaboration between the public sector and the
private sector. Finally, the study advances a sustainable inclusive waste
management framework to operationalize the priority actions in mana-
ging wastes in informal settlements.
ARTICLE HISTORY
Received 14 November 2021
Accepted 25 February 2022
KEYWORDS
Environmental management;
waste generation; solid
waste; waste management
policy; waste control
1. Introduction
Managing natural resources and the environment is a major feature of the Sustainable Development
Goals 2030 Agenda that challenges the United Nations (UN) Environment to develop and enhance
combined approaches to improving the general health of the environment. Over the years,
environmental management has developed as a technocentric problem-solving initiative that
provides ‘practical’ assistance to state officials involved in managing the environment. However,
the potentially significant contribution of diverse nonstate actors like civil society was neglected.
Nonetheless, in response to increasing environmental threats such as high-impact storms, intense
drought, food shortages and climate change, there has been a continuous effort by nonstate actors to
secure the future with both high quality of life and resistance to the impacts of adverse events
(Bryant & Wilson, 1998; Dynes & Quarantelli, 1975; Marchese et al., 2018; Ward et al., 2017). As
a result, inclusive environmental management is a leading approach to managing the environment
and is necessary for effective wastes management especially in informal settlements.
Waste management involves the actions and processes necessary to manage wastes from inception
to the collection, transport, treatment and disposal, together with monitoring and regulation of the
waste management process. A typical waste management system comprises collection, transportation,
pretreatment, processing, and final abatement of residues (Demirbas, 2011; Kan, 2009). The process is
regulated by various environmental-related agencies. However, the amount of waste has been steadily
increasing due to the increasing human population and urbanization (Demirbas, 2011). Therefore, in
CONTACT Sampson Edodi sedodi@yahoo.com
AFRICAN GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW
https://doi.org/10.1080/19376812.2022.2054438
© 2022 The African Specialty Group of the American Association of Geographers
this study, we give a global waste management outlook, examine Africa’s waste management stance
and the impact of improper waste management, and focus on the issues and priority actions for
sustainable waste management in Uganda respectively.
2.1 Global waste management outlook
Globally, large volumes of waste are generated continually in different parts of the world following
population growth and as economies around the world expand. For example, the major waste
generating countries globally per capita as of 2019 include Canada 36.1, Bulgaria 26.7, United States
25.9, Estonia 23.5 and Finland 16.6 metric tonnes. Others include Armenia 16.3, Sweden 16.2,
Luxembourg 11.8, Ukraine 10.6 and Serbia 8.9 metric tonnes respectively (Tiseo, 2021).
The World Bank 2018 estimate of global waste generation is that by 2050 waste generation
will increase from 2.01 billion tonnes to about 3.40 billion (Sebastian & Boyle, 2021). This is
followed by a submission of Hazardous Waste Haulers Environmental (2021) that compo-
stable and recyclable wastes such as paper or plastic make up most of the wastes produced
both in middle and high-income countries and that the Global South makes up over half of
the total solid wastes in the earth.
Table 1. Solid waste characteristics, generation rate and household management in Uganda. Source: Okot-Okumu (2012).
Solid waste streams
Contribution
in weight % Waste characteristics Comments
Domestic
(Residential)
52 − 80 Major: food wastes. Minor: paper;
plastic; textiles; glass; ceramics;
ashes; leather; compound wastes
Waste quantity increasing with
population increase -E-waste is
emerging as significant – Wastes
collected by: urban councils;
private companies, NGOs and CBOs
Markets 4 − 20 Major: vegetable wastes (leaves,
stalks), spoiled fruits Minor:
damaged packaging materials
(e.g., sacks, bags, paper, timber)
Markets in all municipalities –
Number increasing – Waste
collection: urban councils and
private collectors
Commercial (excluding
markets)
3.7–8 Major: packaging materials; food
wastes; scrap metals Minor: glass,
hazardous wastes (e.g.,
contaminated containers, batteries
and cleaning textiles)
Shops, hotels, restaurants, offices,
open pavement trading – Mobile
open-air traders – Increasing
business – Increasing waste
volumes – E-wastes has become
significant Waste collection: urban
council and private collectors
Institutional (e.g., Government
and private-Ministries,
Educational establishments,
sports facilities, clubs)
5 Major: food wastes, stationery Minor:
packaging (e.g., cardboard, paper,
plastics)
- Expanding in numbers with
population increase – E-wastes has
become significant Waste
collection: mainly by private
companies.
Industrial (manufacturing) 3 Various types depending on the
industry (e.g., decomposable
wastes from food industries, non-
degradable such as broken bottles
and plastic containers
Production wastes: by-products and
damaged items – Broken bottles:
recycled or dumped – E-wastes has
become significant – Plastic:
recovered, re-used, recycled or
dumped – Scrap metals: recycled
or dumped – Recycling plants
available in the EAC
Healthcare(hospitals, clinics,
drug shops)
1 Major: domestic type of wastes Minor:
hazardous(e.g., anatomical,
contaminated materials, sharps)
Major hospitals treat their hazardous
wastes. – Clinics dump with other
wastes – Domestic: collected by
private companies. E-waste is
becoming significant
Others 11–11.4 Examples: street sweepings, public
park wastes, construction wastes
collected by: Urban council and
private companies
2S. EDODI
Hazardous Waste Haulers Environmental (2021) established further that over 90% of waste is
mismanaged in low-income countries and that in some low-income countries, including sub-
Saharan Africa; the waste volume is likely to triple by 2050. In other words, if the World Bank
and the Hazardous Waste Haulers Environmental projections are correct, waste generation will
dramatically outpace population growth by more than double by 2050, especially in sub-Saharan
Africa. Therefore, there is an urgent call to waste management and pollution control considering its
pressing issues and priority actions in Africa.
2.2 Waste management outlook in Africa
The United Nations Environment Programme and the International Waste Management
Association regularly produce scientific waste management positions globally and at regional levels.
In its 2020 scientific assessment of waste management in Africa, the Waste Management Outlook
revealed uncanny data that demands urgent attention. For example, in 2012, Africa generated about
125 million tonnes of municipal solid waste (MSW) and is expected to double by 2025.
Waste generation in Africa is growing so rapidly that, any decrease in waste generation in other
regions globally will be overshadowed by Africa (UN Environment, 2021). The study revealed also that
waste collection services in most African countries are inadequate. On average, MSW collection rate is
only 55%, wastes disposed at uncontrolled landfilled and dumpsites is over 90% and this is often with
associated burning. Such open burning releases pollutants into the air. More disturbing is the fact that 19
of the world’s 50 biggest dumpsites are located in Africa, all in Sub-Saharan Africa (Waste Atlas, 2014).
Furthermore, plastics constitute 13% of MSW generated across Africa with 57% being an organic
compostable waste. Most of these wastes are dumped which could be transformed into important
socio-economic opportunities for the countries. Recycling has however emerged across Africa as
a panacea, nonetheless driven majorly by unemployment, poverty and socio-economic in place of
proper public and private sector design. Meanwhile, it is estimated about 70–80% of total solid
waste that is generated in Africa can be recycled, however, it is only 4% of generated wastes that are
currently recycled (UN Environment (2021).
2.2.1 Impact of mismanaged waste in Africa
According to the Africa Waste Management Outlook (UN Environment, 2021), current waste
management practices in Africa are causing economic, social and environmental impacts. The cost
of inaction is significant. For example, changing consumer behavior has resulted in increasing
plastic consumption in Africa, which combined with weak MSW collection systems, places Africa at
risk of increasing marine plastic litter. This goes on to establish that should measures not be put in
place as a matter of urgency to mitigate the flow of plastic and other wastes, coastal economies are
likely to experience more adverse impacts from increasing pollution.
Also, indiscriminate dumping of waste in urban areas is common, creating an increased risk of
disease, flooding and environmental pollution. One of the routes to the generation of greenhouse
gases is the indiscriminate disposal of organic waste which contributes to climate change and the
pollution of surface and groundwater. In addition, one of the significant contributions to air
pollution is the open burning of waste. This impacts human health.
Moreover, Africa has become a dumping ground for end-of-life goods, such as electronic waste,
often originating from developed countries. In addition, infrastructure for recycling and treatment is
characteristically insufficient to safely deal with these waste flows which brings about direct impacts on
the environment and human health generally. However, the Global Waste Management Outlook
report recommends a twofold priority action to tackle these impacts namely, bring waste under
control and harness the opportunity of ‘waste as resource’ by exploring wastes as a livelihood resource.
AFRICAN GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW 3
3. Waste management outlook in Uganda
3.1 About Uganda
The Republic of Uganda is a landlocked country in East Africa with a 241,037 km
2
landmass and
an estimated population of 43 million. Gained independence 9 October 1962, from Great
Britain, Uganda is bordered to the west by the Democratic Republic of Congo, to the south
by Rwanda and Tanzania, to the north by South Sudan, and Kenya to the east. As of July 2020,
Uganda is divided into four regions – Western, Eastern, Central, and Northern regions respec-
tively with 135 districts. Some of the major cities are dispersed across the four regions, for
example, Kampala – capital city, Mukono, Masaka, Entebbe, and Njeru (Central Region); Gulu
and Lira (Northern Region); Mbarara, Bwizibwera and Kasese (Western Region); and Jinja and
Mbale (Eastern Region) respectively (Figure 1). Uganda’s economy is predominantly agriculture
which occupies a majority of the population. However, crude oil was discovered recently in the
Western Region with approximately 6.5 billion barrels of oil reserves and approximately
1.4 billion economically recoverable. This is expected to transform the Ugandan economy.
Also, there are different ethnic groups in Uganda with varied lifestyles and languages spoken.
The most common languages are Luganda, Bantu, Swahili, Nilotic and Lumasaba and English is
spoken by a few. Uganda is known for the largest freshwater lakes in Africa, the strongest
waterfall, the source of the longest river, the largest number of primates, and the highest number
of mountain gorillas worldwide. It is one of the best tourists’ destinations on the continent and
globally.
3.2 The waste management framework of Uganda
In 1997, the government of Uganda adopted a Strategic Framework for Reform. This frame-
work was developed in response to the lack of a coordinated solid waste management system to
handle, plan, coordinate, monitor, and control the waste flow chain from generation, collec-
tion, transportation, disposal, treatment and re-use (Tukahirwa, 2021). The framework encour-
aged diversification in waste management services in the country and gives ample opportunity
for non-governmental organizations, private companies, small enterprises as well as commu-
nity-based organizations to be involved in waste management services (Oates et al., 2019).
In 2017, the National Urban Solid Waste Management Policy (NUSWMP) was introduced
alongside others. The NUSWMP aim to clarify and structure the relevant legislation on waste
management; provide a single, overarching national framework for waste management; establish
national leadership on waste management; and facilitate collaboration with diverse non-state actors
like civil society, business, and farmers. In 2020, the Statutory Instrument 2020 no. 49 of The
National Environment (Waste Management) Regulations further strengthened the waste manage-
ment framework. Therefore, since 1997, good waste management frameworks are operational in
Uganda. However, the current waste management performance does not reflect such coordinated
frameworks. Moreover, Uganda is one of the importers of plastic wastes in Africa ranked 11th from
the bottom (Figure 2).
p. 3.3 Solid waste management issues in Uganda
Management of wastes in Uganda consists of a series of activities including collection, transporta-
tion and disposal or treatment. These activities integrate the waste management hierarchy which
includes reduction, reuse, recycling and recovery into a system (Aryampa et al., 2019; Kinobe &
Bosona et al., 2015; Mukama et al., 2016; Okot-Okumu, 2012; WaterAid, 2011). The various kinds
of waste include liquid waste, organic waste, nuclear waste, hazardous waste, electronic waste, and
solid waste. Therefore, it is good to segregate the waste into these different types to ensure proper
waste removal (Table 1).
4S. EDODI
3.3.1 The waste management issues
Lack of regulatory compliance and legal enforcement
In the Northern region of Uganda, Ongia et al. (2021) examined factors and constraints hindering
effective municipal solid waste management systems. The waste management issues identified
include weak legal enforcement against poor dumping, inadequate collection/dumping space,
unavailability of solid-waste containers, and inadequate transport facilities. These issues have
made waste management systems ineffective and unreliable. Sendawula et al. (2021) also surveyed
the regulatory compliance and environmental sustainability practices in Uganda. The study
revealed that waste management ineffectiveness in Uganda is the result of different dimensions of
its regulatory framework. The different dimensions include controls, legitimacy and deterrence
which corroborate Ongia et al. (2021). However, Sendawula et al. (2021) argue that these dimen-
sions are necessary for environmental sustainability practices in the Ugandan context. Therefore,
lack of regulatory framework compliance and legal enforcement are major issues.
Figure 1. Map of Uganda showing 135 districts. Source: Omara et al. (2020) .
AFRICAN GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW 5
Lack of suciency in general solid waste management
In a community-based cross-sectional study, Ssemugabo and Wafula et al. (2020) examined the
status of household solid waste management and associated factors in a slum community in
Kampala. The study revealed that 41.3% of the households exhibited proper waste management
practices. However, 85.8% of the households did own storage receptacles, 61.7% used sacs and
72.9% minimized nuisances. It was also observed that the main types of waste collected were
biodegradables making up 56.7% and that 78.7% of the households were unable to separate their
wastes. The study also recognized that 54.4% of the mode of solid waste transportation to the
collection point was mainly by pulling off the collecting sacs. However, the major entities collecting
wastes were private companies with 12.9% and the city authority collecting 73.9%. The study
concludes by submitting that solid waste management was generally poor and suggests that an
array of intervention programmes is required to treat physical, knowledge, and behavioral aspects
of waste management to improve waste management in slum communities.
Stinking wastes, aborted fetuses, and huge volumes of leachate issues
Gumisiriza and Kugonza (2020) study on corruption and solid waste management in Mbarara
Municipality, Western Region of Uganda revealed that residents of Kenkombe and Rwemigyina
villages that border one of the open dumpsites in Mbarara began complaining as far back as 2006
and the problem has continued till date. The residents complained about the stinking wastes,
aborted fetuses dump openly at the dumpsite and huge volumes of leachate that found its way in the
nearby Rwentondo stream. Gumisiriza and Kugonza (2020) corroborated earlier studies for
Figure 2. Plastic wastes importing African countries. source: .Babayemi et al. (2019)
6S. EDODI
example, Taremwa (2014), Kushaba (2017), and Nahamya (2019) to submit that over 40% of the
over 200 tons of waste generated in Mbarara Municipality per day remains unprocessed, uncol-
lected, or dumped in inappropriate places.
Diculty in the transformation of wastes into livelihood resource
In the Central region, Oates et al. (2019) study on supporting decent livelihoods through sustainable service
provision and lessons on solid waste management revealed that small enterprises and community-based
organizations play pivotal roles in waste management particularly in slums. One of the case studies for this
study was the Luchacos cooperative in Kampala. The case study used organic waste to produce biomass
briquettes; a source of energy for cooking that concurrently reduces deforestation and urban air pollution. It
was observed that if the Luchacos model could be scaled up to replace half of all charcoal use in Kampala,
almost 12,000 additional people would find employment in the biomass briquette industry. This model is in
tandem with the UN Environment (2021) recommendation to harness the opportunity of waste as a resource
by exploring wastes as a livelihood resource. The study, therefore, suggests that partnerships with commu-
nity-based organizations and small enterprises in waste management can generate multiple economic and
social benefits. Over the years, partnerships for gender-based violence (Clark et al., 2021), education
(Buregyeya et al., 2021), and palliative care (Namukwaya et al., 2021) are given attention in Uganda.
However, partnerships with community-based organizations and small enterprises for waste management
which is instrumental to transforming wastes into livelihood resources receive little or no attention.
Issue of generating inconsistent information
Buntaine et al. (2021) conducted a field experiment on solid waste services in Uganda to examine
the challenges of using citizen reporting to improve public services. The study revealed that citizen
reporters generate inconsistent information about service delivery. This makes the Kampala Capital
Figure 3. KCCA achievements in solid wastes management. Source: Tukahirwa (2021)
AFRICAN GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW 7
City Authority (KCCA) adopt a costly, extensive verification process that undermined the perceived
effectiveness of citizen reporting among KCCA staff. The study argued that reliance on citizen
reporting, though it can be massive, timely, and localized, does not provide an easy solution for
managers who struggle to collect the information needed to effectively produce public services.
Therefore, Buntaine et al. (2021) submitted that the problem of waste management in Uganda is
a problem of inconsistent information generated through citizens reporting which poses major
challenges to enforcing rules against illegal dumping by residents, rather than oversight of service
provision by contractors.
3.4 Toward solution to the solid waste issues
The Kampala Capital City Authority (KCCA) is the institution coordinating waste management in
Uganda. KCCA was established in 2011 by the Act of Parliament Kampala Capital City Act 2010
and amended in 2019 to streamline and strengthen the governance of the Capital City under article
5(4) of the Constitution of Uganda. KCCA is mandated with the provision of services to enable
businesses and residents to operate in a clean and serene environment that supports the develop-
ment and healthy living. Solid waste collection management is one of the key services provided by
the authority. In addition to its agencies; KCCA contracts private companies to manage solid waste
collection to improve the cleanliness of the city. During the fiscal year 2019/20, Uganda Registration
Service Bureau (URSB, 2021) registered 21,293 new companies and 39,043 business names.
However, few were licensed for wastes collection. KCCA (2021) maintained that the per capita
generation of waste in Uganda is one kilogram per day.
However, Ekere et al. (2010) had earlier submitted that major cities like Iganga and Masaka
waste generation levels per capita stood at 1 kg and 1.3 kg per day respectively. This implies that
between 2010 and 2021 waste generation reduction has not so much improved. Furthermore,
KCCA estimated that about 1.5 million populations work out that 1500 tonnes of wastes are
generated per day however it can only manage to dispose of 40% – 50% (KCCA, 2021). This
submission confirms the Global Waste Management Outlook in Africa which observed that the
average MSW collection rate is only 55%. Therefore, urgent priority actions are required at this
time.
3.4.1 Major KCCA achievements
The KCCA has achieved major successes in solving solid waste management challenges in Uganda
(Tukahirwa 2021). These achievements are divided into institutional developments and operatio-
nalization and implementation. Under the institutional development, KCCA major achievements
include the recruitment of highly qualified and competent staff, improved revenue mobilization that
has resulted in an 84% increase over the past year, improved procurement process and contract
management, and corporate re-branding. The operationalization and implementation achieve-
ments include increased wastes collection up to 29,543 tons in June 2012 from 16,000 tons in
March 2011 and over 38,000 in 2019. Over 815 litter bins have been distributed to schools, and
collection centers for recycling have been set in different locations across the major cities. The ‘Keep
Kampala clean’ monthly cleaning programme was set up and the city cleanliness has improved.
In addition, KCCA operates an Engineered Sanitary Landfill at Mpererwe, approximately 8 km
from the city center managed by a private contractor. On average, the landfill receives between 900–
1100 tons/day from KCCA (65%) and private companies (35%; Aryampa et al., 2019; Okot-Okumu,
2012). The landfill has a fully functioning leachate treatment plant that treats between 160 m3 to 190
m3 of leachate per day (Figure 3). In addition, landfill gas trials have been carried out and results
indicate estimated gas to the energy output of about 3.5 megawatts of power.
However, the informal sectors whose activities are not coherent and as a result, waste is not
appropriately managed poses a major setback to the KCCA (Tukahirwa 2021). Therefore, activities
of the informal sector need to be coordinated appropriately.
8S. EDODI
4. Priority actions for solid waste management in Uganda
The KCCA successes in the management of the solid waste challenges can be improved. The recent
effort of the government in this regard is the Statutory Instruments 2020 No. 49 – The National
Environment (Waste Management) Regulations (Republic of Uganda, 2020). The implementation of
this instrument will facilitate effective sustainable waste management in Uganda. Therefore, the
following priority actions may facilitate translating the Statutory Instrument into practice in
improving waste management in the informal sector.
Stronger and more productive collaboration between the Ugandan government and the civil
society: The civil society and government are key players in the transformation of societies globally.
Hence, it is natural for there to be regular interactions between them. The nature of the interactions
varies from region to region, government to government, civil society to civil society, and govern-
ment to civil society (Kumar et al., 2021). For example, a recent clampdown on civil society in
Uganda led to the suspension of 54 civil society organizations. The organizations work on human
rights, the environment, religious issues and democracy (Civicus, 2021). The organizations that
work basically on the environment are key instruments through which the government can improve
waste management efforts in the informal sector. In municipal solid waste management, commu-
nity-based organizations and small enterprises play an important role, especially in informal
settlements (Oates et al., 2019). Therefore, stronger and more productive collaboration between
government and civil society gets everyone within the community involved and monitoring waste
activities in the community. This collaboration facilitates coordinating the informal sectors whose
activities are not coherent and poses a major setback to the KCCA (Tuhariwa 2021). Furthermore,
government officials can be persuaded through the collective voices of community groups to notice
the problems and this can influence the industry to be more mindful of its responsibilities.
Moreover, due to political interests and differences, civil society may be the possible channel
through which waste management may be properly handled in informal settlements in Uganda.
Improvement in waste collection and disposal: The current practices of dumping both dry and wet
wastes into the same collection receptacles observed by Ssemugabo and Wafula et al. (2020) requires
an urgent change in lifestyle by the people. The lifestyle adjustment will involve ensuring that
awareness is taken to the group of individuals who may care less about how much their ecological
ignorance costs the society. For example, the complaints of Kenkombe and Rwemigyina villages in
Western Uganda identified by Gumisiriza and Kugonza (2020), Taremwa (2014), Kushaba (2017),
and Nahamya (2019) can be effectively controlled in this way. This is also supported by Kinobe and
Bosona et al. (2015) and Mukama et al. (2016) that the routes taken by trucks were normally due to
the demand of waste to be collected in the parish of divisions and the driver’s discretion on the route
to be followed.
Ensuring waste generation is brought under control: The UN Environment (2021) argued that
there is an urgent call to address the public health imperative, by ensuring that all citizens have
access to proper waste management services. For example, over 28,000 tonnes of waste are
generated per month in Kampala (Komakech et al., 2014), 25,023.6 tonnes in Mukono (Yusuf
et al., 2019) and over 200 tonnes in Mbarara (Gumisiriza & Kugonza, 2020; Kushaba, 2017;
Nahamya, 2019; Taremwa, 2014). For Iganga and Masaka, waste generation levels per capita
stood at 1 kg and 1.3 kg per day respectively (Ekere et al., 2010). These major cities are clean but
wastes generations need to be brought under control. More urgent is an extended affordable and
appropriate waste collections approach and waste removal services to all residents. This is achieved
through the promotion of waste prevention and cleaner production, particularly within business
and industry (UN Environment, 2021).
Exploring wastes as a livelihood resource: This involves creating a waste management entre-
preneurship ecosystem where wastes management is used as a livelihood resource. Oates et al.
(2019) revealed that this is possible through the Luchacos model. This model involves using food-
soiled paper, non-hazardous wood waste, green waste, food waste, and landscape and pruning
AFRICAN GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW 9
waste to produce biomass briquettes. They argued that the Luchacos model could be scaled up to
generate over 12,000 employments in the biomass briquette industry. This implies unlocking the
socio-economic opportunities of waste as resource by moving waste up the waste management
hierarchy away from disposal toward waste prevention, reuse, recycling and recovery. The
Luchacos model may be achieved in various ways such as maximizing reuse, repair and refurb-
ishment of end-of-life products. Existing small-scale formal and informal entrepreneurial under-
takings are expected to be integrated within typical waste management activities and make sure
social inclusion is promoted in the opportunities created thereby. In other words, the Oates et al.
(2019) Luchacos model is a model for harnessing the opportunity of waste as a livelihood
resource.
Community sensitization on solid waste management laws: Ssemugabo and Wafula et al. (2020)
advocate for community sensitization about collecting waste in plastic containers, polythene bags,
and paper bags or metallic bins. They also support awareness creation on solid waste management
laws and dangers of improper solid waste management. There may be few people who are aware of
the solid waste management ordinance of Uganda. This ordinance makes it illegal and punishable
to dump wastes in places where it may be or become a public health nuisance. The places include
public streets, water bodies, and roadsides. The more recent Statutory Instruments 2020 No. 49. The
National Environment (Waste Management) Regulations which is the improved and recent policy
regulating waste management in Uganda needs to be sensitized to the people too. This will enhance
lifestyle change, enable bringing waste generation under control and improve the overall imple-
mentation of the policy (Ssemugabo & Wafula et al., 2020). In other words, until the people are
properly sensitized it may be unfair to reprimand slum dwellers for indiscriminate dumping of
wastes. Community sensitization is crucial in decentralization. Therefore, it is a priority action for
the government, youth groups and community-based organizations to ensure massive sensitization
on climate change and proper environmental management. This will reduce ecological ignorance
and improve waste management.
Implementation of waste reduction policies: Buntaine et al. (2021) submitted that the problem of
waste management in Uganda is a problem of weak legal enforcement of rules against illegal
dumping by residents. However, it’s a common challenge in sub-Saharan Africa for the government
to develop a well-designed framework of operations, rules and regulations but when it comes to
implementation, it becomes almost impossible. It is either there is no political will to enforce the
law, the law is not clear enough or conflict of interests among enforcing agents will hinder the
implementation. For example, the Uganda National Environment (Waste Management)
Regulations, 2020 gives clear and distinct waste reduction guidelines. However, over the years
since 1997, one of the continuing challenges has been the enforcement of just laws. Therefore,
driving the implementation of these regulations is a priority action.
Creating community awareness on dangers of improper solid waste management: Community
awareness creation in informal settlements is another priority action. When people know the
harmful impacts of their actions and inactions they are more likely to reduce them or change
their lifestyle. Though this is not always the case, however, a greater percentage of people in slums
and informal settlements are likely to change their lifestyle for waste generation control. Civil
society can play a pivotal role in community awareness creation. In 2021, Yalelo mobilized
community dwellers for the cleaning of their community in the Central Region, Uganda. Yalelo
is a sustainable producer of tilapia fish in Uganda, implementing modern age aquaculture on Lake
Victoria. Through their commitments, Yalelo creates community awareness of a clean environment
(Yalelo Uganda, 2021). Hence, community awareness creation on the dangers of improper solid
waste management is important.
Advocacy for better solid waste disposal and water drainage system: Strong advocacy for better
solid waste disposal and a good water drainage system is necessary. For example, one of the major
causes of flooding is poor disposal of wastes, especially affecting the informal areas with little or
poorly maintained drainage systems. Wastes cause blockages and hence flooding when ends up in
10 S. EDODI
the already inadequate drainage channels. This priority action addresses limited drainage systems,
inadequate waste management facilities, and the need for better community education and aware-
ness. There is a need therefore for key stakeholders to step up advocacy for lifestyle changes in
behaviors and inspire an intrinsic desire toward environmental stewardship through sensitizing and
educating the community about the need for proper waste disposal (City Alliance, 2020).
Recycling should be driven by proper public and private sector design rather than poverty,
unemployment and socio-economic need. The UN Environment (2021) observed that private firms
and individuals involved in waste recycling are driven by poverty, unemployment and socio-
economic needs. Hitherto, in Uganda as with other developing countries in sub-Saharan Africa,
most times recycling are driven by poverty, unemployment and socioeconomic needs. Reversing the
order such that recycling is driven by proper public and private sector design rather than poverty,
unemployment and socio-economic need is strategic to improving waste recycling system and
sustainable waste management. The order can be reversed through an inclusive waste management
model.
5. Inclusive waste management approach
An inclusive environmental management approach is a leading approach in managing the envir-
onment (Bryant & Wilson, 1998; Dynes & Quarantelli, 1975; Marchese et al., 2018; Ward et al.,
2017). Hence, the approach is necessary for effective wastes management, especially in informal
settlements. One of the greatest challenges facing the KCCA in ensuring the effective and efficient
management of wastes is the informal sectors whose activities are not coherent and as a result, waste
is not appropriately managed (Tukahirwa, 2021). Therefore, based on the issues and the priority
actions identified, civil society can bridge the gap between the government regulations and
implementation at local levels. Urbanization is fast spreading across Uganda. However, aside
from a few urban areas, most parts of Uganda are informal settlements. The Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD, 2001) defines informal settlements as areas
where groups of housing units have been constructed on land that the occupants have no legal
claim to, or occupy illegally; secondly, unplanned settlements and areas where housing is not in
compliance with current planning and building regulations. The second definition applies to most
of Uganda. Therefore, an inclusive waste management model will enhance the effective and efficient
management of wastes in the informal settlements in Uganda.
The design of an inclusive waste management model begins with generating stronger and more
productive collaboration between the government and civil society. Civil society organizations play
an active role in the pursuit of sustainable development in Uganda. However, civil society organiza-
tions that engage in advocacy and monitoring of government activities have often been subjected to
severe pressure in Uganda, and legislation in recent years has narrowed the legal space for civil
society in the nation (International Center for Not-For-Profit Law, 2021). For example, on
2 October 2013, the President assented to the Public Order Management Act (POMA). Section 9
of POMA granted the police broad powers to prohibit public meetings. After POMA’s enactment,
a disproportionate force has been used against meetings organized by some civil society represen-
tatives (International Center for Not-For-Profit Law, 2021). And a recent clampdown on civil
society in the nation has led to the suspension of 54 civil society organizations (Civicus, 2021).
Therefore, the relationship between the government of Uganda and civil society needs to be
strengthened. It seems one of the major gaps between the government and the informal settlements
in managing wastes in Uganda is the civil society (Tukahirwa, 2021), especially those organizations
that work basically on the environment.
The inclusive waste management model thrives on the principles of participation, transparency,
local empowerment, greater downward accountability, demand-responsiveness, and enhanced local
capacity. The model begins by ensuring a stronger and more productive collaboration between
government and civil society. According to Figure 4, stronger and more productive collaboration
AFRICAN GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW 11
leads to more result-oriented community sensitizations on solid waste management laws and
creates awareness on dangers of improper waste management and disposals. Further, it leads to
improved waste collection and disposal in informal areas which enable bringing wastes generation
under control and subsequently enable the implementation of waste reduction policies. It further
leads to evidence-based advocacy for solid waste disposal and water drainage system, and harness
the opportunity of waste as recourse to generate livelihoods. It enables recycling to be driven by
proper public and private sector design rather than poverty, unemployment and socio-economic
need, and further strengthen collaboration between government and civil society. Therefore, the
model is sustainable and the sustainability is that stronger and productive collaboration between
government and the civil society leads to effective management of wastes in the informal sector for
Uganda which in turn strengthen the collaboration further.
Conclusion and contribution to knowledge
Waste management is a foremost concern for all economies around the world. As of today, the
volume of wastes generated globally have given rise to issues bothering on rising land prices, the
unwillingness of local communities to accept new technologies, strict environmental regulations,
Figure 4. Sustainable inclusive waste management model for informal settlements.
12 S. EDODI
health and safety concerns, among others. Therefore, all stakeholders must work together to
effectively and efficiently manage wastes sustainably. The inclusive waste management approach
is a contribution to the existing body of knowledge that avails a model that enables all stakeholders
to work together and effectively and efficiently manage wastes in informal settlements. However,
a suggestion for further study is to examine what mechanism would generate a stronger and more
productive collaboration between the government of Uganda and the civil society in the manage-
ment of wastes.
Acknowledgments
Special appreciation to Dr Ronald Twongyirwe, Department of Environment and Livelihoods Support Systems,
Faculty of Interdisciplinary Studies, Mbarara University of Science and Technology, Uganda for inspiring this paper.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
ORCID
Sampson Edodi http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3247-1144
Declaration of Inerest
No conflict of interest is known to me.
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