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Perspektywy podnoszenia zrozumiałości tekstów aktów prawnych poprzez zmianę paradygmatu budowy struktury odesłań
Abstract
The tabular structure of legal texts and the principles of their drafting result in the frequent use of various types of references, which has a negative impact on the comprehensibility of the law. As legal texts are nowadays drafted and made available in electronic format, it is reasonable to try to develop automated mechanisms for checking the correctness of references contained in these texts. The paper shows how a particular type of automated and dedicated information management mechanisms, offered by the so-called adaptive hypertexts, can be used for this purpose. The authors focus primarily on describing the specificity of this type of tools and on analyzing the possibilities, principles and prospects of their use in order to improve the quality of legal texts, in particular their comprehensibility.
Nie jest tajemnicą niezrozumiałość prawa, lecz niewystarczająco zgłębiona pozostawała głębia tej niezrozumiałości. W dotychczasowych badaniach aspektami ilościowymi wspierano się pobieżnie albo bez wniknięcia w ich metodę. Praca ta ma na celu rozbudować instrumentarium analizy języka prawnego pod kątem zrozumiałości prawa i zademonstrować wyniki użycia tych narzędzi. Do badania wybrano kilkadziesiąt polskich ustaw, które w całości przetworzono i przeanalizowano przy użyciu aplikacji Jasnopis. Wyniki zostały następnie poddane weryfikacji i analizie osadzonej w kontekście badań językoznawczych i społecznych. Analizy: 1) potwierdzają głęboką niezrozumiałość języka prawnego niezależnie od używanego miernika; 2) kwantyfikują tę niezrozumiałość względem polszczyzny powszechnej dając obraz oddalenia języka prawnego od rzeczywistości; 3) wskazują na swoistość wewnętrzną języka prawnego objawiającą się zróżnicowaniem parametrów dotyczących zrozumiałości i morfologicznych w zależności od gałęzi prawa; 4) dostrzegają potencjał w badaniu języka prawnego wskaźnikami innymi niż powszechnie używane. Badania otwierają pole do szerszej niż dotąd dyskusji na temat jakości komunikacyjnej ustawodawstwa, a dzięki kontekstowi polszczyzny powszechnej pomagają zarysować istotne społecznie konsekwencje w postaci alienacji językowej odbiorców prawa.
The article discusses the linguistic status of specialist vocabulary, as well as the procedures used for its identification and description. Our theoretical analysis is based on a selection of penal law texts. The purpose of the article is to define the notion of legal text unit and to prove its relevance for linguistic research. The paper presents the relationships between a legal text unit, a language unit, a collocation and a term. We sug-gest that in order to identify specialist language units, the analysis should be based on a corpus consisting only of texts representing each particular field. Finally, the article discusses the basic mechanisms used for transforming general language units into legal language units.
This paper investigates the task of reference resolution in the legal domain. This is a new interesting task in Legal Engineering research. The goal is to create a system which can automatically detect references and then extracts their referents. Previous work limits itself to detect and resolve references at the document targets. In this paper, we go a step further in trying to resolve references to sub-document targets. Referents extracted are the smallest fragments of texts in documents, rather than the entire documents that contain the referenced texts. Based on analyzing the characteristics of reference phenomena in legal texts, we propose a four-step framework to deal with the task: mention detection, contextual information extraction, antecedent candidate extraction, and antecedent determination. We also show how machine learning methods can be exploited in each step. The final system achieves 80.06 % in the F1 score for detecting references, 85.61 % accuracy for resolving them, and 67.02 % in the F1 score for the end-to-end setting task on the Japanese National Pension Law corpus.
Combining legal content stores of different providers is usually time, effort and money intensive due to the usually ‘hard-wired ’ links between different parts of the constituting sources within those stores. In practice users of legal content are confronted with a vendor lock-in situation and have to find workarounds when they want to combine their own content with the content provided by others. In the BSN project we developed a parser that enables the creation of a referential structure on top of a legal content store. We empirically tested the parsers ’ effectiveness and found an over 95 % accuracy even for complex references.
Sentiment analysis from text consists of extracting information about opinions, sentiments, and even emotions conveyed by writers towards topics of interest. It is often equated to opinion mining, but it should also encompass emotion mining. Opinion mining involves the use of natural language processing and machine learning to determine the attitude of a writer towards a subject. Emotion mining is also using similar technologies but is concerned with detecting and classifying writers emotions toward events or topics. Textual emotion-mining methods have various applications, including gaining information about customer satisfaction, helping in selecting teaching materials in e-learning, recommending products based on users emotions, and even predicting mental-health disorders. In surveys on sentiment analysis, which are often old or incomplete, the strong link between opinion mining and emotion mining is understated. This motivates the need for a different and new perspective on the literature on sentiment analysis, with a focus on emotion mining. We present the state-of-the-art methods and propose the following contributions: (1) a taxonomy of sentiment analysis; (2) a survey on polarity classification methods and resources, especially those related to emotion mining; (3) a complete survey on emotion theories and emotion-mining research; and (4) some useful resources, including lexicons and datasets.
Job titles like "Technical Architect" and "Chief Architect" nowadays abound in the software industry, yet many people suspect that "architecture" is one of the most overused and least understood terms in professional software development. Gorton's book helps resolve this predicament. It concisely describes the essential elements of knowledge and key skills required to be a software architect. The explanations encompass the essentials of architecture thinking, practices, and supporting technologies. They range from a general understanding of software structure and quality attributes, through technical issues like middleware components and documentation techniques, to emerging technologies like model-driven architecture, software product lines, aspect-oriented design, service-oriented architectures, and the Semantic Web, all of which will influence future software system architectures. All approaches are illustrated by an ongoing real-world example. So if you work as an architect or senior designer (or want to someday), or if you are a student in software engineering, here is a valuable and yet approachable source of knowledge. "Ian's book helps us to head in the right direction through the various techniques and approaches... An essential guide to computer science students as well as developers and IT professionals who aspire to become an IT architect". (Anna Liu, Architect Advisor, Microsoft Australia)
This book constitutes the first thorough academic analysis of legislative drafting.
The following paper discusses from the textological perspective the concept of text of law. It is argued that the Dworkin’s metaphor of a chain novel is not appropriate to explain the textuality of law, because the text of law is a specific form of feeding text, distinctive from the classical ones, i.e. monolog and dialog. Its characteristic resembles hypertexts rather than novels. Based on this, the distinction between consistency and coherence is presented and their roles are analysed. Finally, the relationship between intertextuality and coherence of the law is interpreted and explained.
Italian Ministry of Justice, with the contributions of the researcher centres, universities and public bodies, are presently engaged in an effort to work out shared standards with which to represent legal texts. Documents standardised under uniform formats and structures make it possible to link up distinct bodies of norms, and this in turn makes it easier to find and look up norms and design tools with which to process them, as when doing legal drafting and bringing out consolidated texts. This function is enabled by marking up the different parts of a legal text: its identification data (indicating text type, text number, date of delivery, and the like), its partitions (e.g., the articles and sections that make up its layout), and the normative references it contains.
Hypertext/hypermedia systems and user-model-based adaptive systems in the areas of learning and information retrieval have for a long time been considered as two mutually exclusive approaches to information access. Adaptive systems tailor information to the user and may guide the user in the information space to present the most relevant material, taking into account a model of the user's goals, interests and preferences. Hypermedia systems, on the other hand, are `user neutral': they provide the user with the tools and the freedom to explore an information space by browsing through a complex network of information nodes. Adaptive hypertext and hypermedia systems attempt to bridge the gap between these two approaches.
Adaptation of hypermedia systems to each individual user is increasingly needed. With the growing size, complexity and heterogeneity of current hypermedia systems, such as the World Wide Web, it becomes virtually impossible to impose guidelines on authors concerning the overall organization of hypermedia information. The networks therefore become so complex and unstructured that the existing navigational tools are no longer powerful enough to provide orientation on where to search for the needed information. It is also not possible to identify appropriate pre-defined paths or subnets for users with certain goals and knowledge backgrounds since the user community of hypermedia systems is usually quite inhomogeneous. This is particularly true for Web-based applications which are expected to be used by a much greater variety of users than any earlier standalone application.
A possible remedy for the negative effects of the traditional `one-size-fits-all' approach in the development of hypermedia systems is to equip them with the ability to adapt to the needs of their individual users. A possible way of achieving adaptivity is by modeling the users and tailoring the system's interactions to their goals, tasks and interests. In this sense, the notion of adaptive hypertext/hypermedia comes naturally to denote a hypertext or hypermedia system which reflects some features of the user and/or characteristics of his system usage in a user model, and utilizes this model in order to adapt various behavioral aspects of the system to the user.
This book is the first comprehensive publication on adaptive hypertext and hypermedia. It is oriented towards researchers and practitioners in the fields of hypertext and hypermedia, information systems, and personalized systems. It is also an important resource for the numerous developers of Web-based applications. The design decisions, adaptation methods, and experience presented in this book are a unique source of ideas and techniques for developing more usable and more intelligent Web-based systems suitable for a great variety of users. The practitioners will find it important that many of the adaptation techniques presented in this book have proved to be efficient and are ready to be used in various applications.
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