Culturally Inclusive Pedagogy

Abstract

This manuscript supplies a detailed set of student-centered, culturally inclusive teaching strategies for motivating and engaging students with the subject matter. The instructional strategies identified in this document elevate the academic achievement all students but have particularly positive impact on closing the equity gap, giving disadvantaged students equal opportunity to participate in and benefit from the classroom learning experience.

Full text

The following material has been excerpted from Thompson, A., & Cuseo, J. (2020). Infusing Equity &
Cultural Competence into Teacher Development (2nd ed.) Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt.
Culturally Inclusive Pedagogy
This manuscript supplies a detailed set of student-centered, culturally inclusive teaching
strategies for motivating and engaging students with the subject matter. The instructional
strategies identified in this document elevate the academic achievement all students but have
particularly positive impact on closing the equity gap, giving disadvantaged students equal
opportunity to participate in and benefit from the classroom learning experience.
Introduction
A core component of diversity education is exposing students to an inclusive curriculum with
subject matter that represents and recognizes multiple cultures. While inclusive subject matter is
a necessary condition for a multicultural education, it is not a sufficient or sole condition.
Comprehensive diversity education addresses both the subject matter (content) of the curriculum
and the process through which the subject matter is delivered—the teaching methods used to
convey the content.
Numerous studies show that the academic achievement of low-income students and students of
color increases when they are taught by teachers who not only possess subject-matter knowledge,
but also use effective, culturally-inclusive pedagogy (Darling-Hammond, 2010). Inclusive
pedagogy may be defined as a student-centered teaching process that motivates and engages
students from all cultural backgrounds, allowing their voices to be heard and giving them
opportunities for intercultural interaction. As the term, “student-centered teaching” suggests, it is
a process of teaching that centers on the student by: (a) connecting the content being taught to
students' life experiences, (b) empowering students to play an active role in the learning process,
and (c) focusing on learning outcomes that develop the student as a "whole person." (Angelo,
1997; Barr & Tagg, 1995; Johnson, 2003). Meta-analyses of multiple studies indicate that
student-centered teaching has a sizable effect on student gains in academic achievement (Hattie,
2012).
“All aspects of teaching and learning in school must be refocused on, and rededicated to, the students themselves.”
—EdChange Multicultural Pavilion
A Model for Implementing Student-Centered Teaching
Student-centered teaching can be systematically implemented through lessons plans that are
intentionally designed to make three, key student connections:
1) the student-teacher connection: connecting students with the teacher by cultivating positive
student-teacher relationships;
2) the student-student connection: connecting students with each other by creating an inclusive
classroom community; and
3) the student-subject connection: connecting students to the subject matter through use of
instructional strategies that actively engage them with the material they are learning;
"Good teachers possess a capacity for connectedness. They are able to weave a complex web of connections among
themselves, their subject, and their students.”

—Parker Palmer, The Courage to Teach: Exploring the Inner Landscape of a Teacher's Life
Instructional strategies that promote these three student-centered connections benefit all students,
but have particularly positive impact on minority students, serving to narrow the achievement
gap (Schmid et al., 2016).
THE STUDENT-TEACHER CONNECTION:
Connecting Students with their Teacher and Building Positive Student-
Teacher Relationships
High-impact teaching rests on more than use of good teaching techniques; it also rests on
teachers exhibiting personal attributes and behaviors that humanize the classroom, creating a
classroom atmosphere in which all students experience a sense of importance, inclusiveness, and
self-worth (Jones, 1989). Establishment of positive teacher-student relationships may be viewed
as a precondition or prerequisite for student engagement. When students feel comfortable
relating to the teacher, they become more responsive to the teacher’s attempts to engage them in
the learning process. In multiple studies conducted at the elementary, middle, and high school
level, it has been found that when students report that their teacher likes them, they are more
engaged in class (Hattie, 2009; Shernoff, Ruzek, & Sinha, 2016). It has also been found that
students exhibit greater gains in learning in classes characterized by interpersonal warmth,
empathy, and positive teacher-student relationships (Cornelius-White, 2007). Furthermore, when
children agree with statements such as “most of my teachers care about me” and most are
“interested in what I have to say,” their parents report higher trust in the school (Adams, Forsyth,
& Mitchell, 2009).
"In teaching, you can't do the Bloom stuff until you do the Maslow stuff."
—Dr. Allen Beck, school teacher and educational administrator
How can teachers begin to build positive relationships with their students? It starts with
knowing who their students are (by name) and taking a personal interest in them. It's as
important for teachers to know who they’re teaching as it is to know what they’re teaching how
to teach it. Certainly, an effective teacher should have subject matter knowledge and employ
pedagogical methods that get students interested in the subject matter, but students are also
interested in knowing that their teacher is interested in them.
“People don't care how much you know until they know how much you care.”
—John C. Maxwell, author, The 21 Indispensable Qualities of a Leader
Carl Rogers, an eminent humanistic psychologist, artfully expresses the value of knowing our
students: “I think of it as prizing the learner. It is a caring for the learner. It is an acceptance of
this other individual as a separate person, a respect for him as having worth in his own right”
(Rogers, 1975, p. 107). Said in another way, when students sense that their teacher knows them
and cares about them, they experience personal validation (Rendón, 1994). Once students feel
personally validated, they relate more easily and openly to the teacher, are more comfortable
engaging in class, and are more willing to seek out the teacher’s advice and assistance.
Postsecondary research on underrepresented students indicates that personal validation is a

necessary precondition for engagement— when they feel personally validated, they become
actively engaged in the learning process (Rendón-Linares & Muñoz, 2011).
“Learners may be disengaged because they do not fell emotionally connected with the material, with the teacher, or
both.”
—Vivian Robinson, Student-Centered Leadership
Listed below are specific practices that teachers may use to supply students with a genuine
sense of personal validation.
Make learning students’ names a top priority. Before diving into the first lesson plan of the
term, student-centered teachers begin by making an intentional and effortful attempt to know the
identities of their students. Probably the most effective way to begin build teacher-student
rapport and make a positive first impression on the class is by learning the names of students and
learning their names within the first week of the term.
“You never get a second chance to make a first impression.”
—Will Rogers, famous Native American actor and writer, born in the Cherokee Nation, Indian Territory
(now Oklahoma).
Once students’ names have been learned, the teacher can use this personal connection
knowledge to immediately solicit their engagement in class and send an early message of high
expectations to students from all cultural backgrounds.
“High expectations are communicated as teachers learn students’ names and call on them by name.”
—Donelson Forsyth and James McMillan, in Practical Proposals for Motivating Students
Once students' names have been learned, consistently refer to them by name. Knowing
students’ names is a good thing; letting students know that their names are known is even better.
Whenever a student raises a hand to ask a question or make a contribution, that student should be
called on by name. Consistently referring to students by name has three key benefits: (a) it sends
an ongoing signal to students that their teacher knows them, (b) it reinforces the teacher’s
memory of students’ names, and (c) it helps students learn and remember the names of their
classmates, thus create a stronger sense of class intimacy and community.
Tactfully seek out personal information from students and remember the information they
share. Step one in building rapport with the class is for teacher to know who our students are
(their names); step two is to know something about them. When teachers gain knowledge about
their students, they are better able to connect the subject matter to students’ personal interests
and experiences. As Bryk et al. (2010) note: “A deep understanding of students’ background
represents a powerful resource for teachers as they seek to establish the interpersonal
connections necessary to teach. Good teachers draw on such background knowledge as they
attempt to connect seemingly abstract academic topics to student lives” (p. 58).
One way teachers can gain background knowledge about their students is by having them
complete a “student information sheet” on which they answer questions about their past and
current experiences, their personal interests, talents and values, and their future goals and plans
(Cuseo, 2004). In addition to using this information to relate material taught in class to students’

lives, teachers can use it to initiate informal conversations with students outside of class, which,
in turn, should increase their willingness to engage in class.
The questions included on a student information sheet can also be a valuable tool for helping
teachers identify forms of student diversity that are not visibly detectable (e.g., students’ family
arrangement, current living situation, and special circumstances). Teachers can use this
information to intentionally create diverse learning teams composed of students with different
cultural backgrounds and current life experiences.
PERSONAL INSIGHT
During my first year of teaching, I had an African American student in class by the name of
Lance. I knew he played on our school’s basketball team so I would always ask him something
related to how the team was doing and how his game was going. The third time I asked him a
question about basketball, he said to me: “Why do you always ask me about basketball? You
know, I do other things and have other interests as well.”
Lance’s comment made me aware that I needed to know more about my students before I
could have meaningful interactions with them. So, on the first day of class, I began asking my
students to complete a “student information sheet” that includes questions relating to their
personal backgrounds, current experiences and future plans, as well as their personal talents,
interests and values. While students write their answers on a sheet of paper, I respond to the
same questions by writing my answers on the board. (This allows my students to get to know me
while I get to know them.) I then collect all their information sheets, call out the names
individually, and ask them to raise a hand when their name is called. This gives me the
opportunity to associate their name and face. After I call each student's name, I quickly jot down
a word or two next to the student’s name that I can review later to help me remember that
student’s name, (e.g., something distinctive about the student’s appearance or the specific area of
the room where the student is seated).
I save the students’ information sheets and use the information they shared with me to engage
them in information conversations outside of class. In addition, I review the interests they share
on their sheets and attempt to connect what I’m teaching in class to their personal interests or
goals. I do this by recording the student’s name and strongest interest on a post-it note and stick
it in my class notes next to any topic or concept that may relate to that student's interests or to
something else the student shared on the information sheet. When we get to that topic in class
(which could be months later), I immediately see the student’s names posted by it. As I begin to
discuss the topic, I mention the name of the student in conjunction with the topic (e.g., “Gina,
we’re about to study something that really interests you” or “Paul, I’m sure you can relate to this
topic.”). Students really perk up when I mention their name in association with their topic; plus,
they’re amazed (and touched) by my ability to remember something they shared with me weeks
or months earlier—on the first day of class. Since they’re not aware of my post-it note strategy,
they think I have extraordinary social memory and social sensitivity—which is fine with me
because it increases my rapport with the class and increases their interest in me (and what I’m
teaching them).
—Joe Cuseo
Create opportunities for students to share their cultural background and history. It is
unrealistic to expect a teacher to be able to master curricular-specific knowledge pertaining to
each and every cultural group. A more reasonable expectation is for teachers to learn enough

about their students’ personal backgrounds and current life circumstances to be able to design
classroom learning exercises and homework assignments that relate to their cultural experiences
(Mercado, 2001). As Robinson (2011) points out:
In large multicultural schools, there may be more than fifty different ethnic groups
represented in the student body. Rather than expecting teachers to have curriculum-
relevant knowledge about all such groups, it is more appropriate to focus on the
attitudes and inquiry skills that enable students to learn, in context and as required,
about the how to make effective connections between the curriculum and cultural
knowledge. It is the desire to make such connections and the provision of support for
doing so that are important rather than the transmission of prepackaged information
about students’ cultures (pp. 134-135)
However, teachers cannot make curricular connections with students' cultural experiences
without hearing about those experiences. One of the most important tasks performed teachers is
listening to their students—by listening, teachers exhibit humility and reciprocity—an
understanding of the student's perspective (Parker, 2006).
“Instruction begins when you, the teacher, learn from the learner; put yourself in his place so that you understand what he learns
and the way he understands.”
—Sore Kierkegaard, 19th-century Danish philosopher and theologian
Teachers can listen to their students and gain insight into their cultural experiences and
perspectives is by asking them to write a short, autobiographical story about their personal
journeys. Students are likely to need some structure or scaffolding for this assignment, which
teachers can supply by suggesting that may construct their personal stories around such topics as:
(a) turning points in their life, (b) past experiences that continue to affect their life (positively or
negatively), (c) their future dreams or goals, and (d) their role models or sources of inspiration.
Students may convey their stories in writing, with pictures, via technology, or some combination
thereof. Research shows that when people learn about the personal experiences of individuals
from different cultures (e.g., reading their diary entries), their feelings of “cultural distance” and
prejudice decline, and they become more aware of their shared experiences, interests and
concerns (Jackson & Gefland, 2019).
Teachers should share their personal stories with students. Human relations scholars point
out that when we share ourselves with others, it shows them that we trust them and increases
their trust in us (Adler & Towne, 2014). When teachers share their personal stories, they model
transparency and authenticity; in so doing, it increases the likelihood that students will follow
their example and do the same.
“Educators should be chosen not merely for their special qualifications, but more for their personality and their
character, because we teach more by what we are than by what we teach.”
—Will Durant, Pulitzer Prize and Presidential Medal of Freedom winner, former teacher and principal of a school
for working-class children
By sharing their personal experiences, teachers show students that they are more than teachers
—they are “real” people with whom students can identify and emulate. When teachers engage in

transparent self-disclosure, it increases the likelihood that students will do the same. Such
teacher self-disclosure should include sharing personal struggles and challenges. As Peter Elbow
(1986) eloquently puts it:
We [teachers] should reveal our own position, particularly our doubts, ambivalences,
and biases. We should show we are still learning, still willing to look at things in new
ways, still sometimes uncertain or even stuck. We can increase the chances of our
students being willing to undergo the necessary anxiety involved in change if they see
we are willing to undergo it (p. 150).
Furthermore, when teachers share personal examples and anecdotes from their own life
experiences that relate to the material being taught, it deepens students' learning by providing
them with concrete and poignant “human” examples that can bring academic concepts to life
(literally). Also, by relating academic material to their personal experiences, teachers model a
deep-learning principle that students should apply to their own learning—namely, knowledge is
“constructed” by connecting what you are learning to what you already know or have previously
experienced (Bruner, 1990; David, 2015; Piaget, 1978).
Teachers should make an intentional attempt to interact with students in a personable and
empathic manner. The following practices implement this recommendation:
Greeting students personally when they enter class and when seeing them on campus.
Welcoming back students after a weekend or semester break.
Recognizing the return of an absent student (“Glad to have you back; we missed you.").
Acknowledging the emotions that students exhibit in class (“You seem excited about this
topic.” “I sense that you’re feeling tired, so let’s take a short break.”).
Wishing students luck on upcoming exams and assignments.
Expressing concern to students who are not performing well or seem disengaged
(“Everything okay?” “Anything I can do to help?”).
In a study of close to 1900 different classrooms, it was found that classes exhibiting
substantial year-to-year gains in academic achievement had teachers who were viewed by their
students as personable and empathic. Their students said things like, "My teacher wants us to
share our thoughts" and "My teacher seems to know if something is bothering me" (Ferguson, as
cited in Duckworth, 2016, p. 218).
Teachers should use humor to build rapport with the class. Attempts at humor shouldn't be
viewed as being “unprofessional” or feared as leading “losing control” of the class. Incorporating
content-relevant, socially appropriate humor in the classroom can teacher-student rapport and
facilitate learning (Stambor, 2006). Being funny isn't synonymous with being frivolous. A
humorous anecdote can serve as a very serious and effective strategy for illustrating a concept, or
driving home the point of a lesson. In one carefully controlled study, students were randomly
assigned to learn the same material illustrated with or without humor. Students who experienced
the lesson with humor scored higher on test questions relating to the material taught (Ziv, 1988).
In addition to humorous anecdotes, concept-relevant cartoons can be used to increase student
interest in, attention to, and retention of a concept—by illustrating it visually and evoking an
emotional response to it. Cartoons may be projected before starting a lesson to stimulate

students' anticipatory interest in the upcoming topic, or they may be used to break-up lengthy
teacher presentations and maintain (or regain) students' attention.
Teachers can use student journals to maintain personal connections with students
throughout the term. A journal may be defined as a series of written reflections on, or reactions
to, personal experiences that are continue over an extended period of time (e.g., an academic
term). Student journals could be assigned in either of two formats: (a) “free” journals—in which
students have complete freedom to make journal entries about any personal experience they'd
like, or (b) “prompted” journals—in which students respond in writing to specific, teacher-
posed prompts (e.g., “My first impression of this class is . . . “).
If teachers respond regularly (or even periodically) to student journals, they can engage in
ongoing narrative conversations with students, enabling them to stay "in touch" with their
students and maintain a personal relationship with them throughout the term. These journaling
conversations can take place on paper (e.g., in a composition notebook) or online (e.g., via an e-
journal).
The STUDENT-STUDENT CONNECTION:
Connecting Students with their Classmates and Creating an Inclusive Class
Community
In addition to the student-teacher connection, another relationship that impacts the learning
process is the relationship between and among students. Increasing culturally diverse students’
access to higher education is one thing, but access is not synonymous with inclusion (Jack,
2019); the latter involves intercultural interaction from student from diverse cultural groups. The
classroom should be both student-centered and community-centered—a place where students
share and learn from one another (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000). Classmates can
contribute to each other’s academic success by providing mutual social support, reciprocal
feedback, formal or informal tutoring, or by simply making school a place where students want
to be (Wilkinson et al., 2002). The important role peers can play in promoting student success is
suggested by research that shows when students change schools, the best predictor of their
subsequent academic performance is whether or not they make a friend within the first month at
their new school (Pratt & George, 2005).
The first few days of class can shape students’ first impression of their classmates, which, in
turn, can shape their attitude toward classroom learning. By providing early opportunities for
students to get to know each other and feel comfortable communicating with one another,
teachers create a social environment conducive to engagement and learning.
“Students are likely to learn more from classroom instruction when they feel accepted and valued by their teachers and peers.”
—Cheryl Bernstein Cohen, Teaching about Ethnic Diversity
Moreover, when teachers take time to intentionally promote positive peer relations, they build
a classroom culture in which open and honest discussion of diversity can take place. The power
of multicultural education is more likely to be realized when students experience mutually
supportive interaction with diverse classmates than by listening to teachers lecture about the
benefits of diversity.

Establish an early sense of class community by using icebreaker activities that “warm up”
students to one another. Educational sociologists point out that a classroom of individual
students can and should be transformed into a learning community (Tinto, 1997). Icebreakers
may be viewed as "community builders" that build early connections among learners. To build
an early sense of class community among diverse students, students could be asked to bring to
class an artifact that reflects their culture (e.g., food, clothing, music, art) and share why they
chose it. A community-building exercise such as this can serve as a springboard for launching
students into subsequent discussions of their different backgrounds and cultures.
“The classroom can provide a ‘public place’ where community can be practiced.”
—Susanne Morse, Renewing Civic Capacity: Preparing College Students for Service and Citizenship.
Students might also be asked to create “identity boxes,” in which they bring to class a shoebox
or a box of similar size that’s decorated on the outside with images or words which capture their
cultural experiences. Inside the box, would be objects (or pictures of the objects if they’re too
large to fit into the box) that they believe have shaped their personal identity. Students can share
their boxes with the class as a whole or in small groups, after which they could reflect on the
experience by answering questions such as the following:
• What did you learn about your classmates that you found particularly interesting or
surprising?
• How were your experiences different from your classmates?
• In what way(s) are your classmates’ experiences different from one another?
• How were your experiences similar to your classmates?
• Did you learn anything from this exercise that that changed your views about your
classmates or how you might interact with them? (“Exploring Diversity,” 2019).
When students from a variety of backgrounds get to hear each other’s stories, they gain insight
into differences and similarities in their personal journeys. This helps create a classroom
community in which cultural differences are affirmed and cultural commonalities are
acknowledged—a hallmark of effective multicultural education (National Council for the Social
Studies, 1991).
Another icebreaker exercise that may be used to build an early sense of class community is
the “Classmate Scavenger Hunt” (Metz, Cuseo, & Thompson, 2019). In this procedure, the
teacher gathers information from individual students by asking them to complete a student
information sheet that's completed on the first day of class. Drawing on the information that
students provide on their individual sheets, the teacher constructs a list of statements that
includes one distinctive piece of information about each student in class. Students are given a
copy of this list and asked to mill around the room and find the classmate who “matches” (is
associated with) each personal statement on the list. This exercise ensures that all students in
class get a chance to meet and have an early personal exchange with every one of their
classmates.
Similar to the Classmate Scavenger Hunt, “Diversity Bingo” is another popular icebreaker that
involves giving students a bingo game card containing a grid of squares; within each square is a
statement or question about a particular student in class. Students take their bingo cards, mingle
around the classroom and find the person that matches the statement.

A key advantage of both the Classmate Scavenger Hunt and Diversity Bingo icebreaker is that
all students are involved at all times throughout the entire exercise. Thus, these community-
building experiences implement two key principles of student engagement: (a) “the Simultaneity
Principle: What percentage of our students are overtly active at any one moment?” and (b) “The
Equality Principle: How equal is participation among all students?” (Kagan, 1998, p. 9).
Engaging Students in Small-Group Work
A teacher-centered class becomes a student-centered class when the teacher steps off stage and
students learn together in small groups (2-4 students). The process begins by creating a
classroom learning environment that it is conducive student-student dialogue and collaboration
(Scharf, 2018)—e.g., arranging desks so that students face each other and can engage in knee-to-
knee interaction.
A large body of research indicates that students learn more deeply when their learning takes
place in a social context that involves interpersonal interaction and collaboration (Cuseo, 1996;
2002). As learning scholars put it, human knowledge is “socially constructed”—built up from
interpersonal interaction and dialogue with others (Bruffee, 1993). Brain-imaging studies show
that when learning takes place in the context of social interaction, more parts of the brain
involved with thinking are activated than when learning alone (Carter, 1998). The human brain
may be "hard wired" to learn in a social context because interpersonal interaction and
collaboration have played a critical role in the survival of the human species (e.g., our ancient
ancestors survived by hunting and gathering in groups). Thus, learning in groups is compatible
with the principles of "brain-based" or “brain compatible” learning (Jensen, 1998).
As a general rule, there is an inverse relationship between group size and student participation
—as the size of the group size increases, the amount of participation by individual members of
the group decreases. A group of two is the smallest possible group size; it maximizes face-to-
face interaction and each member’s level of engagement (Cuseo, 2002). As the old adage goes,
“It’s hard to get lost in a group of two.” In addition, pair work has the logistical advantage of
allowing the teacher to form groups quickly. Rather than having students move their desks or
leave their desks, they can simply turn to a classmate seated next to them.
To increase the number and diversity of students with which students have paired interactions,
after a pair of neighboring students interacts for a designated period of time, students seated in
the adjacent row could slide over a seat and pair up with a new student. This practice can be
repeated to create a succession of paired interactions between different students, similar to the
process of "speed dating" or "speed friending." Another way to increase the number and diversity
of paired interactions is a procedure called “Inside/Outside Discussion Circles,” whereby
students stand in two concentric circles; the inside circle faces out and the outside circle faces in.
The teacher poses a question for the students to discuss and all students in the inside circle
respond first, after which students in the outside circle respond to the same question. Once each
partner takes a turn responding to the discussion question, all students in the inside circle move
one step to the right and the two new partners respond to the same question or a different
question (Kagan, 1994).
Since all students working in pairs are engaged by either speaking or listening to their partner,
pair work effectively implements both of the previously mentioned principles of an effective
student-engagement exercise: (a) the "equality principle"—every student in class is equally
engaged, and (b) the "simultaneity principle"—all students are engaged at the same time (Kagan,
1998). In contrast, when a teacher posing a question to the whole class, it engages students

unequally (only one student answers the question) and sequentially (students are called on one at
a time). Moreover, when teachers pose questions to the whole class, research shows that a small
number of students typically raise their hands to volunteer an answer (Karp & Yoels, 1976), and
that those who do are often the most confident and verbally dominant (Boyer, 1987). Those least
likely to respond are (a) students who are most reticent or fearful about speaking in large groups
(Bowers, 1986) and (b) underrepresented students who tend to be less verbally assertive in
classroom settings (Astin et al., 1972; Levitz, 1992). Use of small-group work, particularly pair
work, can address these shortcomings and increase engagement among less dominant students
and students from underrepresented groups.
When to Use Small-Group Work
The positive impact of small-group learning can be infused into the learning process at any of the
following key junctures.
At the start of a lesson—to activate students’ ideas about the upcoming topic. For
instance, students could formulate questions in small groups about the topic to be
covered. Or, students may engage in a group process called “active knowledge sharing,”
in which the teacher provides them with a list of questions relating to the upcoming
lesson (e.g., words to define, historical figures to identify, or a pretest of prior
knowledge). Students then pair-up to answer the questions as best they can, after which
they dialogue with other pairs to share and compare answers.
Students may also be placed in teams to do preliminary work on problems or
assignments that they subsequently complete individually. This practice can supply
students with initial social scaffolding that can support their academic self-confidence
and facilitate their transition to independent work.
During a lesson—to intercept attention loss and interject active learning at key points
during the lesson. For example, after the teacher explains a critical concept, students
work in pairs to compare their notes and generate examples relating to the concept just
discussed. This practice also holds students accountable for taking notes in class because
they know they will be sharing their notes with a classmate (Kagan, 2014).
At the end of a lesson—to create a sense of “closure” (a meaningful ending to the lesson)
and consolidate the key concepts covered during the lesson. For instance, the lesson ends
with a small-group task that involves students working in pairs to check each other’s
notes for accuracy and completeness.
Strategies for Enhancing the Quality of Small-Group Work
The depth and impact of small-group learning experiences may be magnified by use of the
following practices.
Before students are asked to share their thoughts with the group, give them time to gather
their thoughts individually. This recommended can be implemented through use of a popular
procedure known as think-pair-share (Lyman, 1992), which allots students a certain amount of
think time to gather their thoughts individually (and silently), after which they join a partner to
share their thoughts verbally. Providing students with personal reflection time prior to group

discussion encourages them to think carefully what they’re going to say before saying it, which
serves to improve the quality of the subsequent contributions they make to the discussion. It also
increases the likelihood that shy or verbally apprehensive students will share their ideas.
Research shows that students who are apprehensive about communicating in classroom settings
are more likely to participate in class discussions if they’re given time to think about what
they’re going to say before being asked to say it (Neer, 1987).
Notify students that any member of their group may be called on to report the group’s
ideas. This practice provides a strong incentive for students to listen actively to the ideas shared
by their teammates because they may be called on by the teacher to report their team's ideas. It
also sends the class a message that their teacher holds high expectations for participation by all
students, including students from minority groups.
Have groups keep a visible record of the ideas they generate. Provide each group with a flip
chart or blank sheets on which their ideas can be recorded or projected (e.g., on an Elmo
projector or document camera). Students are more likely to remain "on task” during a group
discussion if they know they will be held accountable for creating a concrete "product" of their
collective thinking that will be displayed publicly.
Small groups may also be asked to come to the front of class to share their work as a panel.
In addition to holding students accountable for their work, this practice can also help reduce
students’ fear of public speaking because it allows them the opportunity to speak as a panelist
among and along with teammates—a much less threatening form of public speaking than
delivering a stand-up, stand-alone speech.
Intentionally form discussion groups composed of students from diverse backgrounds.
According to the social constructivist theory of human learning, our thinking consists largely of
“internal” (mental) representations of conversations we’ve had with other people (Vygotsky,
1978). If these conversations take place among people of diverse backgrounds, their thinking
becomes more diversified, nuanced, and complex.
By intentionally forming learning groups composed of students from different cultural
backgrounds, teachers can give students greater exposure to diverse perspectives. Such
heterogeneity not only diversifies the group and makes it more inclusive, it also deepens the
group's learning enabling its members to gain access to a greater variety of perspectives—which
implements two long-standing instructional recommendations for promoting critical thinking and
attitude change: (a) teachers should give students opportunities to “collaborate and ‘stretch’ their
understanding by encountering divergent views” (Kurfiss, 1988, p. 2) and (b) teachers should
intentionally create an “atmosphere of disequilibrium [cognitive dissonance created by
encountering the unfamiliar] so that students can change, rework, or reconstruct their thinking
processes” (Meyers, 1986, p. 14). A large-scale educational program explicitly designed to
generate cognitive dissonance (disequilibrium) in students' minds was conducted by having them
engage in teacher-guided dialogue with peers holding conflicting perspectives. Research on this
program revealed that it produced a large effect size (.60+) on students' cognitive development—
equivalent to more than a full-year gain in intellectual growth (Shayer, 2003).
When forming learning teams with students from different cultural backgrounds, if the class
contains only a small number of students from a particular cultural group, avoid forming teams

in such a way that only one of a minority group is represented on the team (Rosser, 1988). For
instance, if there are four students of color in class, it may be tempting for the teacher to place
each of these students in a different learning group so a student of color is represented in as many
groups as possible. Instead, these four students should be placed in only two groups, one pair per
group. In subsequent small-group discussions, groups could be intentionally reconstructed so that
white students who were not exposed to the perspective of students’ of color in their previous
small-group discussion are exposed to students of color in their new group.
When at least two members of a minority group are represented on the same learning team,
each minority-group member is likely to feel more comfortable expressing his or her minority
experiences and perspectives. Having more than one minority student in each learning group also
combats tokenism—a disingenuous and superficial attempt to appear inclusive (Linkov, 2014)—
by relying on a single member to represent his or her entire minority group. Tokenism can be
minimized by ensuring that a "critical mass" of 20-33% of minority students is represented in
any group (Kanter, 1977; Howard, 2006). In addition to combating tokenism, including a critical
mass of minority students in learning groups also allows majority-group members to interact
with different individuals from the same minority group, which can combat overgeneralizations
and stereotyping (Smith, 2015).
In addition to infusing racial and cultural diversity into learning groups, infusing gender
diversity can expose students to different ways of learning and understanding concepts.
Studies show that males are more likely to be “separate knowers”—tending to “detach”
themselves from the concept or issue being discussed so they can analyze it. In contrast,
females are more likely to be “connected knowers”—tending to relate personally to the
concepts and connect it with their own experiences and the experiences of others. For
example, when interpreting a poem, males are more likely to ask: “What techniques can I
use to analyze it?” In contrast, females are more likely to ask: “What is the poet trying to say
to me?” (Belenky et al., 1986). It has also been found that during group discussions females
are more likely to work collaboratively, sharing their ideas with other group members and
soliciting ideas from them. In contrast, males are more likely to adopt a competitive
approach and debate or disagree with the ideas of others (Magolda, 1992). Consistent with
these findings are studies of females in leadership positions, which reveal that women are
more likely to adopt a collaborative style of leadership than men (Eagly & Johnson, 1990;
van Engen & Willemsen, 2004). Although these approaches are different, they both have
their merits. Teachers can help students capitalize on the merits of both approaches by
forming gender-diverse learning teams and discussion groups.
Establish ground rules for small-group discussions that ensure underrepresented students
have an equal opportunity to participate. One strategy for ensuring equal participation among
all group members is a procedure called “Talking Chips” (Kagan, 1992). This practice consists
of four steps:
1. Each group member is given a symbolic “talking chip” (e.g., a checker, coin, or
playing card).
2. Members are instructed to place the chip in the center of the team’s workspace when
they make a personal verbal contribution to the team’s discussion.
3. Members can speak in any order, but cannot speak again until all chips are in the
center—indicating that every group member has spoken.
4. After all chips have been placed in the center, group members retrieve their respective

chips for another round of discussion—which follows the same rules of equal
participation as the initial round.
By structuring turn-taking with procedures like this, teachers ensure that all group members
participate equally in group work and experience its benefits. Structured turn-taking also
minimizes the risk of groups being victimized by the “cascade effect”—the tendency of the
group discussion to be unduly influenced by the person who speaks first and before others have
had the opportunity to share their independent thoughts (Sunstein & Hastie, 2015). Failure to
build equal-participation practices into group work can also result in highly assertive,
academically self-confident students doing most (if not all) of the talking. Since these students
are less likely to be members of underserved student populations, small-group work is more
likely to have the exact opposite effect on educational equity than what the teacher intended—as
Kagan (2014) notes: "When we use unstructured pair and group interaction, inadvertently, we
increase the achievement gap" (p. 125).
Have learning teams with diverse membership identify both differences and commonalities
in their experiences and perspectives. A key advantage of forming diverse learning groups is
that they can sharpen students' awareness and appreciation of cultural differences. However,
calling attention to cross-cultural differences shouldn't come at the expense of overlooking or
disregarding cross-cultural commonalities. If students are not mindful of the unity that co-exists
along with their diversity, discussions of group differences can inadvertently magnify feelings of
intergroup divisiveness or separatism (Thompson & Cuseo, 2014). In fact, research suggests that
when diversity discussions focus exclusively on intergroup differences, members of
disenfranchised groups can experience a heightened sense of isolation and alienation (Smith,
1997, 2015). To reduce the risk of this happening during group discussions of diversity, students
should be directed to discuss not only what differentiates their cultural groups, but also what
unites them—common cultural denominators and themes of cross-cultural unity that traverse or
transcend diversity. One way to do so is by asking students to be mindful of universal
experiences that unite all cultural groups under the single umbrella of humanity.
For instance,
while discussing cultural differences, students could be asked to identify (a) common elements or
components of all cultures, (b) common needs of all humans (e.g., Maslow's need hierarchy),
or (c) common dimensions of the self and self-development experienced by individuals in all
cultures (e.g., see box below). Students can also explore their
shared experiences as citizens of the
same country, persons of the same gender, or members of the same generation.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Dimensions of the Self and Self-Development Common to People of All Cultures
1. Intellectual Self: acquiring knowledge, learning how to learn, and developing thinking skills.
2. Emotional Self: understanding, managing, and expressing emotions.
3. Social Self: forming interpersonal relationships.
4. Ethical Self: developing moral character—making sound ethical judgments, acquiring a
value system for guiding personal decision-making, and connecting convictions (beliefs) with
commitments (actions).
5. Physical Self: gaining knowledge about one's body and applying that knowledge to prevent
disease and promote wellness.
6. Spiritual Self: pondering the “big questions”, such as the meaning and purpose of life, the
inevitability of death, and the origins of human life and the universe.

7. Vocational Self: engaging in work and earning an income.
8. Personal Development: developing one's personal identity, a sense of self-efficacy,
and the capacity to effectively manage personal resources (e.g., time and money).
“Everyone is a house with four rooms: a physical, a mental, an emotional, and a spiritual. Most of us tend to live in
one room most of the time but unless we go into every room every day, even if only to keep it aired, we are not
complete.”
—Native American proverb
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Each person has multiple group identities that often overlap and intersect (Carter, 2008;
Dill & Zambrana, 2009).
For instance, students
may be members of different groups with
respect to one characteristic (e.g., being white or a person of color group) while sharing
membership in another group (e.g., being a white females and a female of color).
Research
indicates that w
hen members of different racial or cultural groups are aware of their shared
membership in another group,
they are more likely to have
positive interpersonal interactions
(Bigler & Hughes, 2009; Gurin, Nagda, &
Zúñiga
, 2013; Stephan & Stephan, 2004).
As
Banks (2016)
T
eachers can capitalize on this finding by creating learning teams composed of students
that have both different and shared group memberships. For example,
forming discussion
groups among students of the same gender, but differ with respect to race, ethnicity, or
socioeconomic status. This team-formation strategy serves to increases student awareness that
members of different groups can, at the same time, be members of the same group—with similar
experiences, needs, and concerns. Banks (2016) points out how this group-formation practice can
combat prejudice: “Making crosscutting group memberships salient can reduce prejudice
because it is hard to dislike people with whom you share important aspects of your identity” (p.
303).
“Students should learn about the self and the other. They should experience people and events with whom they can
identify and others with whom they may not identify at first glance.”
—James Banks, in Cultural Diversity and Education
Taking time during diversity discussions to raise awareness of what different groups share
in common helps defuse feelings of divisiveness and supplies students with a unified
foundation on which open and honest discussions of diversity can be built. Naturally, raising
awareness of this sense of unity shouldn’t come at the expense of diminishing or dismissing
awareness of intergroup differences. Studies show that if members of a minority group have
a strong or salient sense of group identity, and their identity is minimized by members of the
majority group, it sharpens the minority group's sense of separateness or isolation and
heightens intergroup tension (Brewer, 2000; Crisp, Stone, & Hall, 2006; Hewstone, Rubin,
& Willis, 2002).
To ensure that students from diverse groups remain cognizant of both their differences and
commonalities during group discussions, teachers may ask them to keep the following questions
in mind during their group discussions:
What major similarities in viewpoints did all group members share? (What were the
common themes?)
What major differences of opinion were expressed by diverse members of our group?
(What were the variations on the themes?)

Were there particular topics or issues raised during the discussion that provoked intense
reactions or emotional responses from different members of our group?
Did the group discussion lead any members of our group to change their mind about an
idea or position they originally held?
Building in time after group discussions for students to reflect about instances of diversity and
unity that emerged during the discussion serves to implement one standard for effective
multicultural education identified by the National Council for the Social Studies: “Does the
curriculum help students participate in cross-ethnic and cross-cultural experiences and reflect
upon them?” (1991, p. 39).
Following their personal post-discussion reflections, members of the discussion groups could
share their individual reflections with other group members, after which a representative from
each discussion group could be asked to join a panel and report their group’s ideas to the whole
class. The teacher could follow the panel discussion with a synthesis that highlights the key
aspects of diversity and patterns of unity that emerged across groups.
Diversity education stimulates student awareness of differences between groups and unity
across groups.
Small-group work should be structured so that students have opportunities to advance
beyond discussion to collaboration. In a discussion group, individual members simply share
their different ideas. The etymology of the word, "discuss" means to break apart and scatter,
stemming from the same root as the words "divide" and "disperse." In contrast, members of a
collaborative group “co-labor” (work together) to reach a common goal. Collaborative learning
groups do not simply share their ideas with one another; they go a step further to reach
consensus or make a unified group decision about the ideas they generate (Abercrombie, 1960;
Wiener, 1986).
The instructional key that turns a discussion group into a collaborative learning group is the
teacher's inclusion of an action verb in the instructions given students, which directs them to take
some interdependent action on the ideas that individual members generate. For example, rather
than simply asking students to “list” their ideas, students might be asked to categorize or
prioritize their ideas—which requires group members to reach a collective decision about what
categories should be used to classify their ideas or what rank order should be used to prioritize
their ideas.
Research from kindergarten through college indicates that when students work
interdependently in this fashion, their academic performance and interpersonal skills are
strengthened (Cuseo, 1996). Research also indicates and when members of different racial
groups work collaboratively toward the same goal, racial prejudice decreases and interracial
friendships increase (Allport, 1954, 1979; Amir, 1969, 1976; Brown et al., 2003; Dovidio, Eller,
& Hewstone, 2011; Pettigrew & Tropp, 2000). These positive outcomes may be explained, in
part, by the fact that when individuals from diverse racial and ethnic groups come together as
members of the same team in pursuit of the same goal, nobody is a member of an “out” group
(“them”); instead, everyone is a member of the same “in” group (“us”) (Pratto et al., 2000;
Sidanius et al., 2000). The box below contains more detailed information about forming diverse
and effective collaborative-learning teams.
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Tips for Teamwork: Creating Diverse & Effective Collaborative-Learning Teams
1. Intentionally form learning teams of students with different cultural backgrounds and
life experiences. When students team up with friends or classmates whose backgrounds and
experiences are similar to their own, it can actually interfere with the quality of their work
because like-minded teammates are more likely to get “off task” and onto topics that have
nothing to do with the learning task (e.g., what they did last weekend or what they’re planning to
do next weekend).
“In life, we can’t always work with others who are like-minded, nor should we want that as our goal because it
limits the learning potential of the situation.”
—Peter DeWitt, in School Climate: Leading with Collective Efficacy
2. Students should be given some time to interact informally with their teammates before
launching into the group task. By allowing groups some social “warm up” time prior to their
collaborative work (e.g., to be sure they know each other’s names and learn something about one
another), it increases their sense of team identity and their comfort level about expressing their
ideas. Creating an early foundation of familiarity and trust among group members is particularly
important for learning teams composed of students from diverse (and unfamiliar) cultural
backgrounds.
3. The group’s work should focus on completing and submitting a single work product.
When the group’s work is captured in the same “team product” (e.g., the same answer sheet,
outline, or concept map), it serves to highlight the team’s collaborative effort and collective
achievement. Knowing that they will be creating and submitting a common final product also
helps group members to keep thinking in terms of “we” (not “me”) and moving together in the
same direction toward the same goal.
4. Group members should work interdependently—they should depend on one another to
reach their common goal (their final work product) and all members should have equal
opportunity to, and responsibility for, making an indispensable contribution to reaching
the team’s goal. Each teammate should contribute something distinctive and essential to
completion of the team’s end product, such as contributing a: (a) distinctive piece of information
(e.g., a specific chapter from the textbook or a particular section of class notes), (b) a particular
form of thinking (e.g., analysis, synthesis, or application), or (c) a different perspective (e.g.,
national, international, or global). Said in another way, each group member should bring an
important piece or part needed to completes the whole puzzle (final work product).
In addition to making a key cognitive contribution to the team produce, each member of the
team could take on a distinctive social role, such as:
* manager—whose role is to assure that the team stays on track, on time, and is making
progress toward reaching its goal;
* moderator—whose role is to ensure that all teammates are being given an equal
opportunity to participate and contribute;
* devil’s advocate (a.k.a. critical friend): whose role is to identify limitations or
oversights in the team’s work;
* recorder—whose role is to keep track of the team's ideas (in writing);

* reporter—whose role is to report out the team’s work to the teacher or other student groups.
5. After group members complete their work, they should reflect on the experience. The final step in
any learning process, whether it be learning from a lecture or learning from a group work, is to step back
from the process and thoughtfully review it. As previously mentioned, deep learning requires effortful
action (engagement) and thoughtful reflection on that action (Bligh, 2000; Roediger, Dudai, &
Fitzpatrick, 2007). Students can engage in meaningful reflection on their group-learning experiences,
including their learning experiences in diverse groups, by responding to teacher-posed questions that
prompt them to process the ideas shared by members of their group and the impact those ideas had on
them.
When interaction among people from diverse groups takes place under the five foregoing
conditions, group work is transformed into teamwork. Furthermore, research shows that when
these conditions are met, it results in two positive educational outcomes: (a) learning and
thinking are strengthened, and (b) bias and prejudice are weakened (Allport, 1979; Amir, 1969;
Aronson, Wilson, & Akert, 2013; Cook, 1984; Sherif et al., 1961).
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
To maximize the power of collaborative group work, implement the procedural principles
of cooperative learning. Cooperative learning may be defined as a structured form of
collaborative learning in which members of a learning team are intentionally assigned tasks or
roles that they perform individually, thus ensuring individual accountability. However, the roles
are also interdependent, requiring individual members to rely on one another in the process of
working toward a common goal (e.g., an integrated work product), thus ensuring collective
responsibility (Johnson & Johnson, 1989; Slavin, 1990). In a national study of K-12 teachers,
one distinguishing characteristic of teachers whose students exhibited the greatest gains in
academic achievement was their use of cooperative learning procedures that were designed with
these two principles in mind (Dean et al., 2012; Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001).
More specifically, cooperative learning is a methodology designed to maximize the
educational impact of collaborative group work by infusing it with the following seven
procedural features (Cuseo, 1992:
1. Intentional team formation—rather than letting students self-select their groups or
assigning students to group randomly, the teacher forms group intentionally with
a particular educational objective in mind (e.g., students from diverse backgrounds are
placed on the same team to foster student appreciation of multicultural perspectives).
2. Intentional team building—prior to engaging in the work task, group members engage
in an icebreaker activity that gives them the opportunity to “warm up” to one another
and build team spirit.
3. Explicit instruction on collaboration and teamwork—before beginning group work,
students are given specific instruction on how to collaborate and work effectively in
teams (e.g., how to engage in mutually supportive behavior, disagree constructively,
resolve conflicts amicably, and reach consensus successfully).

4. Positive interdependence among team members (collective responsibility)—the group
task is structured to that students depend on one another for tackling different pieces of
the total task, and when the pieces are integrated, it results in the formation of
completion of single, jointly-created product.
5. Individual accountability (personal responsibility)—the task is structured so that as
each member makes a distinctive contribution to the group's work product, and if that
contribution isn't made, its absence is clearly identifiable as is the group member's lack
of accountability (akin to a missing piece in a puzzle).
6. The teacher assumes an active role during the group task, serving as a roving coach
and consultant, circulating among teams to troubleshoot problems, encourage
collective effort, and recognize students for exemplary teamwork.
7. After completing the group task, members “process” their work, reflecting on the
quality of their collective work as a team, the quality of their personal contributions to
the team (self-assessment), and the contributions of their teammates (peer assessment).
Research consistently shows that when the foregoing features of cooperative learning are
implemented with fidelity, students experience significant gains in cognitive, social, and
emotional development that exceed those produced by instructional methods that emphasize
individualistic learning or competitive learning (Hattie, 2012; Johnson & Johnson, 1989; Slavin,
1990; Slavin, & Madden, 2001). Cooperative learning methods have particularly positive impact
on the academic achievement of Hispanic and African-American students (Aronson & Gonzalez,
1988; Posner & Markstein, 1994; Slavin, 2012). Research also indicates that when African-
American, Mexican-American, and white students work together in cooperative learning teams,
they develop more positive attitudes toward other racial groups and are more likely to develop
interracial friendships (Banks, 2016). Thus, cooperative learning may be viewed an instructional
practice that effectively converts student diversity into a social resource for multicultural
education (Gorski, 1995-2019).
Consider This . . .
When teachers create cooperative learning teams composed of students from different cultural
backgrounds, they create opportunities for students to learn from and appreciate diversity within
the context of a small, mutually supportive group of peers working interdependently toward a
common goal.
THE STUDENT-SUBJECT CONNECTION:
Connecting Students with the Subject Matter through Engaging Teaching
Strategies
Effective teachers spend less time telling (or showing) students what they know and more time
on connecting students with the subject matter being taught. Deep learning doesn't take place
through a process of osmo
sis whereby students simply and passively soak up and store
information in their brain in the exact the same form as it appears in a textbook or in a teacher's
presentation. Instead, deep and meaningful learning takes place when students actively engage
with the subject matter and connect it to what they already know or have previously
experienced (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000; Mayer, 2002; Nuthall, 2000).
Effective,
culturally competent teaching capitalizes on students' cultural backgrounds and current life

experiences to bridge the gap between the unfamiliar—the material students are expected to
learn and the familiar—the prior knowledge they already possess (Gay, 2010; Ladson-Billings,
2009).
“They [students] are much less motivated by classes where they are cast in the role of passive recipients of
knowledge to be delivered by the teacher.”
—Anthony Bryk, in Organizing Schools for Improvement
Deep learning is not a passive process of information transmission from teacher to students, but a
process of active transformation of information into knowledge on the part of the learners—who
"construct" knowledge by building it onto what they already know.
Motivational Strategies for Engaging Students with the Subject Matter
Motivation is a prerequisite or necessary pre-condition for student engagement and deep
learning; without motivation, students will neither engage actively nor learn deeply. As Stanford
Ericksen puts it in The Essence of Good Teaching: “In whatever instructional setting, the first
charge of the teacher is to get and to hold the attention of students because interest (motivation)
is a prerequisite condition for effective learning” (1984, p. 39). High-impact teachers strive to
make their classes interesting because they know that capturing student interest captures their
attention--the critical first step in the learning process. The need to capture increase students’
interest in material they're expected to learn is strongly suggested by a Gallup poll that surveyed
over 900,000 5th- through 12th-grade students which revealed that only 43 percent of the
students agreed with the statement: “In the last sent days, I have learned something interesting at
school” (Gallup, 2016).
The following instructional strategies may be used to engage students' attention by stimulating
their interest in the subject matter and their intrinsic motivation—“the drive to do something
because it is interesting, challenging, and absorbing” (Pink, 2009, p. 246).
Before launching into the lesson, take time to highlight why the lesson is worth learning.
Educators cannot assume that students will automatically appreciate the purpose or value of
academic learning. Instead, the relevance or usefulness of academic subject matter should be
articulated intentionally and proactively. If students see the importance or significance of what
they are learning, they're more likely to invest time and effort to learn it. Classroom-based
research repeatedly shows that students’ academic motivation, depth of thinking, and educational
achievement increase significantly when teachers make intentional efforts to increase their
awareness of the relevance or usefulness of academic concepts presented to them in class, in the
textbook they're required to read, and in the homework they're expected to complete (Hulleman
& Harackiewicz, 2009; Hyungshim, 2008; Roueche & Comstock, 1981). This relationship holds
true for all students, but is particularly true for minority students (Winkelmes, 2013). As Amy
Scharf notes in Critical Practices for Anti-bias Education: “Students should consider why the
texts are important, not just what they mean. What does this material have to do with their lives?
How does it help them understand their families or communities? How does their learning
connect to events in the news? And how can they use it to take action” (2018, p. 6).
Author's Experience
One of the first courses I taught was a course on educational psychology taken by students in a
teacher-education program. I was about to begin a unit on child development and announced to

the class that the first topic would focus on children's imitation behavior. As soon as I made that
announcement, one student raised his hand and said: "So kids imitate. So what?" I never forgot
that student's comment and referred to it thereafter as the "So What" Question. Throughout the
remaining years of my teaching career, I always kept that question came in mind whenever I
introduced a new topic in class. That student's "so what" question made me aware that before I
attempted to teach anything, I needed to be sure my students knew why it was worth learning.
Joe Cuseo
Identify student-centered learning outcomes at the beginning of an instructional unit.
Research on effective classroom instruction reveals that this specific classroom practice is
associated with greater gains in student achievement (Dean et al., 2012; Marzano, Pickering, &
Pollock, 2001). Articulating learning goals at the outset of a lesson increases students' motivation
by enabling them to see the point of what they're about to learn, creating a positive anticipatory
mindset (Ginsberg & Wlodkowski, 2009).
Illustrate academic concepts and principles with examples from popular media (TV,
movies, etc.). Students could be asked to identify their favorite programs or movies, or what they
like to read (either online or in print). This information might then be used to connect academic
concepts to ideas they are currently experiencing. Popular media may also be used to motivate
and engage students in diversity-related topics; for example, students could write letters of
protest to popular media outlets that they think are promoting racial or cultural stereotypes.
Be on the lookout for newsworthy events occurring at school and in the local community
that relate to concepts being covered in class (e.g. events reported in the local or school
newspaper). Headlines and stories from the daily newspaper relating to the day’s lesson could
be conveniently projected through a document camera (a.k.a. ELMO). Using late-breaking,
news-making information in class serves to highlight the contemporary relevance of academic
subjects. It also models for students the value of keeping up with current events and connecting
what their learning in school to life in the "real world.”
When presenting concepts in class, ask students to provide examples from their own
experiences, or ask them to apply the concepts to situations or scenarios that are currently
taking place in their life. For example, students could be asked: “How might you apply this idea
to what your personal experiences in school, at home, or in your local community?"
As topics in the curriculum, pay close attention to the ideas that students share, the
comments they make, the questions they ask, and what they choose to write about in their
papers or journals. Questions that students raise in class and topics they elect to write about
may be tracked in a “teaching journal,” which teachers can periodically review to detect
recurrent themes pointing to ideas, issues, and examples that frequently stimulate student interest
and motivation. What students choose to talk about or write about can help teachers identify
relevant examples and illustrations that they can use in future lessons (e.g., as focal points for
class discussions).
After finishing a class topic or instructional unit, seek feedback from students about its
perceived relevance or usefulness. For instance, students could be asked: "In what ways (if

any) did you see the ideas discussed in this unit relating to, or being relevant to your life, either
currently or in the future?
At the start of a lesson, present an attention-grabbing prompt to ignite student interest in
the upcoming topic. An evocative stimulus can generate student motivation at the outset of a
new unit of instruction by creating a positive “anticipatory set”—a state of heightened curiosity
and sense of positive anticipation about the upcoming learning experience (Hunter, 1994). The
following prompts may be used for this purpose:
a powerful picture or image (e.g., a hate crime)
an intriguing artifact (e.g., a relevant historical or cultural object)
 a thought-provoking quote (e.g., a “classic quote” chosen from a famous or influential
person)
a provocative passage (e.g., a poignant paragraph or short poem)
an engaging video vignette (e.g., from a popular movie)
a topic-relevant cartoon (e.g., one that visually depicts and drives home a point about the
upcoming topic).
An added educational advantage of using a visual stimulus to stimulate student interest is that
it enhances student retention of the concept associated with the image. Studies show that
concepts presented verbally are better remembered if they are accompanied by a visual image
(Paivio, 1990). It has also been found that one of the characteristics of K-12 teachers who
generate the greatest gains in student achievement is that they make frequent use of
“nonlinguistic representations”—visual representations of concepts taught in class (Dean, 2012;
Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2001).
The power of visual learning and visual memory is likely rooted in the critical role vision once
played in the early survival of the human species. Our distant ancestors could neither read nor
write; to survive, they had to rely on nonverbal (visual) cues to learn and remember where food
and shelter were located. Since the human species' has such a long history of relying on the sense
or survival, the human brain may be naturally predisposed or "hard wired" to learn and retain
visual information (Milner & Goodale, 1998). This may account for why it's so common to hear
humans say: "I have a great memory for faces, but not for names." (The former involves visual
memory; the latter requires verbal memory.)
Confront students with paradoxes, incongruities, controversial ideas, and counterintuitive
findings that can create a sense of surprise or incredulity. For example, a lesson on diversity
could be started with a paradoxical quote such as: “We are all the same, and we are all unique”
(Georgia Dunston, African-American biologist), or: “Every human is, at the same time, like all
other humans, like some humans, and like no other human” (Clyde Kluckholn, anthropologist).
Erickson and Strommer report that highly engaging teacher presentations: “Open with a
problem, question, quandary, or dilemma. Or they start with something students take for granted
and confront them with information or observations indicating things are not so obvious or
certain as they initially appear. Or they present a list of incongruous facts or statistics and ask,
‘How can this be’?” (1991, p. 98).
End class sessions with an unanswered question, unresolved issue, or dilemma that build
student curiosity about and anticipatory interest in the next class session. This instructional

strategy can whet student interest in learning the same way that a TV program ends an episode
with an uncertain ending to motivate viewers to tune into the next episode.
Change it up: expose students to a variety of instructional methods and classroom learning
experiences. Student motivation for, and attention to, information presented in class can be
enhanced by using:
(a) different instructional formats—alternating teacher presentations with: whole-class
discussions, small-group work, paired peer interactions, self-reflection exercises, cases, role
plays, simulations, panels, or guest speakers;
(b) different instructional modalities and media—accompanying verbal information with visual
images (e.g., pictures and photos), visual movement (e.g., short films or YouTube videos), and
kinesthetic ("hands-on") experiences (e.g., manipulating objects, building models, or using
technology).
Studies show that variations in sensory experiences combat attention loss that typically takes
place when we are repeatedly exposed to the same stimulus conditions over an extended period
of time (Bunzeck & Duzel, 2006). Periodic changes in learning formats and modalities supply a
variety of sensory experiences in the classroom, which helps maintain students' attention that
otherwise would be lost if they were repeatedly exposed to the same instructional routine.
Diversifying instructional methods and formats also enables teachers to accommodate
individual differences in the way students prefer to learning that is consistent with the principle
of “differentiated instruction” (Tomlinson, 1999)--an instructional strategy designed to increase
the academic success of culturally diverse students (Hitchcock et al., 2002). It's unrealistic or
impossible for teachers to accommodate the learning preferences of all students at all times;
however, if teachers are mindful about periodically varying or rotating instructional formats
(e.g., individualized and collaborative learning) and sensory modalities (e.g., aural and visual),
then students with different learning preferences will at least periodically experience an
instructional format that most closely aligns their preferred way to learn (Erickson, Peters, &
Strommer, 2006).
“Differentiated instruction actively honors and addresses student diversity . . . and highlights diversity as a positive
aspect of the learning process.”
—Critical Practices for Anti-bias Education, Southern Poverty Law Center
Some educational research suggests that students from different cultural groups favor different
approaches to learning and different instructional methods (Gay, 2010; Valenzuela, 1999). Thus,
another potential advantage of varying learning modalities and instructional formats is that it
may be one way to put “equity pedagogy” into practice (Banks, 2016).
Give students opportunities to make educational choices. When students are allowed to make
their own choices, it gives them some sense of autonomy and personal ownership of the learning
process, increasing their intrinsic motivation to learn (Pink, 2009; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Thus,
whenever possible, students should be granted decision-making opportunities about what they
will learn and how they will learn it. For instance, students could be given a “menu” of topics
from which they may choose a topic to read or write about. If members of different cultural
groups happen to opt for the same topic, they could be grouped into diversified learning teams
unified by a common learning interest. This practice is has been found to promote gains in
learning and critical thinking, while reducing prejudice and stereotyping.

Engaging Pedagogy: Active Learning Strategies
Culturally inclusive teachers use student-centered teaching methods that give students from all
sociocultural backgrounds equal opportunity to become actively engaged in the learning process.
Research consistently shows that when students are exposed to engaging pedagogy in the
classroom, they learn more deeply and make more significant gains in academic achievement
(Creekmore & Deaton, 2015; Mayhew et al., 2016). This is particularly true for students from
ethnic minority groups (Wiggan, 2008). Engaging teaching methods promote deeper learning by
implementing two powerful learning principles: (a) “time on task (McLeod, Fisher, & Hoover,
2003) and (b) active involvement (Astin, 1984; 1993). These principles stipulate that the more
time and energy, respectively, which students invest in the learning process, the more learning
takes place.
“If our goal is understanding and retention, we need to stop talking frequently and let students talk. We need to
include the chew as well as the gum.”
—Dr. Spencer Kagan, internationally renowned educational and psychologist
Engaging pedagogy is also an effective vehicle through which to achieve one of the most
important outcomes of multicultural education: developing positive student attitudes toward, and
appreciation of, human diversity. Research has repeatedly shown that class lectures (teacher
presentations) are not the most effective way to influence student attitudes and viewpoints. After
reviewing over 100 years of research on the effectiveness of different instructional methods for
promoting attitude change, Bligh (2000) reached the following conclusion: “Lectures are
relatively ineffective for teaching values associated with subject matter. Sermons rarely convince
agnostics, but they give solidarity to the faithful. Similarly, lectures are ineffective in changing
people’s values, but they may reinforce those that are already accepted” (p. 12).
Not only is overreliance on teacher-centered presentations or lectures effective for changing
student attitudes toward diversity, it also fails to model the democratic process in the classroom.
A class may be viewed as a community composed of followers (students) and a leader (teacher).
It has been argued by prominent educational scholars and multicultural advocates that a teacher
who relies heavily on the lecture method is comparable to an autocratic political leader who
relegates citizens (students) to a non-participatory role in the democratic process (learning). The
famous Brazilian educator, Paulo Freire, make this point poignantly in his classic work,
Pedagogy of the Oppressed:
Narration (with the teacher as narrator) leads the students to memorize mechanically
the narrated content. Worse yet, it turns them into ‘containers,’ into ‘receptacles’ to be
“filled” by the teacher. The more completely [s]he fills the receptacles, the better a
teacher [s]he is. The more meekly the receptacles permit themselves to be filled, the
better students they are. Education thus becomes an act of depositing, in which the
students are to memorize mechanically the narrated content. This is the ‘banking’ concept of
education, in which the scope of action allowed to the students extends only as far as
receiving, filing, and storing the deposits. The banking concept maintains attitudes and
practices, which mirror oppressive society as a whole: the teacher is the subject of the
learning process, while the pupils are mere objects (1970, pp. 71-73).

“Genuine anti-bias education challenges . . . ‘banking education’. Rather than assuming teachings hold all the
knowledge, an anti-bias approach prioritizes critical student engagement, analysis and voice.”
—Critical Practices for Anti-bias Education, Southern Poverty Law Center
Similarly, African-American author and educator, bell hooks (a.k.a. Gloria Jean Watkins)
argues that when teachers use engaging, student-centered pedagogy they are practicing
"liberating pedagogy." As she puts it: “Our educational institutions are so deeply invested in the
banking system, engaged [pedagogy] is a great way to talk about liberatory classroom practice”
(Teaching to Transgress: Education as the Practice of Freedom, 1994, p. 5).
“Democracy and freedom ought to be both the end result of education as well as the means through which
education
takes place.”
—Dana Bennis & Isaac Graves, Democratic Education
Engaging teaching practices implement principles of both democratic education and
culturally-inclusive pedagogy by empowering students to: (a) play an active and participative
role in the learning process, (b) take personal ownership and responsibility for their own
learning, (c) engage in interaction with members of diverse groups, and (d) contribute to the
learning of other students (Curren, 2007; Gutmann, 1999).
The following research-based instructional practices serve to actively engage students in the
classroom and enable them to play a more central and responsible role in the learning process. In
so doing, these practices enact the principles of democratic, student-centered teaching.
Intersperse teacher-centered presentations with thought-provoking questions that elicit
student involvement. One distinguishing characteristic of teachers whose students make
significant gains in academic achievement is that they frequently ask students questions in class
(Rosenshine, 1971; Rosenshine, 2012). Additional studies show that when students are asked and
respond to questions about ideas a teacher presents in class, the more likely they are to retain
those ideas than are students who simply listen to the teacher's presentation (Karpicke &
Roediger, 2007, 2008; Ruhl, Hughes, & Schloss, 1987). These findings strongly suggest that a
lesson plan which calls include a formal teacher presentation should be accompanied by
intentional preparation of questions that will be posed to students during the presentation.
“You must highlight them [questions] in your outline. You should know exactly what questions, word for word, you
are going to ask.”
—William Welty, "Discussion method teaching: How to make it work"
Well-designed teacher questions not only promote student learning, they also increase student
motivation to learn by inducing a state of productive puzzlement in the mind of the learner, and a
curiosity to discover answers to the questions posed. Furthermore, when teachers ask thought-
provoking questions in class, they model a contemplative process of reflective inquiry that
students are able to observe and emulate.
Naturally, not all questions are created equal or are equally effective; teachers need to give
careful forethought to the design and delivery of their questions. How a question is focused,
framed or phrased can determine how (or if) it elicits student responses. Characteristics of
questions that are most likely to trigger student engagement are described in Box 6.1 below.

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Characteristics of Questions that Most Effectively Elicit Student Involvement
Open-ended questions that can be responded to with more one correct or acceptable
answer. Such questions invite a variety of interpretations, welcome a diversity of
perspectives (including multicultural perspectives), and encourage divergent thinking—
expansive thinking that does not force students to converge on one (and only one) correct
answer (Cuseo, 2005). For example, asking students: "Which rights in the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights focus on economic issues?” is a closed-ended question
calling for just one correct answer. In contrast, the following would be an open-ended
question: "Which rights in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights do you think are
most important?” (Scharf, 2018).
When students are asked factual questions to which there is only one correct answer,
the number of possible incorrect answers is limitless. Consequently, they may be
reluctant to answer such questions because there’s a good chance they will give the
wrong answer and not be seen as smart. In contrast, open-ended questions encourage
students to think freely and creatively without the fearing they will fail to supply “the”
correct answer that the teacher (authority figure) is “looking for.” Although there may be
occasions when teachers need to “test” students for their knowledge of “the” correct
answer, these occasions should not dominate or displace the use of more engaging, open-
ended questions.
 Tentatively-phrased questions (e.g., “What might be . . . .” “What could be . . . ?” or
“What may be . . . ?”). Questions phrased in this way send a clear verbal signal to
students that a diversity of answers is possible and acceptable.
Higher-order thinking questions that call for a higher level of thought than rote memory.
Such questions include those that solicit:
(a) Critical thinking (e.g., "What would you say are the strengths and weakness of
______?")
(b) Creative thinking (e.g., "What may be a new way to look at or approach this
______?"),
(c) Application (e.g., "What purpose or function could ____ serve?”)
(d) Analysis (e.g., " What are the key ideas contained or embedded in ______?”)
(e) Synthesis (e.g., "How can this idea be combined or integrated with ____?”)
 Focused questions that are clearly tied to (focus on) a specific concept or issue.
An unfocused question would be: “Does anybody have any questions or comments at this
time?” Questions like this aren’t tied to a particular point or idea. In contrast, a focused
question would be: “What might be possible causes of prejudice?” This question focuses
on a specific issue, and in so doing, gives students a clear target to aim at and direct their
response.
 Personalized questions that situate students in a relevant, real-life setting and call for
them to make a personal decision or choose a course of action. For instance, if a teacher

is discussing prejudice and discrimination, students could be asked: “Suppose you
overheard a student tell a racist joke and other students laughing. What would you do?"
Questions like this implement the principle of situated learning, which posits that deep
learning is more likely to take place when it is "situated" (placed) in a real-life context
and encourages students to personally apply the concept being learned (Bransford,
Brown, & Cocking, 1999; Ewell, 1997).
Questions that call for all students to respond nonverbally. Instead of individual students
responding verbally to a question, one student at a time, all students in class could be
asked to respond nonverbally (with "body language") at the same time. For instance, the
whole in class could respond with a show of hands to a question like: “How many of you
agree with the following statement . . . ?” or “How many of you had an experience
similar to . . . ?” In addition to a show of hands, any of the following practices could be
used to engage the whole class in a nonverbal response to a question:
(a) Have students vote with their feet in response to a question about whether they agree
or disagree with a statement by moving to one of the four corners of the room, each
corner representing one of four positions: “strongly agree,” “agree,” “disagree,” or
“strongly disagree”;
(b) Create a space down in the middle of the room and ask students to move to either
side of the room depending on where they stand on an issue. For instance, students
could be asked where they stand on whether or not schools should have a dress code
by moving to the right side of the room if they agree, or the left side of the room if
they disagree? (The center aisle may be used as “middle ground” where students can
stand if they are undecided or think they need more information about the issue
before deciding.)
(c) Equip students with “clickers”—the technology-mediated classroom response system
that enables students to answer teacher-posed questions nonverbally (and
anonymously) by submitting their answer electronically. The computer system then
amalgamates the submitted answers and displays the percentage of students choosing
each response option.)
When students are asked to respond a question nonverbally, all students get involved, not
just those the verbally assertive students who tend to answer more frequently, more
rapidly, or more impulsively than their more reticent or reflective classmates. Having
students respond nonverbally to a question can also be used as a "foot in the door"
technique to persuade them to respond verbally to a follow-up question. For instance, if
students are first asked to take a position by moving to a particular place or space in the
room, they could then be asked to explain why they chose that position. After students
share the reasons for the position they took and hear the reasons shared by their
classmates, they could then be given an opportunity to change their initial position
nonverbally—by moving to a different space in the room. Those students who choose to
change their position (spatially) could then be asked to explain (verbally) why they
changed their mind.
“Participation does not have to be verbal; gender, culture, and ability may affect student comfort levels with verbal
communication. Modeling equity and inclusiveness calls for a broader definition of participation.”
—Critical Practices for Anti-bias Education, Southern Poverty Law Center

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Pose questions that intentionally seek out the views and opinions of students from diverse
groups. Research suggests that when members of different racial and ethnic come together to
discuss ideas, inter-group prejudice decreases and intercultural appreciation increases—but only
if each member’s cultural identity and perspective is sought out and valued by members of the
discussion group (Baron, Branscombe, & Byrne, 2008). Consequently, when teachers pose
questions in class to promote discussion, it's important that they ensure that the ideas of students
from diverse backgrounds are invited and heard. If their views and opinions do not emerge
naturally during the class discussions, then teachers may need to explicitly seek them out by
posing a question to student groups whose thoughts have not been shared. For example, a teacher
might say: “I haven’t heard the perspective of minority groups on this issue. May I ask members
of these groups to share their thoughts on the subject?”
If certain minority ethnic or racial groups are not represented among the students in class, the
class could be asked how members of these groups might respond to the topic or issue under
discussion. For instance, the teacher might ask: “If there were Native American students in class
today, what might they have said during our discussion?”
Lastly, during the discussions, it's important that the teacher first seek out the views of all
student groups before expressing his or her own ideas; otherwise, students are more likely to give
socially acceptable or “politically correct” answers they think their teacher wants to hear instead
of what they truly believe (Hess, 2009).
When teaching factual information, consider using game formats to stimulate students’
interest in, and engagement with, the information they're expected to learn. Games can
make acquisition of factual knowledge more engaging than learning it through stand-and-deliver
teacher presentations. Using a TV game format like “Jeopardy” could be used to make fact-based
learning more stimulating, and a game format like “Family Feud” may be employed to create
team-learning tournaments and foster friendly competition between teams.
The “Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?” game format is ideal for involving all students in class.
Students may volunteer to be contestants or compete to be contestants by correctly answering a
“toss up” question. Incentives could be created for serving as a contestant by awarding prizes
that increase in value in proportion to the number or complexity of questions answered correctly.
The student who serves as the primary contestant can involve other students in class by using the
game’s “lifeline” supports, such as “polling the audience” for their thoughts about the correct
answers (via a show of hands) or “phoning a friend” (asking another student in class). The
teacher would assume the role of game-show moderator and occasionally interject elaborative or
explanatory comments after correct or incorrect answers are provided, thus providing collateral
instruction as the game proceeds.
Use role-playing exercises to engage students with the subject matter. An educational role
play may be described as learning through dramatic enactments involving characters with whom
students can identify. Drama can serve as a powerful vehicle for engaging students—both as
actors in the drama and as reactors to it. Students can play themselves or take on the role of
another person to gain that person’s perspective (e.g., a majority student plays the role of a
minority student). Student actors could also be asked to reverse roles during the dramatic skit to
gain a more balanced perspective.

“Role playing of various ethnic and cultural experiences should be interspersed throughout the curriculum to encourage
understanding of what it means to belong to various ethnic groups.”
—NCSS Task Force
The whole class can engaged in a role play at the same time by having all students assume the
same role while the teacher takes on a different role. For example, the teacher could assume the
role of a student who has just immigrated to the U.S. and the class serves as an advisory
committee of American citizens whose role is to help the recent immigrant transition to America
and learn about our country's key cultural norms, values, and priorities (and possible ethnocentric
biases).
If the intended learning outcome of a diversity lesson is to promote empathy for others, role
plays are much more likely to achieve that outcome than teacher-centered presentations. For
instance, by placing students in the role of a blind person by having them wear a blindfold for a
certain period of time, or in the role of a deaf person by having them wear soundproof earmuffs,
they will develop a stronger sense of empathy for the blind and the deaf than they would by
listening to a teacher’s lecture on the importance of being sensitive to the needs of people with
disabilities. Studies show that when white students engage in role-playing experiences that
involve taking on the role of members of minority racial groups, it reduces prejudice and
promotes positive change in attitude toward people of color (Baron, Branscombe, & Byrne,
2008; Stephan, 1985).
Author's Insight
Floyd Cochran was once a member and recruiter for “Aryan Nation,” a white supremacist group.
He eventually quit the group and became a civil-rights activist and educator. He toured the
country, speaking out against racist organizations and hate crimes at high schools and
universities. He once came to my school, and during his talk, he stated that the key event in his
life that caused him to relinquish his prejudicial views was when his own son became a target of
prejudice by the white supremacist group to which he belonged. While his wife was pregnant and
carrying his son, the results of an ultrasound revealed that he had cleft palate. Cochran was told
by leaders of his supremacist group that the fetus had to be aborted because it was “defective”
and couldn't be associated with a member of their “genetically superior” group. This left Cochran
with two choices: (a) abort his son and remain a member of the supremacist group, or (b) keep
his son and be ousted by the group whose beliefs he endorsed. Cochran chose to quit the
supremacist group and renounce his racist beliefs. He then began speaking out publically against
the hateful prejudices he once firmly believed and taught.
While listening to Cochran's story, it struck me that the turning point in his incredible
transformation was a real-life version of role play. When his son was deemed “inferior,” he was
thrust into the role of being a victim of prejudice—suddenly he became the member of a
stigmatized group and the target of discrimination. Cochran’s radical conversion from hateful
racist to civil rights activist is a true-story testimony to the power of role playing as an
educational tool for promoting empathy and equality.
–Joe Cuseo
Scripts. Similar to role plays, scripts actively involve students in dramatic scenarios; the only
difference is that instead of acting out their parts, students read the parts (lines) of different
characters in the script. Students may also be allowed to go beyond the script and improvise, or

they may be asked to complete an unfinished script as if they were one of the characters. For
example, students could be given a script depicting a scenario in which someone makes a racist
remark in the presence of other students, and the students reading the script could finish it by
adding statements describing what they would do after the remark was made.
Simulations. These are exercises that engage students in the learning process by immersing
them in an environment that simulates (approximates) a real-life experience. BaFa’-BaFa’ is a
popular intercultural simulation in which students are assigned membership in either the Alpha
culture or Beta culture, each of with its own set of cultural values, expectations, customs and
language. Students learn the rules and customs of their assigned culture separately then visit each
other’s culture and try to interact with members of the other (“foreign”) culture, thus simulating
the experience of a social group trying to adjust to and function in a culture that differs radically
from one’s own. The intended learning outcomes of this simulation is to reduce ethnocentrism
and promote empathy for people who must adapt to an unfamiliar culture—such as immigrants
must do when they enter an unfamiliar country.
Case Studies. A "case" is an actual event, or a close approximation thereof, which requires
students to make a decision about a problem or issue for which there is no single “correct”
answer or clear-cut solution (Christensen & Hansen, 1987). Cases are typically presented in
written form and students read them individually before joining teams to reach a decision about
the best way to solve the problem or resolve the issue presented in the case.
Cases actively engage students in the learning process by requiring them to make action-based
decisions about concepts they are learning. Exposing students to cases also helps them realize
that solving real-life problems is often a “messy” or ambiguous process that involves considering
multiple perspectives, weighing various alternatives, and prioritizing different solution strategies.
“By providing students with opportunities to use decision-making abilities and social action skills in the resolution of problems
affecting ethnic, racial and cultural groups, schools can contribute to more effective education for democratic citizenship.”
—NCSS Task Force
Cases relevant to diversity education may be drawn from:
News items relating to human rights issues featured in the national media (TV, movies, or
newspaper articles). (For example, see the anti-Semitism case on p. ___.)
Instances of intergroup conflict that have taken place on campus or in the local
community
Educational documentaries that poignantly capture the personal experiences of people
who have encountered prejudice and discrimination
Actual events that the teacher has experienced or observed, either personally or
professionally
 Experiences solicited from students in class, such as prejudicial incidents they have
witnessed at school, or that friends or family members have encountered in their home
community.
Teachers can supply students with some structure or scaffolding for tackling cases by
supplying them with open-ended questions that prompt them to think about:
the likely cause(s) of the incident
if and how the case could have been prevented

whether they've had personal experiences similar to those being depicted in the case
whether students can identify with any characters involved in the case.
“Good case studies promote empathy with the central characters; students can see themselves in the situation or
story.”
—Bette Erickson & Diane Strommer, instructional development specialists, University of Rhode Island
Based on their research and teaching experiences, Meyers & Jones (1993) suggest that the
following types of questions can effectively promote higher-level thinking in response to cases
and other problem-based tasks:
Analytical/Evaluative Questions—e.g., “What particular action is at the root of
this problem? Which action played the most pivotal role?”
Implication Questions—e.g., “If events like this continue, what might be the
consequences?”
 Predictive/Hypothetical Questions—e.g., “If the roles of the main characters were
switched, what would have happened?” Note: Providing students’ with opportunities to
predict and test hypotheses about causes and effects is a K-12 teaching practice
associated with significant gains in student achievement (Dean et al., 2012; Marzano,
Pickering, & Pollock, 2001).
During an extended teacher presentation, insert engaging learning activities at three key
junctures: before, during, and after the presentation. An instructional presentation may be
viewed as unfolding in three major stages: beginning, middle, and end. By intentionally planning
a lesson with these three stages in mind, an effective learning sequence can be created that
engages students:
(1) at the start of the presentation—serving to “warm up” and activate students’ pre-existing
ideas about the topic (e.g., “What do you already know or hope to learn about this topic?”);
(2) during the presentation—serving to “break up” or punctuate teacher-delivered information
with engaging, student-centered learning activities (e.g., How do you think you might apply
or make use the ideas we've discussed thus far?”; and
(3) after the presentation—serving to “wrap up” and consolidate the presentation and provide
students with a sense of closure (e.g., “What would was the most important idea you took
away from this lesson?” or, “What more would you like to know about this topic?”).
Described below are strategies for engaging students at each of these three key stages of an
instructional presentation.
Pre-Presentation Strategies. Engaging students before the presentation by activating their pre-
existing feelings, attitudes, and knowledge (or misconceptions) about the to-be-presented topic.
For example, before a presentation on diversity, students could be asked to jot down the first
ideas that come to mind when they hear the word “diversity.” More formal practices for
activating students' thoughts and feelings prior to a teacher presentation include the following:
Verbal “Whips”: a procedure in which students, in rapid succession, take turns
verbalizing a thought that comes to mind about the topic.

Pre-Tests: students take a short, non-graded assessment of their knowledge or attitudes
about the upcoming topic (e.g., by answering a short series of true-false questions).
Background Knowledge Probes: students jot down what they already know, or think they
know, about an upcoming topic and how they got to know it (the origin or source of their
knowledge) (Angelo & Cross, 1993).
Background Interest Probes: students respond to a prompt that asks them to reflect on
what they would like to know about the upcoming topic or what questions they have
about it (Angelo & Cross, 1993).
“Shared Presentation”: students first share what they think they know about the
topic and record their ideas on the board. After all students have shared their
ideas, the teacher highlights important and accurate ideas the class has already mentioned
(e.g., by underlining them on the board) then missing ideas to create a composite
(“master list”) that represents the collaborative work of both the students and their
teacher.
Any of these pre-presentation strategies can be used to initially draw students into the learning
process by drawing out their prior thoughts and feelings about the topic to be presented. K-12
research indicates that activating students’ background knowledge and experiences before
beginning a lesson, and using this information during the lesson, is a teaching practice associated
with significant gains in academic achievement (Dean et al., 2012; Marzano, Pickering, &
Pollock, 2001).
Providing students with an outline of concepts, definitions, and parts (categories and
subcategories) to be covered during an upcoming presentation is another effective pre-
presentation strategy. The outline could also consist of key questions that the presentation
intends to answer. Research indicates that use of such outlines increases student attention to and
retention of key concepts delivered during teacher presentations (Bligh, 2000). Outlines serve
as an "advance organizer" (Ausubel, Novak, & Hanesian 1978), enabling students to see the
whole topic (forest) before tackling the parts (trees) and reducing the risk they will get lost in the
forest (and disengage). Since novice learners typically lack the background knowledge needed to
distinguish between central and peripheral ideas, they often spend too much mental energy on
secondary details, losing sight of primary concepts and the "big picture" (Hrepic, Zollman, &
Rebello, 2007).
An additional advantage of supplying students with an outline in advance of a teacher is that it
ensures that all students in class have access to common background information (Bligh, 2000),
which helps level the playing field for students from underprivileged backgrounds.
Lastly, by providing students with an outline of a presentation's the major ideas ahead of time,
it reduces teacher-centered talk (lecture) time and students’ note-taking time, opening up more
class time for engaging, student-centered learning activities.
Within-Presentation Strategies. During a teacher presentation, inserting pauses for short active
learning serves to intercept attention loss that normally takes place when students process verbal
information over an extended stretch of time (Bligh, 2000). Research on effective teachers shows
that one practice they share in common is breaking up the material they are teaching into small

parts, and after teaching each part, giving students the opportunity to engage with or practice
what they've just been taught (Rosenshine, 1971, 2012).
Any of the following strategies may be used to break up teacher presentations with short,
learner-centered activities that actively engage students with the material being presented.
Pauses for Personal Reflection: the presentation is paused and students are asked to write
a short, reflective response to a focused question about a portion of the material just
presented (e.g., “How would you apply what you have just learned to some aspect of your
life?”). Research indicates that when students are given just a moment of time to reflect
on information presented to them, they’re more likely retain the information that
preceded the pause; in addition, they exhibit greater attention to and retention of
information delivered after the pause (Bunce, Flens, & Neiles, 2010).
“Writing-to-Discuss”: after students pause to write a person reflection in response to
material presented to them, the teacher uses their written responses as a springboard for
class discussion. This practice provides the aforementioned benefits associated with
allowing students to pause for personally reflection, plus it builds on those benefits by
engaging students in discussion—the quality of which is enhanced because students are
given time to gather their thoughts in writing before expressing them orally. (This is an
especially effective way to engage second-language students in class discussions because
it gives them time to think about what they’re going to say in advance of saying it, rather
than doing both simultaneously.)
Problem-Solving Presentations: students listen to a short teacher presentation (e.g., 5-10
minutes) that focuses on a particular problem, after which they discuss possible solutions
to the problem (Bonwell & Eison, 1991). Teachers could this practice at several junctures
during the same lesson by making different “mini-presentations” targeting different
problems, each of which is followed by student discussion on how best to solve or
resolve that particular problem.
Breaking up a teacher presentation with short learner-centered exercises, such as the
above-three practices, actively engages students with the presented material and also
implements a teaching practice that has been found to be associated with significant gains
in student achievement: Providing students with frequent opportunities to act on or
practice what they're learning (Rosenshine, 1971, 2012). Effective teachers give all
students regular opportunities to pause and check their understanding of a concept before
moving on to the next concept. In contrast, less effective teachers tend to ask the class a
question about what they presented, call on a student who raises his or her hand to answer
it (often the correct answer because it’s likely to be volunteered by a student who “got
it”) and then move on to teach the next segment of the lesson, without checking if other
students in class also “got it” (Rosenshine, 1997).
Post-Presentation Strategies. Following a teacher presentation, students should engage in
activities that prompt them to review and consolidate (lock in) key ideas or concepts covered
during the presentation. The final
step in the learning process, whether it involves learning
from a teacher presentation, a class discussion, or a hand-on experience, is for students to step
back from the process and reflect on whey learned. D
eep learning involves both active

involvement during the learning task and thoughtful reflection after the task (Bligh, 2000;
Brown, Roediger, & McDaniel, 2014). The latter gives the brain time to move information it has
taken in while working on the learning task (working memory) and transfer it to long-term
memory storage (Rosenshine, 1997; Carey, 2015). This is true for all learning experiences,
including learning experiences related to diversity. For instance, postsecondary research has
demonstrated that students learn most effectively from diversity experiences when they take time
to reflect on those experiences in writing (Lopez, Gurin, & Nagda, 1998; Nagda, Gurin, &
Lopez, 2003).
One particularly effective and efficient reflective writing exercise is the one-minute paper—a
short, informal writing exercise (taking one minute or less to complete) that prompts every
student to engage in personal reflection on the day’s lesson. Any of the following questions may
be used as one-minute paper prompts:
What do you think was the major purpose or objective of today’s lesson?
What do you think was the most important point just discussed?
Without looking at your notes, what stands out in your mind (or what do you recall most
vividly) about today’s lesson?
Looking back at your notes, what would you say was the most interesting or stimulating
idea you wrote down?
Did you see any connections between what was discussed in class today and what was
covered in previous classes or units?
What was the most surprising or unexpected idea you encountered in today’s class?
What do you think was the most puzzling, confusing, or disturbing idea covered in class
today?
What helped (or hindered) your understanding of today’s presentation?

During today’s class, what idea(s) struck you as ideas you could immediate use or put
into practice?

Do you see any way(s) in which the material discussed in today’s class relates to your
current or future life?
One-minute papers can also be tailored for use as follow-up reflections following class
discussions relating to diversity. For instance, students could write a one-minute paper in
response to questions such as:
Were there any particular topics or issues raised during today’s discussion that provoked
intense reactions or emotional responses from you or your classmates? If yes, why do you
think they did?
Did today’s discussion lead you to change previously held attitudes or opinions? If yes, in
what way?
Do you think that today’s discussion changed the attitudes or opinions of your
classmates? If yes, why? If not, why not?
Other effective reflective writing exercise is known as include: (a) freewriting—students
write freely about anything related to the topic under discussion—for the purpose of stimulating
their thoughts, feelings, or free associations on a topic (without worrying about writing
mechanics, such as punctuation or spelling), and (b) learning logs or learning journals—in
which students record written reflections on their learning experiences on an ongoing basis
throughout the term. Written entries in their learning log or journal could be about (a) what they

find most interesting or useful about the material they are learning, (b) their feelings or attitudes
about what they are learning (e.g., their level of level of confidence, anxiety, or enthusiasm), and
(c) how they are going about learning (their learning habits and strategies). Such entries
encourage students to engage in two key forms of reflection (a) metacognition—reflecting on
what they have learned or what thinking processes they engaged in while learning, and (b) self-
regulation—reflecting on the strategies they used to learn and whether those strategies were
effective (Darling-Hammond et al., 2003).
Reflective writing exercises such as the one-minute papers, freewriting, and learning logs or
journals are examples of writing-to-learn assignments. They differ from formal writing
assignments in three major ways: (a) they’re shorter, requiring less time for students to complete;
(b) they’re written primarily for the purpose of deepening students’ learning (as opposed to
developing their writing skills); and (c) they don’t require extensive teacher commentary,
correction or grading (Zinsser, 1993).
Writing-to-learn assignments are short and flexible, allowing them to be used at any time
during a lesson, and can be used to engage students in thoughtful reflection on any learning
experience, including multicultural learning experiences. They can also be used with students
whose writing skills are still developing because writing-to-learn assignments are not designed to
evaluate students’ writing but to stimulate their thinking and deepen their learning.
Consider This . . .
Students can still write to learn even if they’re still learning to write.
≉
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