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Examining the technical adequacy and efficacy of FABLe to identify students at-risk for reading difficulties in India
Abstract
This paper addresses the need for effective curriculum-based measures (CBMs) to assess foundational literacy skills in India. It seeks to answer the questions: What is the reliability and validity of the FABLe app in the Indian context? What is the efficacy of the FABLe app in identifying students who are at-risk for reading difficulties? There are currently no tools in place that can be used to screen and monitor early reading skills in elementary grades. We present data from a pilot study on India’s first digital CBM tool, Fluency Assessment for Benchmarking in Literacy education (FABLe), to screen for and identify students at-risk for reading difficulties. This study was conducted in Mumbai, India, and participants included students in Grade 3 attending an English medium private school. It serves three primary goals within the Indian context: (a) to examine reliability and validity data supporting the use of the tool; (b) to compare FABLe scores to teacher judgment; and (c) to identify the correct words per minute and accuracy levels below which students were identified as being at-risk. These metrics are presented as an initial step towards developing preliminary CBM benchmarks for India.
... A fable is a short story with a moral that frequently has animals as the main characters (Murray, 2013;Jufri, 2018;Novasyari, 2019;Romdoni, 2020). Moreover, a fable is a short story that is passed down orally and features animal characters who have human traits and instructs readers with a moral or lesson (Jufri, 2018;Park, 2022;Misquitta et al., 2022). Because pair-work is one of the methods for inspiring students to learn English, it will be used as a teaching tactic. ...
The purpose of this study was to determine whether teaching students fables in pairs of students during their second year of MA Nurul As'adiyah Callacu improved their vocabulary achievement. A pre-experimental methodology was used in this study's research in order to meet its goal. The academic year 2020–2021 was when the population was in its second year under MA Nurul As'adiyah Callacu. Purposive sampling was employed to obtain the sample. There were 17 students in the class that was selected from the X-A class with the most samples. According to the data analysis's findings, students' post-test mean scores (52.52) were higher than their pretest mean scores (32.23), and (52.52 – 32.23) was the gain score (20.29). The researcher used t-test statistical analysis for paired samples. The analysis of the data revealed that the null hypothesis (H0) was rejected and the alternative hypothesis (H1) was accepted since the significance of the t value (0.000) was larger than the level of significance (0.05) and the degree of freedom (df) = 16. It can be inferred that using a fable in pair work can help students learn more vocabulary.
... For example, Rao et al. (2021) introduced the Dyslexia Assessment for the Languages of India (DALI) assessment tool that has both progress-monitoring tools and a dyslexia screener that is normed on the Indian population. More recently, Misquitta et al. (2022) have developed a literacy-based application called FABLe for the Indian context that complements the DIBELS but introduces reading passages from Indian textbooks. DALI and FABLe show potential of being contextually relevant substitutes for Western-normed CBMs, and the growing pool of research validating them should be followed carefully to consider future use in foundational literacy related studies in the Indian context. ...
... For example, Rao et al., (2021) introduced the Dyslexia Assessment for the Languages of India (DALI) assessment tool that has both progress-monitoring tools and a dyslexia screener that is normed on the Indian population. More recently, a literacy-based application called FABLe has been developed for the Indian context that complements the DIBELS but introduces reading passages from Indian textbooks (Misquitta et al., 2022). DALI and FABLe show potential of being contextually relevant substitutes for Western-normed CBMs, and the growing pool of research validating them should be followed carefully to consider future use in foundational literacy related studies in the Indian context. ...
Most private schools in India follow the Alphabet-Spelling method to teach reading in English. This approach bypasses letter-sound correspondences and focuses on rote memorization and sight-word recognition. In an effort to provide students with more recent evidence-based practices in reading instruction, this study examined how phonics-based instruction related with early English literacy outcomes for students in kindergarten. Our sample consisted of 627 students attending a private middle-cost school in Mumbai, India where the language of instruction was English. Students were tested for early literacy skills in kindergarten using the DIBELSNext benchmarking measures. We compared groups of students who received no phonics (n = 165) to students who received one year of phonics (n = 234) and students who received two years of phonics (n = 228) respectively. Our results suggested that students who received both one and two years of phonics instruction in preschool significantly outperformed those who did not receive any phonics instruction on all the literacy skills assessed. Moreover, the incidence of students being at-risk for reading difficulties reduced significantly with an increase in years of phonics instruction. Implications for reading research, practice, and policy in the Indian context are discussed.
Background
The National Education Policy of India in 2020 indicated a goal that all children will achieve foundational literacy by Grade 3 by 2025. In line with this, the Indian government sets a target of 30 to 35 correct words per minute (cwpm) at Grade 3. However, there are no supporting data for reading fluency targets in the Indian reading literature. Similarly, international benchmarks are used in India, but there are no data examining their appropriateness for the Indian context. The purpose of this study was to develop data‐driven benchmarks for oral reading fluency (ORF) for students in Grade 3 in the Indian context. We compared both international standards and the national targets with our study's benchmarks to assess their suitability for the Indian population.
Methods
This study assessed ORF in English for Grade 3 students from three schools following three different curricula in India. The primary tool employed was Fluency and Benchmarking for Literacy in Education (FABLe), a digital curriculum‐based measurement tool developed specifically for the Indian context. Students were assessed at the beginning and end of the academic year.
Results
The performance data collected using FABLe when compared with the international benchmarks were significantly skewed, especially for the end of the year. The national Grade 3 fluency target was found to be even lower than the 5th percentile at the end of the year.
Conclusion
Employing international tools and benchmarks may lead to an overidentification of the number of students that need support, and the current Indian government target may lead to an under‐identification of the same population of students. This study fills an important research gap by providing schools with a Grade 3 ORF measure developed for the Indian context. The results should be considered a preliminary benchmark in Grade 3 and be used to inform literacy practices.
This study explores the possibility of adapting specific progress-monitoring tools developed in the US for use in English-medium private schools in Bangalore. In the US, many teachers adopt progress-monitoring tools like the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) and Curriculum Based Measurement (easyCBM) to keep track of their students’ reading abilities. We report on Phase 1 of a longitudinal study that included three phases of data collection. Participants included 1003 students in Grades 1, 3 and 5, and 50 teachers. Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected. Results indicated that students in low-cost schools struggled on all reading measures throughout elementary school; students in middle-cost schools had below average to average scores on reading measures; and students from high-cost schools had average to above average scores on all measures. Moreover, factors like oral language proficiency in English, socio-economic status, school and curriculum increased in their significance in predicting reading as students progressed through elementary grades. Teacher data suggested that the reading goals and instructional strategies varied considerably across schools. Implications for reading instruction and practice within the Indian context will be discussed.
Objective: To evaluate language profiles, Limited English Proficiency (LEP) and Primary Language Disorders (PLD) in multilingual suspected dyslexics. Methods: A cross-sectional was conducted in a tertiary care hospital at Mumbai. The sample consisted of 46 participants aged 8-13 years. Performances of children were compared using the Linguistic Profile Test (LPT) and Dyslexia Assessment for Languages of India (DALI). Non-parametric statistics were carried out to assess the data.
Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) has emerged as a valid, reliable and economic measure to assess and monitor reading skills. Unfortunately, CBMs have not been developed for the Indian context. Further, CBMs can be cumbersome to administer manually, especially given the high teacher- student ratio in India. The challenge also then remains about what teachers actually do with the reading data. Most teachers in India are unable to interpret reading scores or use them to tailor an intervention plan. This paper describes the work Gateway has begun to develop a digital curriculum- based measurement tool that is contextually relevant. This paper outlines the procedures used to select passages, including equating passages using readability formulae, as well as field testing passages. The tool will support teachers with collecting data, interpreting the scores, and most importantly, developing an intervention plan to support struggling learners. It will also outline future directions for the project.
Reading traditionally is characterized as having two major components, decoding and comprehension. Published reading tests are created using these two components. Reading fluency, a combination of reading speed and accuracy, typically is not measured. Attention to reading fluency has increased through the emerging literature on Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM), which employs standardized oral reading tests derived from basal readers to make decisions about students' general reading skills. Despite a series of published validation studies, questions about what CBM oral reading fluency measures persist. This study examined the relation of CBM oral reading fluency to the reading process from a theoretical perspective. Reading models were tested using confirmatory factor analysis procedures with 114 third-and 124 fifth-grade students. Subjects were tested on tasks requiring decoding of phonetically regular words and regular nonsense words, literal comprehension, inferential comprehension, cloze items, written retell, and CBM oral reading fluency. For third graders, a unitary model of reading was validated with all measures contributing significantly. For fifth graders, a two-factor model was validated paralleling current conceptions of reading measurement. Regardless of the factor model employed, CBM oral reading fluency provided a good index of reading proficiency, including comprehension.
Abstact
The current study replicated Gickling and Armstrong (1978) by using curriculum-based assessment for instructional design to match reading materials to skill levels of three third-graders who were struggling readers with low levels of on-task behavior. Difficulty levels of the reading passages were grouped according to ratios of known and unknown words into three categories: frustration (80-90% known), instructional (93-97% known), and independent levels (100% known). A single-subject, multielement design was used to examine the effects of these reading activities on individual students’ time on task and reading comprehension. Although within-subject variability in responding was observed, results suggested that students demonstrated improved time on task while completing tasks at the instructional level, compared to tasks at the frustration and independent levels. Comprehension was highest at the independent level and lowest at the frustration level. These findings were consistent with but not as robust as those reported by Gickling and Armstrong.
Purpose: This study explored parental attitudes towards children with specific learning disabilities. Method: The study sample comprised parents of 60 children (30 boys and 30 girls) with Specific Learning Disability (SLD) who attend the Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Out-Patient Department at National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences, Bangalore, India. The attitudes of parents were assessed using the Parental Attitude Scale. Results: The results revealed significant differences related to gender of the children on various domains of the scale. Conclusion: The study highlights the need to educate parents to lower their expectations for children with specific learning disabilities, and to strengthen the social support network of these children's families.
This meta-analysis extends previous work on extensive Tier 3 type reading interventions (Wanzek and Vaughn School Psychology Review, 36, 541–561, 2007; Wanzek et al. Review of Educational Research, 83, 163–195, 2013) to Tier 2 type interventions by examining a non-overlapping set of studies addressing the effects of less extensive reading interventions for students with or at risk for reading difficulties in Grades K-3. We examined the overall effects of these interventions on students' foundational skills, language, and comprehension as well as the intervention features that may be associated with improved outcomes. We conducted four meta-analyses on 72 studies to examine effects on (1) standardized foundational skill measures (mean ES=0.54), (2) not-standardized foundational skill measures (mean ES=0.62), (3) standardized language/comprehension measures (mean ES= 0.36), and (4) not-standardized language/comprehension measures (mean ES=1.02). There were no differences in effects related to intervention type, instructional group size, grade level, intervention implementer, or the number of intervention hours. The implementation of widely used multi-tiered service delivery models, such as response to intervention (RTI), can provide increasing numbers of students with access to evidence-based instructional practices, universal and systematic screenings, and progress monitoring (e.g.,
This study explored the relationships of oral reading speed and error rate on comprehension with second and third grade students with identified reading risk. The study included 920 2nd graders and 974 3rd graders. Participants were assessed using Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) and the Woodcock Reading Mastery Test (WRMT) Passage Comprehension subtest. Results from this study further illuminate the significant relationships between error rate, oral reading fluency, and reading comprehension performance, and grade-specific guidelines for appropriate error rate levels. Low oral reading fluency and high error rates predict the level of passage comprehension performance. For second grade students below benchmark, a fall assessment error rate of 28% predicts that student comprehension performance will be below average. For third grade students below benchmark, the fall assessment cut point is 14%. Instructional implications of the findings are discussed.
This paper provides a description of 30 years of research conducted on curriculum-based measurement. In this time span, several subject matter areas have been studied—reading, writing, mathematics, and secondary content (subject) areas—in developing technically adequate measures of student performance and progress. This research has been conducted by scores of scholars across the United States using a variety of methodologies with widely differing populations. Nevertheless, little of this research has moved from a “measurement paradigm” to one focused on “training in data use and decision making paradigm.” The paper concludes with a program of research that is needed over the next 30 years.
Generalizability (G) theory was used with a sample of 37 third-grade students to assess the variability in words correct per minute (WCPM) scores caused by student skill and passage variability. Reliability-like coefficients and the SEM based on a specific number of assessments using different combinations of passages demonstrated how manipulating probe variability could reduce measurement error. Results showed that 81% of the variance was due to student skill, 10% was due to passage or probe variability, and 9% was due to unaccounted sources of error. Reliability-like coefficients ranged from .81 to .99, and SEMs ranged from 18 to 4 WCPM depending on the ea number of probes given. When passage variability was controlled, SEMs were decreased and ranged from 12 to 4 WCPM. Results indicated that WCPM scores yield high reliability-like coefficients but also have a large SEM that can be reduced by administering multiple alternate passages. Discussion focuses on conducting research designed to identify more equivalent passages in order to reduce erroneous relative and absolute decisions.
Beyond reliability and validity, measures used to model student growth must consist of multiple probes that are equivalent in level of difficulty to establish consistent measurement conditions across time. Although existing evidence supports the reliability of curriculum-based measurement in reading (CBMR), few studies have empirically evaluated the appropriateness of the methods employed to determine the difficulty of CBM-R passages. The current study extends existing research with an evaluation of the relationship of oral reading performance and readability estimates on 50 CBM-R alternate forms. A sample of 88 second- and third-grade students read all 50 forms. Spache, Lexile, and Forcast readability estimates were used to estimate the difficulty of alternate forms. Results replicate and extend previous research to suggest that readability estimates are inadequate predictors of oral reading performance and therefore evaluation of CBM-R passage difficulty. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved) (journal abstract)
Reading fluency is commonly defined as reading accurately at a quick rate with appropriate prosody—a simple sounding definition. In fact, this definition hides complex processes and skills needed to produce the seemingly effortless performance of a fluent reader. Using both theory and empirical research, the presence and role of underlying processes and knowledge such as decoding fluency, processing speed, vocabulary, letter sound fluency, and sight word fluency are discussed. In doing this, we explain the elements needed for fluent reading and how they relate to each other in a multilayered fashion in young readers, and discuss the implications of this model in the development and assessment of reading fluency.
Researchers investigating the psychometric properties of curriculum-based measures in reading (R-CBM) have typically used readability formulas to create passages of similar difficulty. Despite their efforts, many researchers still find excessive, uncontrolled systematic error (presumably due to passage difficulty) in R-CBM data. This study investigates the validity of eight readability formulas by examining their ability to predict students' words read correctly in a minute (WRCM). The study is based on the premise that as grade levels assigned to passages by readability formulas increase, students' WRCM should decrease. Results indicate a modest relationship between reading fluency and passage difficulty as indicated by the eight readability formulas. The formulas most commonly employed in R-CBM research were the poorest predictors. Findings suggest that efforts beyond the use of currently published readability estimates are needed in order to procure equivalent forms for R-CBM monitoring. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The purpose of this study was to examine (1) the performance levels and the magnitude of performance difference between students with reading disabilities (RD) and skilled readers when reading a typical classroom text; (2) the hypothesis that students with RD have specific difficulty using context in such a way that reading fluency is affected; and (3) whether RD subtypes may be differentiated according to performance on contextual and context-free reading tasks. Two groups of fourth graders (85 skilled readers and 24 students with RD) completed a standardized test of reading comprehension, read aloud a folktale, and read aloud the folktale's words in a randomly sequenced list. Performance was scored as correct rate and percentage correct. Based on the number of words per idea unit in the passage, we also estimated the rate at which reader groups encountered and processed text ideas. Compared to the RD group, skilled readers read three times more correct words per minute in context, and showed higher accuracy and rates on all measures. Both context and isolated word-reading rates were highly sensitive to impairment. We found no evidence for RD subtypes based on these measures. Results illustrate differences in reading levels between the two groups, the temporal advantage skilled readers have in linking text ideas, how word reading differs as a function of task format and performance dimension, and how limited word-identification skills (not comprehension) produce contextual reading difficulties for students with RD.
In this article, the authors review the research on curriculum-based measurement (CBM) in reading published since the time of Marston's 1989 review. They focus on the technical adequacy of CBM related to measures, materials, and representation of growth. The authors conclude by discussing issues to be addressed in future research, and they raise the possibility of the development of a seamless and flexible system of progress monitoring that can be used to monitor students' progress across students, settings, and purposes.
The purpose of this article is to provide practical advice about methods to prevent reading failure that is grounded in the new knowledge we have acquired about reading and learning to read over the past 2 decades. Recent research on reading is used to establish a set of facts about reading and reading growth that is relevant to establishing instructional objectives and methods for the prevention of reading difficulties. Within the context of our current understanding of the reasons many children find it difficult to learn to read, the article also identifies the instructional conditions that need to be in place to prevent the development of reading difficulties in all but a very small proportion of children. The article concludes with a discussion of issues and procedures for the early identification of children who are likely to experience difficulties learning to read.
Specific learning disability (dyslexia, dysgraphia, and dyscalculia) afflicts 5-15% of school-going children. Over the last decade; awareness about this invisible handicap has grown in India. However, much needs to be done to ensure that each afflicted child gets an opportunity to achieve his or her full academic potential in regular mainstream schools. In order to achieve this ideal scenario, all regular classroom teachers should be sensitized to suspect, and trained to screen for this disability when the child is in primary school. School managements should become proactive to set up resource rooms and employ special educators to ensure that these children receive regular and affordable remedial education; and be diligent in ensuring that these children get the mandatory provisions both during school and board examinations. Once specific learning disability is recognized as a disability by the Government of India, these children with the backing of the Right to Education Act, would be able to benefit significantly.
In two experiments, we examined transfer to the reading of a normal text from a prior reading of that intact text or from a prior reading of a scrambled word version of the passage. In Experiment 1, we studied good and poor readers in Grade 4; in Experiment 2, high- and low-ability undergraduate readers. Good readers at both ages showed rereading benefits only when the prior reading was of the intact text, with no reliable benefit from experience with words only. The poorer readers showed reliable rereading benefits even when only the words, in a scrambled order, were read on the first encounter. The results are discussed in terms of two forms of transfer nonfluent reading transfer when attention must be focused on word recognition, and fluent rereading transfer when word recognition is skilled so that attention can be focused on text processing.
Simple in concept, far-reaching in implementation, Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM) was developed in the 1980s as an efficient way to assess the progress of struggling students, including those with disabilities. Today, there are few areas of special education policy and practice that have not been influenced by CBM progress monitoring. The impact of CBM is reflected in recent education reforms that emphasize improvements in assessment and data-based decision making. This book provides a solid picture of the past, present, and possible future of CBM progress monitoring. This book presents a nuanced examination of CBM progress monitoring in reading, math, and content-area learning to assess students at all levels, from early childhood to secondary school, and with a wide range of abilities, from high- and low-incidence disabilities to no disabilities. This study also evaluates how the approach has affected instructional practices, teacher training, psychology and school psychology, educational policy, and research in the United States and beyond.
This chapter looks at Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM) research in South Korea. CBM has been used as an assessment tool not only for students with learning disabilities but also for low-achieving students in South Korea. Research on CBM has focused on the development of a progress-monitoring system for students with learning difficulties. Thus far, the CBM measures have been found to have good psychometric characteristics. With the increased use of advanced statistical techniques such as Hierarchical Linear Modeling, more systematic research can be directed toward the characteristics of the measures as growth-monitoring measures. The use of CBM is also expected to expand into the areas of educational counseling and communication disorders.
The assumption that educational policies and practices in the global North are viable in the global South has promoted a universal template for inclusive education, or Education For All. In India, lived realities do not conform to this universal template, resulting in the emergence of low-income English language learners who are being labeled as learning disabled. The paper calls for a “de-colonial resistance” that incorporates indigenous knowledge and lived realities.
Progress monitoring has been adopted as an integral part of multi-tiered support systems. Oral reading fluency (ORF) is the most established assessment for progress-monitoring purposes. To generate valid trend lines or slopes, ORF passages must be of equivalent difficulty. Recently, however, evidence indicates that ORF passages are not equivalent, potentially hindering our ability to generate valid student trend lines for decision making. This study examines passage and order effects on the estimation of ORF scores using a set of second-grade passages. A single group with counterbalancing design was employed to randomly assign 156 second-grade students to three different orders of passages. Scores from the passages were examined using growth curve modeling and empirical Bayes estimates. Results indicate that passage effects were substantial, but order effects were small but significant. The impact of passage and order effects on research design, equating methods, and measure development is considered.
Using curriculum-based measures (CBM) to identify and monitor students’ oral reading fluency (ORF) is challenging, with student performance subject to numerous sources of variability. One source of variability that is beyond teachers’ or students’ control stems from differences in text difficulty across CBM probes at any given grade level. These differences are referred to collectively as form effects on students’ ORF. This chapter examines the research on form effects and different solutions that have been discussed in the research literature for reducing or removing form effects from CBM assessments. These solutions are referred to collectively as equating methods. The chapter examines four different equating methods using data from a sample of 1867 students from grade 6-8 who were evaluated on subtests of the Texas Middle School Fluency Assessment (TMSFA) to illustrate the differences across the methods. These methods either focus on the equating of raw scores, or on the estimation of true fluency scores through the modeling of test forms. The raw score methods include linear and equipercentile equating, while the true score methods include linear and nonlinear equating using latent variables (LVs). The results are discussed in terms of their implications for developers and users of CBM assessments.
Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) is an approach for assessing the growth of students in basic skills that originated uniquely in special education. A substantial research literature has developed to demonstrate that CBM can be used effectively to gather student performance data to support a wide range of educational decisions. Those decisions include screening to identify, evaluating prereferral interventions, determining eligibility for and placement in remedial and special education programs, formatively evaluating instruction, and evaluating reintegration and inclusion of students in mainstream programs. Beyond those fundamental uses of CBM, recent research has been conducted on using CBM to predict success in high-stakes assessment, to measure growth in content areas in secondary school programs, and to assess growth in early childhood programs. In this article, best practices in CBM are described and empirical support for those practices is identified. Illustrations of the successful uses of CBM to improve educational decision making are provided.
In this article, the authors describe the use of curriculum-based measurement (CBM) reading measures within a response-to-intervention (RTI) framework. They examine the characteristics of the measures to illustrate their technical adequacy for use at each tier in an RTI model. Finally, they look at the use of the measures at Tier 3 (special education services) with respect to informing instruction and satisfying the legal requirements of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004.
Cultural and religious beliefs influence perceptions about health and illness. Data, from India, on perceptions about intellectual disability are scant. This study explored people's cultural beliefs and attitudes about intellectual disability, perceived needs and burden associated with care in Vellore, south India.
A qualitative methodology using focus groups was employed. Eight focus groups were conducted in three settings and included the mothers of children and adolescents with intellectual disability (four groups, n = 29), community health workers (two groups, n = 17) and schoolteachers (two groups, n = 16).
Our results suggest that cultural and religious beliefs perpetuated negative attitudes towards disability. This meant that caregivers bore a high burden of care with little support from family or society. The study confirmed the presence of diverse, multiple and contradictory models of disability drawing from biomedical and local religious, social and cultural constructs.
Public awareness, education and community-level interventions for reducing the misconceptions and stigma related to intellectual disability are needed in addition to culturally sensitive treatment methods to improve the attitude towards and management of intellectual disability.
Report written by a team led by M. Lockheed: Principal education specialist and task manager. Incl. app., notes and bibl., summary
Despite general agreement that we should routinely assess the student performance outcomes of instruction, general agreement regarding how this should be done does not exist. Commercially distributed achievement tests are not always congruent with curriculum objectives and teachers tend not to value the information obtained from them. Informal observation of performance is the approach used and preferred by teachers. Unfortunately, the reliability and validity of teachers' informal observation of student academic performance is unknown. An emerging alternative to commercial standardized tests and to informal observations is curriculum-based measurement (CBM) that combines the advantages of both. Through standardizing observation of performance in the curriculum, CBM generates reliable data that is valid with respect to widely used indicators of achievement such as achievement test scores, age, program placement, and teachers' judgments of competence. These data are now being used to make screening, referral, IEP planning, pupil progress, and program outcome decisions. This article provides background on and illustrations of the use of CBM in special education.
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