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Citation: Avioz, Michael. 2022. The
Reception of Jeremiah in Modern
Hebrew Literature. Religions 13: 215.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
rel13030215
Academic Editor: Bradford
A. Anderson
Received: 6 February 2022
Accepted: 1 March 2022
Published: 3 March 2022
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religions
Article
The Reception of Jeremiah in Modern Hebrew Literature
Michael Avioz
Department of Bible, Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel; michael.avioz@biu.ac.il
Abstract:
Looking at some illustrative examples of the reception of Jeremiah in modern Hebrew
literature, this article explores how both the prophet and the book named after him were reworked
by modern Hebrew authors and poets in the body of literary works in Hebrew that emerged during
the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries in Europe in the wake of the Enlightenment.
Keywords: Jeremiah; Agnon; Bialik; reception of the Bible
1. Introduction
The Hebrew Bible has been a source of inspiration for Jewish authors throughout the
ages, from the Pseudepigrapha, Qumran library, rabbinic corpus, and medieval works to
modern Jewish literature. While Jeremiah belonged to the prophetic tradition, delivering
oracles of doom and salvation as a messenger of God to Israel/Judah and the nations,
the book recording his words exhibits unique features: an emphasis on the campaign
against false prophets, Jeremiah’s role as “a prophet to the nations” (Jer. 1:5), the laments in
Jeremiah 11–20, and the biographical material in Jeremiah 26–45.1
Rather than disappearing after the canonization of the biblical text, prophets reappear
in diverse forms and genres from the Second Temple period through to the present in
literature, art, music, film, sculpture, and other fields. While in earlier periods, the Bible
was “reworked” for religious purposes, it has also become a source for secular philosophers
and writers in the modern era. From the nineteenth century onwards, Zionists attributed a
prominent status to prophetic literature, regarding its values—such as social justice—as
important for shaping social perception. The morality the prophets advocated also served
as a foundation stone for the society Zionists sought to establish in the Land of Israel
(Lammfromm 2021;Shapira 2004). The language of the prophets likewise attracted later
writers. Seeking “a new style, with more beauty, freshness and vigour
. . .
they chose the
language of the Prophets” (Klausner 1932, p. 2).
This paper explores the legacy of Jeremiah in modern Hebrew literature and poetry—
i.e., the literature that emerged in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries in
Europe following the Enlightenment.2
Modern Hebrew literature draws on the Hebrew Bible by imitating its language, allud-
ing to biblical narratives and verses, and adapting its forms. Modern Hebrew literature can
be defined as “modern midrash,” the authors filling in gaps, interpreting the text according
to their own perspective, creating new content, confronting/criticizing/parodying the
source, and employing it for personal or social use in light of their circumstances (Shaked
2005).
3
Amongst its most prominent trends are the demythization, re-mythization, and
secularization of the sacred text (Shaked 2005).
Barzel (1963, p. 3) adduces six attitudes modern literary works display towards the
Hebrew Bible: (1) Dismissal (primarily amongst militant groups); (2) actualization—the
blending of sacred elements from the past with present outlooks; (3) a spiritual identi-
fication; (4) a romantic approach—an innocent approach to the text and recognition of
subjective processing by the creator; (5) a classicism that focuses on interpreting the source;
and (6) a modernist treatment—revising biblical motifs while breaking domain boundaries.
Religions 2022,13, 215. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13030215 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/religions
Religions 2022,13, 215 2 of 8
In the following, I shall survey some illustrative examples of the reception of Jeremiah
in modern Hebrew literature. As we shall see below, the reuse of Jeremiah in modern
Hebrew literature may reflect a change in attitude towards the Hebrew Bible. While a Jew
living during the biblical or second Temple period typically regarded the biblical prophets
as holy men or men of God, as secularization made inroads into modern Judaism, writers
and thinkers began invoking the prophetic literature to critique Jewish society or for their
own personal needs. In contrast to commentators, who address the biblical books in their
entirety, verse by verse, modern Jewish poets and novelists sought to liberate themselves
from the shackles of sacred Scripture. Motivated by a very different agenda, those who
cited Jeremiah thus subjected his message to contemporary norms and values.
2. Jeremiah in Modern Hebrew Literature
Israeli artists and authors have adapted numerous Jeremianic verses and idioms.
The title of Peretz Smolenskin’s Burial of the Donkey is a reference to Jeremiah’s oracle
concerning Jehoiakim’s demise: “With the burial of a donkey he shall be buried—dragged
off and thrown out beyond the gates of Jerusalem” (Jer. 22:19). This 1873 novel depicts a
nineteenth-century conflict between a progressive maskil and the Jewish community, its
protagonist being buried like a donkey by the Jewish community and his wife becoming an
apostate at the end (Smolenskin 1968;Pelli 1998).
Abraham Mapu (1808–1867) similarly draws on Jer. 12:9 for the title of his Hypocrite
Eagle (1858), which describes contemporary Jewish society in Lithuania from a maskilic
perspective (Mapu 1959). Agnon’s 1939 A Guest for the Night alludes to Jer. 14:8 (Agnon
1968;Halevi-Wise 2014). Although none of these authors deal with Jeremiah the man or the
book, they draw on his book to portray their own time and place.
Reflecting on a “prose era,” Miron (1993) observes that modern Hebrew poetry regards
itself as entitled to adopt the cloak of the prophet despite being prophecy without a god
and on a mission without a transcendental sender. It imitates the prophetic messages
in both form and content, poets from the Enlightenment onwards writing unpopular,
surprising, and thought-provoking poems designed to shock their readers. The works of
several modern philosophers and humanists are informed by the consciousness of just such
prophetic mission. Haim Nachman Bialik (1873–1934) describes Asher Zvi Hirsch Ginsberg
(1856–1927), better known as Ahad Ha’am, as a true prophet, for example, thereby taking
sides in the debate between the latter and Herzl (Shoham 2003, pp. 111–21).
In his “In the City of Slaughter,” Bialik undermines Jeremiah’s oracles (Mintz 1984),
assuming his prophetic role.
4
As the prophet is subject to God’s word, so the poet is at
the mercy of the muse (Mintz 1984, p. 142). His poem “A Spoken Word” opens with a
description of a prophet with a prophecy of wrath in his mouth, sent to warn the people
of the coming retribution (Hadari 2000, p. 100; cf. Fishelov 2019). Rather than being
appreciated, the prophet is humiliated by his audience, his words falling on deaf ears.
As the poem progresses, he is denounced as a false prophet who, rather than predicting
disaster, offers a vain hope of “restoration and salvation.” This inversion of the biblical
paradigm—the Israelites wishing for prophecies of redemption and peace—appears to
reflect the situation of the Jews in Bialik’s own day: accustomed to pogroms and blood
libels, they have no interest in words of consolation.
While Jeremiah also appears in Bialik’s “City of Slaughter,” herein he represents
God’s helplessness in the face of the 1903 Kishinev pogrom rather than testifying to God’s
greatness and righteousness. His mission is bound to fail because the people are unwilling
to listen and because God is no longer a powerful hero.
Jeremiah’s influence on Bialik is also evident in “I Have Not Gained the Light from
the Unclaimed Property.” Herein, the image of the hammer and rock (Jer 23:29) serves to
convey the difficulty Bialik experienced in publishing his poems. Rather than being God’s
messenger, he is his own envoy:
I have not found light in unclaimed property,
It did not come to me by inheritance from my father.
Religions 2022,13, 215 3 of 8
Rather, I hammered it out of my stone and rock and carved it from my heart.
A spark hides in the depth of my heart, a little spark—but all mine.
I did not borrow it from anyone, nor steal it,
It is from and in me.
Under the large hammer of sorrow my heart bursts, rock of my might,
This spark sparked into my eyes, and from my eyes—to my rhymes.
And from my rhymes fly into your hearts,
In the morning light will ignite, vanish.
My marrow and blood feed the fire. (Shoham 2003, pp. 123–24)
Later poets and writers objected to Bialik’s self-identification, with Jeremiah, Jacob Lerner
(1879–1918), and Zalman Shneour (1887–1959) being two prominent examples (Shmeruk
1999, pp. 278–85; Miron 1987, pp. 215–24).
Judah Leib Gordon (1830–1892) regarded the prophet as representing the rabbinic
establishment. In his final poem, “King Zedekiah in Prison” (Gordon 1956;Nash 2003),
he has Zedekiah ask Jeremiah: “What have I sinned?” (cf. Shapira 2004, p. 12). Later,
Zedekiah accuses Jeremiah of being “A coward, with a surrendering soul, who advised
us shame, slavery and discipline.” Gordon’s objection is to the authority the rabbis have
assumed by representing themselves as the prophets’ successors rather than the prophetic
figure itself (Shoham 2003, p. 36). He thus takes a different line to that adopted by Spinoza
(1623–1677) in his Tractatus Theologico-Politicus, who argues that the prophets interfered
with the nation’s affairs.
Referring explicitly to Jeremiah in his 1956 poem “The Root of My Soul,” Gordon
suggests that the Anatothite revives his soul (Barzel 2017). “The Flock of the Lord” likewise
alludes to Jer. 13:17, declaring that the Jewish people have reached a dead end, lacking
even the basic skills to continue existing as a unified entity (Holtzman 2017).
The comparison between poet and prophet reaches its peak with Uri Zvi Greenberg
(1896–1981). In “With My God, the Blacksmith” (Greenberg 2003, pp. 66–70), Greenberg
portrays himself as a block of metal smelted by God until he becomes a prophet whose
bones burn with Jeremianic fire (cf. also “Like Chapters of Prophecy”). Like Jeremiah, who
seeks to escape from God but acknowledges that he cannot, Greenberg laments: “This is my
just lot.” As numerous scholars note, Greenberg’s awareness of his mission was genuine,
the poet volunteering for the role rather than waiting for God to appoint him. He was
thus known in his lifetime as “the Jeremiah of our generation” (Abrahamson 2010, p. 7).
The image of God as a blacksmith, which Greenberg employs defiantly, alludes to a Yom
Kippur liturgical poem that depicts man as “clay in God’s hand” (Jer. 18:6) (Greenberg
2003, pp. 58–70; cf. Stahl 2021). Like Hephaestus, Greenberg’s deity is thus a deformed god
who produces beautiful art.
3. Jeremiah in Agnon’s Works
One of the most well-known Jewish novelists of recent generations, Shmuel Yosef
Agnon (1888–1970), seamlessly blends together biblical, talmudic, medieval, and modern
Hebrew sources.
5
In “Edo and Enam,” he puts the words “I want to eat kavanim” in the
mouth of Gemulah, a member of a remote tribe (Agnon 1966, p. 178). According to Jer.
7:18, 44:7–19, these were small cakes made for Ishtar, the Queen of Heaven. Herein, Agnon
Judaizes Gemulah, also revealing the process whereby an idolatrous myth is transformed
into a Jewish aggada and the significance of the oscillation between these historical strata.
In The Bridal Canopy (Agnon 1967, p. 63), Agnon cites several Jeremianic verses: “For
behold as the clay in the potter’s hand” (Jer. 18:6) (Agnon 1995, p. 24); “my dear son, Ephraim”
(Jer. 31:19) (p. 267). In a dialogue between a mouse and cock, he has the two animals debate
the nature of human faith. Both cite biblical verses, including lines from Jeremiah:
There was a cock that lived with a Jew. He made an easy living and lacked for
nothing. Nonetheless he was troubled and worried and never a smile would you
Religions 2022,13, 215 4 of 8
catch on his face. When the month of Ellul came round at the end of the summer
his troubles were doubled and he’d never crow without bursting into tears. Now
a mouse lived there as well. The mouse asks the cock, Choicest of poultry, why
dost thou sorrow so? If it be by reason of thy sustenance, ‘tis always awaiting
thee; and if it be thy dwelling, thou dwellest with human beings; yet despite all
this thou ‘rt grieved and terrified and quivering and crestfallen like to a helpless
and weary cock. Said he, Hath not Jeremiah said, “Curst be the cock that trusteth
in man,” while Elihu hath told Job, “Is there an angel over him, a single counselor,
one among a thousand, to tell his uprightness to Man?”; all the good things of
thy speech are as nought to me when I see the master of the house taking his
prayer book in hand. And why? By reason of a certain prayer, in the Order of
Prayers, called “Sons of Man”; when he readeth this prayer on the appointed Eve
of Atonement he taketh a cock, whirleth it about his head, saith, This cock shall
go to death, and handeth it over to the slaughterer. Of me did Jeremiah lament,
“I am the cock that have seen affliction.”
In And the Crooked Shall be Made Straight (Agnon 1953, p. 88), Agnon alludes to a passage
in Baba Bathra 9b in which the Sages understand Jer. 18:23: “What is the meaning of that
which is written: ‘Let them be made to stumble before You; deal thus with them in the time
of Your anger’ (Jer. 18:23)? The prophet Jeremiah said before the Holy One, Blessed be
He: Master of the Universe, even when those wicked men who pursued me subdue their
inclinations and seek to perform acts of charity before You, cause them to stumble upon
dishonest people who are not deserving of charity, so that they will not receive reward for
coming to their assistance”.
In Only Yesterday (Agnon 2000, pp. 241, 243), he refers to Zedekiah’s cave:
Sometimes they walked around the Old City walls and its seven gates, and
sometimes they left from Damascus Gate and went to the Cave of Zedekiah,
where King Zedekiah fled from the Chaldeans, and the cave goes underground
all the way to Jericho. And opposite the Cave of Zedekiah you see the yard of
the dungeon where the Prophet Jeremiah was imprisoned and the cistern where
Jeremiah was thrown and the rock Jeremiah sat on and lamented the Destruction.
In A Guest for the Night (Halevi-Wise 2014), Agnon follows Jeremiah and Lamentations in
adducing the effects of destruction in order to demonstrate the need for social renewal and
reconstruction in the Land of Israel. Herein, he sets forth the Zionist ethos of homecoming
after exile, the novel revolving around a married man who, after making aliyah with his
family, returns to his birth town in Galicia after their new home in Jerusalem is destroyed
in the Arab riots of 1929:
A verse came to my lips: “She has become as a widow.” When Jeremiah saw the
destruction of the First Temple, he sat down and wrote the Book of Lamentations,
and he was not content with all the lamentations he wrote until he had compared
the congregation of Israel to a widow and said, “She has become as a widow”—
not a true widow, but like a woman whose husband has gone overseas and
intends to return to her. When we come to lament this latest destruction we
do not say enough if we say, “She has become as a widow,” but a true widow,
without the word of comparison. (Agnon 1968, p. 231)
Modern Hebrew writers also laud Gedaliah, son of Ahikam. Several writers published
stories relating to this biblical figure in the 1930s and ‘40s, possibly reflecting the way
in which the rise of the Nazis recalled the Babylonian destruction. Menachem Zalman
Wolfowski’s (1893–1975) trilogy King in Judah (1936–1937) is comprised of Johanan son
of Kareah,City Under Siege, and Last Firebrands (Wolfowski 1964). Herein, he describes
the final days of the First Temple and its destruction. The humble, brave, and loyal hero
is confronted by the wicked, devious, and murderous Ishmael, son of Nethaniah, their
hostility deriving from the fact that they are both in love with King Zedekiah’s daughter
(the princess naturally preferring the chivalrous Johanan).
Religions 2022,13, 215 5 of 8
Ishmael betrays Jerusalem, handing the city over to the Babylonians in anticipation of
being appointed its ruler. Although the Babylonians renege on their promise, he escapes
and, full of revenge, returns to murder Gedaliah (a minor figure in the story) and kidnaps
his beloved. Johanan holds him off, but while, as in the biblical story, he goes down to
Egypt with the remnant, he eventually returns to Israel with his wife to work the land in
line with Wolfowski’s Zionist-socialist principles (Eshed n.d.;Shaked 1977, pp. 425–29).
4. Jeremiah in the Works of Women Poets
Scholars point to the absence of Jewish women poets before the 1920s. Some explain
that there were sociological and historical reasons for this inequality (See Rattok 1999;
Olmert 2012, p. 50). Yet Feiner and Cohen (2006) claimed that there were women poets and
novel writers during the period of the Haskala.
Rachel Bluwstein-Sela (1890–1931), or just “Rachel,” is the “founding mother” of
modern Hebrew poetry by women. After immigrating from Russia and finding her place
in the Land of Israel, she has always read the Hebrew Bible and taught it to others (Milstein
1993). Rachel does not see any religious meaning in the biblical characters but rather
uses them to describe universal feelings and emotions (Shaked 2005, pp. 211–22). She
alludes to the Hebrew Bible in several poems. In one of these poems, named “Rachel,” she
echoes the biblical narrative of Rachel, Jacob’s wife, and Jeremiah. He alludes to Jeremiah’s
salvation oracle in 31:14–16, which speaks of Rachel weeping in her song “El Artzi” (“To
my Country”; Bluwstein 1935).
The poetess Zelda (Zelda Schneurson Mishkovsky [1914–1984]) was an observant
Orthodox poet well-known among critics. The daughter and granddaughter of prominent
Hasidic rabbis from the Habad dynasty (see Bar-Yosef 2007), she alludes to numerous
biblical characters—Abraham, Joseph, Mephiboshet, Jonah, and Saul. Jeremiah barely
makes an appearance in her work, however. In one poem, “Ba-gilgul ha-aharon” (“The
Last Incarnation”), she speaks of Jeremiah as the “angel of Anatoth”: “I forgot that even
the prophet cried, even the angel from Anatoth cried” (translation: Falk 2004). The prophet
cried for his loneliness, and perhaps the poet reflects her own pain for the lack of normal
family life.
In “At the Turn of Childhood—A New Fruit” there is an explicit reference to Jeremiah’s
lament in Jer. 20:7:
Slowly slowly I befriended the heavens and began to distinguish darkness from
darkness night from night and I said in my heart: the name of the green nights
transparent as the sea—”You enticed me, O Lord, and I was enticed” or Jeremiah’s
crown, and the name of the blue nights, starlight nights. (Ocker 2006)
Lea Goldberg (1911–1970) is another famous poetess. In her poems, she mostly alludes
to the Song of Songs, the Book of Genesis, and Ecclesiastes (Shacham 2013). In her diaries,
she recounts that her Bible teacher helped her memorize swathes of the Hebrew Bible
(Aharoni and Aharoni 2005, p. 133). Nonetheless, one cannot find a significant amount
of allusions to or citations from Jeremiah. She alludes to Jer. 2:2 in her poem “I loved
my master.” Jeremiah prophesied: “I remember the devotion of your youth, your love as
a bride, how you followed me in the wilderness, in a land not sown.” Goldberg (1973,
2:197–98) writes: “He has remembered the devotion of my youth and my following him in
the wilderness”. In one of her last songs, “the world is heavy on our eyelids” Goldberg uses
the phrase “The day turned” (hayom pana), which originates in Jer. 6:4 (Back 2017, p. 145).
5. Conclusions
This paper reviews the reuse of Jeremiah in modern Hebrew literature. One of the
reasons this neglects Jeremiah and his prophecies in comparison to other biblical figures
is likely a function of the fact that while biblical narrative served as a literary goldmine,
prophecy was a far more cryptic matter. Biblical stories address issues such as love, hate,
jealousy, sex scandals, and upheavals; prophecy—and Jeremiah’s oracles in particular—is
exacting, agonizing, and full of despair. During the Haskala, writers only embraced the
Religions 2022,13, 215 6 of 8
biblical style to satisfy their (literary/personal) needs (e.g., Mapu), with few calling for
any practical observance or espousing biblical values. Those who did reuse Jeremiah drew
expressions, verses, and concepts from the text, adapting it to their present-day reality.
Gordon and Wolfowski use Jeremiah more than Bialik and Agnon, the latter only
adducing certain expressions or motifs. Agnon’s neglect of Jeremiah may reflect his break
with tradition (Pardes 2013). Since then, the Hebrew Bible has been subject to increasing
secularization in modern Hebrew literature, evinced in the most recent reworkings of
Jeremiah, wherein Jeremiah assumes a parodic, dystopian, satirical guise (Tammuz 1984;
Burstein 2016).6
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.
Notes
1For other ways in which Jeremiah is unique among the prophets, see (Brown 2010, pp. 25–26).
2
Studies of the reception of the Book of Jeremiah have largely overlooked this aspect: see (Bogaert 1997;Najman and Schmid 2016;
Lundbom et al. 2018;Fischer 2016;Stulman and Silver 2021). For anthologies of compositions that appeal to the Hebrew Bible,
see (Elkoshi 1953;Rabinowitz and Yardeni 1962–1963;Shaked 2005). Callaway (2020) does mention Gordon’s poem. See below.
3
Needless to say, readers of these poems and novels must have full command of the Hebrew Bible in order to be aware of the
allusions, rewriting, or subversion of the biblical verses.
4Scholars debate the precise meaning of this poem: see (Raz 2013) and the bibliography cited therein.
5
My thanks go to Prof. Hillel Weiss of Bar-Ilan University for assistance in locating the citations from Agnon’s works. Other brief
mentions of Jeremiah in Agnon’s novels are: Esterlein Yekirati: Michtavim (My Dear Esterlein: Letters;Agnon 1983, p. 68); Present at
Sinai (Agnon 1994); Sefer, sofer ve-sippur (“Book, Writer, and Story”; Agnon 1978, p. 36); Ha’esh veha’etzim (“The Fire and the
Wood” Agnon 1971, p. 159).
6
See (Yosef-Paz 2018). Episode 15 of season 4 of the satirical TV show “Ha-yehudim baim” (“The Jews are Coming”) aired on 8
September 2020, relates to Jeremiah. See also Yehoshua (2009).
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