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Climate change anxiety and mental health: Environmental activism as buffer

DOI:10.1007/s12144-022-02735-6
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Sarah E. O. Schwartz at Suffolk University
Sarah E. O. Schwartz
Laelia Benoit at Yale University
Laelia Benoit
Susan Clayton at College of Wooster
Susan Clayton
Mckenna Parnes at University of Washington Seattle
Mckenna Parnes
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Abstract and Figures

A growing body of research has documented the phenomenon of climate change anxiety (CCA), defined broadly as negative cognitive, emotional, and behavioral responses associated with concerns about climate change. A recently validated scale of CCA indicated two subscales: cognitive emotional impairment and functional impairment (Clayton & Karazsia, 2020). However, there are few empirical studies on CCA to date and little evidence regarding whether CCA is associated with psychiatric symptoms, including symptoms of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) and Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD), and whether engaging in individual and collective action to address climate change could buffer such relationships. This mixed methods study draws on data collected from a sample of emerging adult students (ages 18–35) in the United States (N = 284) to address these gaps. Results indicated that both CCA subscales were significantly associated with GAD symptoms, while only the Functional Impairment subscale was associated with higher MDD symptoms. Moreover, engaging in collective action, but not individual action, significantly attenuated the association between CCA cognitive emotional impairment and MDD symptoms. Responses to open-ended questions asking about participants’ worries and actions related to climate change indicated the severity of their worries and, for some, a perception of the insignificance of their actions relative to the enormity of climate change. These results further the field’s understanding of CCA, both in general and specifically among emerging adults, and suggest the importance of creating opportunities for collective action to build sense of agency in addressing climate change.
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Vol.:(0123456789)
1 3
Current Psychology
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-022-02735-6
Climate change anxiety andmental health: Environmental activism
asbuffer
SarahE.O.Schwartz1 · LaeliaBenoit2,3,4· SusanClayton5· McKennaF.Parnes1· LanceSwenson1· SarahR.Lowe6
Accepted: 16 January 2022
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2022
Abstract
A growing body of research has documented the phenomenon of climate change anxiety (CCA), defined broadly as nega-
tive cognitive, emotional, and behavioral responses associated with concerns about climate change. A recently validated
scale of CCA indicated two subscales: cognitive emotional impairment and functional impairment (Clayton & Karazsia,
2020). However, there are few empirical studies on CCA to date and little evidence regarding whether CCA is associated
with psychiatric symptoms, including symptoms of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) and Generalized Anxiety Disorder
(GAD), and whether engaging inindividual and collective actionto address climate change could buffer such relationships.
This mixed methods study draws on data collected from a sample of emerging adult students (ages 18–35) in the United
States (N = 284) to address these gaps. Results indicated thatboth CCA subscales were significantly associated with GAD
symptoms, while only the Functional Impairment subscale was associated with higher MDD symptoms. Moreover, engag-
ing in collective action, but not individual action, significantly attenuated the association between CCA cognitive emotional
impairment and MDD symptoms. Responses to open-ended questions asking about participants’ worries and actions related
to climate change indicated the severity of their worries and, for some, a perception of the insignificance of their actions
relative to the enormity of climate change. These results further the field’s understanding of CCA, both in general and spe-
cifically among emerging adults, and suggest the importance of creating opportunities for collective action to build sense of
agency in addressing climate change.
Keywords Climate change· Anxiety· Depression· Activism· Agency· Emerging adults
Introduction
Increasing evidence indicates that climate change will have
far-reaching impacts on human health, including mental
health (Doherty & Clayton, 2011; Hayes etal., 2018). A
large body of literature has investigated the mental health
consequences of one marker of climate change, weather-
related disasters, showing elevated rates of common psy-
chiatric conditions like Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)
and Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) (Goldmann &
Galea, 2014; Hrabok etal., 2020), and a growing number
of studies also suggest that rising temperatures can impair
mental health and increase risk for suicidal behavior (Burke
etal., 2018; Cianconi etal., 2020; Heo etal., 2021). How-
ever, a focus on weather-related disasters and temperature
misses the full range of climate change exposures, including
its subtler indicators, and their mental health consequences.
Recent research indicates that even the existential threat
of climate change may be associated with adverse mental
* Sarah E. O. Schwartz
seoschwartz@suffolk.edu
1 Department ofPsychology, Suffolk University, Boston, MA,
USA
2 Child Study Center, QUALab, Yale School ofMedicine,
NewHaven, CT, USA
3 Inserm U1018, CESP, Team DevPsy, University
Paris-Saclay, Villejuif, France
4 Maison de Solenn, Hospital Cochin AP-HP, Paris, France
5 Department ofPsychology, College ofWooster, Wooster,
OH, USA
6 Department ofSocial andBehavioral Sciences, Yale School
ofPublic Health, NewHaven, CT, USA
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
... The most consistent support for this proposition comes from studies that tend to report positive associations between eco-anxiety and aspects of ill-being such as anxiety, depression, stress, pathological worry, and general psychological distress, though variability in this pattern of findings has emerged (ranging from r = -.05 to r = .59; Clayton & Karazsia, 2020;Feather & Williams, 2022;Helm et al., 2018;Hogg et al., 2021;Mouguiama-Daouda et al., 2022;Reyes et al., 2021;Schwartz et al., 2022;Stanley et al., 2021;Stewart, 2021;Verplanken et al., 2020;Verplanken & Roy, 2013;Wullenkord et al., 2021). These correlations are unsurprising given that the content of eco-anxiety measures, especially those capturing more severe symptoms (e.g., Clayton & Karazsia, 2020;Hogg et al., 2021), are often based on or overlap with ill-being scales (McBride et al., 2021;Ojala et al., 2021). ...
... Despite some evidence that eco-anxiety is related with poorer mental health, there is also research highlighting its more adaptive nature, as demonstrated by its relationships with aspects of a pro-environmental orientation. More specifically, eco-anxiety (regardless of severity) tends to be positively associated with predictors and measures of pro-environmental intentions and behaviour, though some variability in this pattern of findings is present (Clayton & Karazsia, 2020;Helm et al., 2018;Hogg et al., 2021;Mouguiama-Daouda et al., 2022;Ojala et al., 2021;Schwartz et al., 2022;Stanley et al., 2021;Verplanken et al., 2020;Verplanken & Roy, 2013;Wullenkord et al., 2021). 2 These findings suggest that eco-anxiety may be largely viewed as a form of practical anxiety (i.e., a motivating response that facilitates behavioural engagement; Kurth, 2018;Pihkala, 2020a) rather than a form of eco-paralysis (i.e., a demotivating response that hinders action; Albrecht, 2011). ...
... In first comparing measures of eco-anxiety, we observed that, across all studies, mean scores were above the respective scale midpoints, except on the Verplanken and Roy (2013) measure in Study 3 and Clayton and Karazsia's (2020) CCAS collected in Study 5 in which mean scores were below the scale midpoint. These findings are consistent with previous research using the CCAS (Clayton & Karazsia, 2020;Feather & Williams, 2022;Reyes et al., 2021;Schwartz et al., 2022;Wullenkord et al., 2021). ...
The Continuum of Eco-Anxiety Responses: A Preliminary Investigation of Its Nomological Network
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  • Jan 2023
In the face of mounting environmental issues, people around the world are reporting the experience of difficult emotions such as anxiety and worry, or what is increasingly referred to as eco-anxiety. It is often acknowledged that symptoms of eco-anxiety can range in severity or fall along a continuum. Such a proposition has important implications, as it may help to explain why some forms of eco-anxiety are more mal(adaptive) than others. In five studies (Total N = 2939) across three countries (Canada, China, United Kingdom), we examined how measures that may encompass a continuum of environment-related worry and anxiety were associated with each other and with measures of environmental concern, an older concept that may capture the less severe end of eco-anxiety responses. We also explored if these various measures were differentially linked to aspects of mental health and a pro-environmental orientation. Results revealed that measures of eco-anxiety and environmental concern were often moderately-strongly correlated. Eco-anxiety measures exhibited relatively consistent relationships with greater ill-being but mixed relationships with indices of well-being. There was some evidence of more severe eco-anxiety measures being associated with poorer mental health and environmental concern measures being associated with better mental health. Measures of both eco-anxiety and environmental concern evidenced larger and more consistent relationships with indices of a pro-environmental orientation, with the most severe eco-anxiety measure exhibiting some notably weaker relationships. Together, the present work provides preliminary insights into the nomological network of the continuum of eco-anxiety responses and its integration into future work on eco-anxiety.
... Thirteen focused on understanding the interplay between climaterelated concerns and other negative emotions, with aspects of mental health such as psychological distress, depression and wellbeing, but also hope, and coping mechanisms (El Zoghbi & El Ansari, 2014;Kerret et al., 2020;Li & Monroe, 2017;MacDonald et al., 2015;Ogunbode et al., 2021;Ojala, 2005Ojala, , 2012aOjala, , 2012bOjala, , 2013Reyes et al., 2021;Schwartz et al., 2022;Sciberras & Fernando, 2022;Stevenson & Peterson, 2015). One clinical case report focused on climate change-related psychotic features (Wolf & Salo, 2008). ...
... Studies examined a range of negative emotions, mental health outcomes, and coping strategies related to the threat of climate change (Table 3). Most studies focused on worry, concern or anxiety (Agho et al., 2010;Davis et al., 2019;El Zoghbi & El Ansari, 2014;Henker et al., 1995;Hickman et al., 2021;Li & Monroe, 2017;Ojala, 2005Ojala, , 2012aOjala, , 2012bOrr et al., 2020;Reyes et al., 2021;Schwartz et al., 2022;Sciberras & Fernando, 2022;Simon et al., 2022;Strife, 2012;Wachholz et al., 2014). Five studies included a range of different negative emotions such as anger, stress, sadness and boredom (Hickman et al., 2021;MacDonald et al., 2015;Ogunbode et al., 2021;Scafuto, 2021;Searle & Gow, 2010;Stevenson & Peterson, 2015), while one investigated self-described feelings (Strife, 2012). ...
... Seven studies evaluated psychological symptoms, namely depression, anxiety, stress, and distress using validated psychometric scales (Agho et al., 2010;Ojala, 2012b;Reyes et al., 2021;Schwartz et al., 2022;Sciberras & Fernando, 2022;Searle & Gow, 2010;Wolf & Salo, 2008). One study conducted a survey with Swedish young people (n = 293) and found that negative affect measured by the Child Depression Scale was positively correlated with problem-solving coping, but negatively correlated with meaning-focused coping. ...
Empirical evidence for climate concerns, negative emotions and climate-related mental ill-health in young people: A scoping review
Article
Full-text available
Background: Climate change represents a serious threat to human health, including mental health, due to both the traumatizing effects of extreme climate events and the psychological effect of worry about climate change. Objectives: This scoping review aims to search the literature for original research investigating mental health and climate-related negative emotions in young people. Findings will help to understand the current landscape, gaps in the literature, and provide recommendations for future youth mental health research and practice. Methods: A scoping review of the literature examining negative emotions associated with climate change in young people was undertaken. Studies published prior to March 2022 were included if they examined mental ill-health (e.g., symptoms of depression or anxiety) or negative emotions (e.g., distress, worry, concern) associated with the threat of climate change. Results: Of 3939 articles screened, 26 met the inclusion criteria. Together, studies show that young people are worried about climate change. Negative emotions about climate change were correlated with symptoms of mental ill-health. Studies also explored coping strategies young people use to manage their distress caused by climate change. Discussion: The limited literature in this area indicates a key gap in youth mental health research. While available evidence suggests that young people are concerned about climate change, more research is needed on the relationship between climate-related negative emotions and mental ill-health. Clinicians should assess for and address climate-related negative emotions in young people. Mental health leaders are urged to advocate for actions to mitigate the mental health impact of climate change.
... According to the results of the research conducted by Kamenidou et al. (2019), global warming and air pollution seem to be the most pressing problems, because they can lead to the extinction of species or the appearance of serious diseases. In this sense, there are recent studies (Bailey et al., 2022;Schwartz et al., 2022) linking environmental events such as temperature extremes, air pollution, flooding, and sea level rise to various mental health issues, including difficulties in social relationships, anxiety, depression (Reyes et al., 2021), recorded especially among young people. Air pollution and food safety concerns increased also the awareness of environmental issues for Generation Z consumers in Taiwan (Chen et al., 2018). ...
Determining factors in shaping the sustainable behavior of the generation Z consumer
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Full-text available
  • Jan 2023
Introduction: Organizations currently emphasize green marketing strategies by implementing marketing practices, aiming to design, produce, promote and sell green products. Thus, both consumers and producers have turned their attention to the category of environmental friendly products, taking into account that the concept of green marketing is now being given greater importance. Responsible organizations have begun to adapt their strategies in production, promotion and interaction activities with consumers or potential consumers of organic products in the context we are going through, when environmental protection becomes an imperative. Analysis of the sustainable behavior of Generation Z is a determining factor from the perspective of the task that this generation will naturally take on, in terms of environmental responsibility. Methods: The research aims to determine the profile of the Generation Z consumer, in order to adapt the strategic actions of the government or organizations to direct and educate as objectively and efficiently as possible towards adopting the principles of ecological, sustainable and responsible consumption. Based on the data collected through a survey, we analyzed the sustainable behavior of Generation Z consumers studying at Romanian universities where there are specializations in this field. The research is quantitative, using structural equation modelling with partial least squares (PLSSEM) to test the hypotheses regarding the relationship between the determining factors and the sustainable behavior of Generation Z consumers. Results and Discussion: The results show that there is a positive relationship between both the sustainable behavior of Generation Z consumers and the satisfaction it conveys to them, as well as their environmental protection activities. However, there is no relationship between the sustainable behavior of Generation Z consumers and the green marketing practices of the organizations, environmental issues and their identification with the environmentally responsible consumer.
... Collective action, on the other hand, offered participants a sense of empowerment, community, and hope. Indeed, collective action may be more effective than individual action for decreasing psychological symptoms associated with climate change [12]. ...
Understanding youths’ concerns about climate change: a binational qualitative study of ecological burden and resilience
Article
Full-text available
Background Climate change has been shown to have long-term effects on mental health, yet, to date, there have been few studies on how children and adolescents experience and respond to ecological changes and how and why they engage in climate action. We explored empirically young people’s views about climate change and how distinct cultural contexts influence individual climate action. Methods We invited children and adolescents (ages 7 to 18) and their caregivers from the general population in the United States and France to participate in semi-structured focus groups. We recruited 74 participants, 39 in the U.S. (33 children and adolescents, 6 parents) and 35 in France (32 children and adolescents, 3 parents). Focus groups with participants centered on their emotions, beliefs, and actions around climate change. We analyzed the focus group data and developed themes via grounded theory and symbolic interactionist approaches. Results Many participants described experiencing anger, hopelessness, guilt, and sadness in response to climate change, and a smaller number endorsed significant anxiety symptoms; many described frustration about needing to fix the mistakes of earlier generations. Younger participants frequently misunderstood the purpose of their parents’ eco-conscious behaviors unless they were provided with age-appropriate explanations. Participants described a spectrum of experiences when trying to discuss climate change with peers and family, ranging from genuine support to apathy to hostility. Between the two samples, U.S. participants experienced more conflict with adults about climate change than French participants, but French participants described a greater lack of political agency compared to U.S. participants. Participants in both samples expressed a relatively balanced view of climate action, recognizing the significance of individual actions while acknowledging the limits of their power in the face of systemic issues. Some found hope and empowerment through climate action and building communities around it. Conclusion Discussing with children and adolescents what adults are doing to mitigate climate change can provide reassurance, model prosocial behaviors, and inspire their own investment in climate action. Adults seeking to support the psychological well-being of young people should both support their concerns and actions around climate change and create avenues for young people to meaningfully engage in climate action.
... 4. Practising communal care -Organising is a process of healing that can help support mental health maintenance. 88 In this challenging era of pandemic, climate catastrophe, and war, on top of the individual stress and anxiety caused by academic institutions and global health labour, spaces of solidarity and care are needed. A collective can be a space of safety, healing, venting and support as much as it is about resistance or education. ...
Transforming global health education during the COVID-19 era: perspectives from a transnational collective of global health students and recent graduates
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Full-text available
  • Dec 2022
Inspired by the 2021 BMJ Global Health Editorial by Atkins et al on global health (GH) teaching during the COVID-19 pandemic, a group of GH students and recent graduates from around the world convened to discuss our experiences in GH education during multiple global crises. Through weekly meetings over the course of several months, we reflected on the impact the COVID-19 pandemic and broader systemic inequities and injustices in GH education and practice have had on us over the past 2 years. Despite our geographical and disciplinary diversity, our collective experience suggests that while the pandemic provided an opportunity for changing GH education, that opportunity was not seized by most of our institutions. In light of the mounting health crises that loom over our generation, emerging GH professionals have a unique role in critiquing, deconstructing and reconstructing GH education to better address the needs of our time. By using our experiences learning GH during the pandemic as an entry point, and by using this collective as an incubator for dialogue and re-imagination, we offer our insights outlining successes and barriers we have faced with GH and its education and training. Furthermore, we identify autonomous collectives as a potential viable alternative to encourage pluriversality of knowledge and action systems and to move beyond Western universalism that frames most of traditional academia.
... Addressing young people's anxieties about climate change means taking action. Schwartz et al found that collective action may be more effective than individual action for decreasing psychological symptoms associated with climate change (9). Participants in our study described how an emphasis on individual action could leave them feeling helpless and hopeless. ...
Understanding youths’ concerns about climate change: a cross-cultural qualitative study of a generation’s ecological burden and resilience
Preprint
Full-text available
  • Oct 2022
Background Climate change has been shown to have long-term effects on mental health, yet, to date, there have been few studies on how children and adolescents experience and respond to ecological changes and how and why they engage in climate action. We explored empirically young people’s views about climate change and how distinct cultural contexts influence individual climate action. Methods We invited children and adolescents (ages 7 to 18) and their caregivers from the general population in the United States and France to participate in semi-structured focus groups. We recruited 74 participants, 39 in the U.S. (33 children and adolescents, 6 parents) in the U.S. and 35 in France (32 children and adolescents, 3 parents). Focus groups with participants centered on their emotions, beliefs, and actions around climate change. We analyzed the focus group data and developed themes via grounded theory and symbolic interactionism approaches. Results Many participants described experiencing anger, hopelessness, guilt, and sadness in response to climate change, and a smaller number endorsed significant anxiety symptoms; many described frustration about needing to fix the mistakes of earlier generations. Younger participants frequently misunderstood the purpose of their parents’ eco-conscious behaviors unless they were provided with age-appropriate explanations. Participants described a spectrum of experiences when trying to discuss climate change with peers and family, ranging from genuine support to apathy to hostility. Between the two samples, U.S. participants experienced more conflict with adults about climate change than French participants, but French participants expressed a greater lack of political agency compared to U.S. participants. Participants in both samples expressed a relatively balanced view of climate action, recognizing the significance of individual actions while acknowledging the limits of their power in the face of systemic issues. Some participants found hope and empowerment through climate action and building communities around it. Conclusions Discussing with children and adolescents what adults are doing to combat climate change can provide reassurance, model prosocial behaviors, and inspire their own investment in climate action. In comparing the U.S. and France, it is evident that adults seeking to support the psychological well-being of young people should both support their concerns and actions around climate change and create avenues for young people to meaningfully engage in climate action.
The impact of climate change on eating disorders: An urgent call for research
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  • Dec 2022
Climate change affects many of the documented risk factors for eating disorders (EDs) through direct and indirect pathways, yet to date the research in this area is nonexistent. Our aim is to identify the specific mechanisms through which climate change might be associated with increased risk for EDs, an exacerbation in symptoms, or poor clinical outcomes; highlight limited empirical data addressing these issues; and propose directions for a research program in this important area. Pathways for the impact of climate change on eating disorders and related data were reviewed. Four main pathways for the effects of climate change on EDs were identified including (1) decreased food access and security; (2) changes in mean temperature; (3) concerns related to food safety and eco‐anxiety; and (4) indirect pathways through trauma, adversity, and increased mental health concerns. Except for the relationship between increased food insecurity and EDs, these pathways remain largely uninvestigated. Numerous factors may be implicated in the relationship between climate change and EDs. Future work in this area is imperative and should be conducted through a social justice lens with particular attention paid to the global areas most impacted by climate change and related vulnerabilities. Climate change will likely have adverse impacts on individuals with eating disorders and increase the risk for eating disorders. This paper reviews the different ways in which climate change may have these effects and calls for researchers to pay attention to this important area.
The Process of Eco-Anxiety and Ecological Grief: A Narrative Review and a New Proposal
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  • Nov 2022
The consequences of climate change become increasingly visible and recent research suggests that people may respond to climate change with a specific anxiety. Yet, little is known about potential antecedents of climate anxiety. The current study aimed to understand the contribution of climate risk perception to climate anxiety, along with nature-connectedness, self-efficacy, and political orientation. With a sample of 204 German adults, we assessed these constructs together with environmental policy support that may result from climate anxiety. Stronger risk perception and a left political orientation predicted climate anxiety. Self-efficacy and nature connectedness, however, were unrelated to climate anxiety. Corroborating to previous studies, stronger climate anxiety correlated with stronger environmental policy support but did not predict environmental policy support when controlling for climate risk perception. We discuss results with regard to further developing the concept of climate anxiety and its dynamics and suggest directions for future research.
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Climate change and mental health concerns are both defining issues of the generation of today. It has been established that the worsening climate causes many environmental disasters and physical health problems. However, its psychological impacts are still not well understood. Climate change has brought about an emerging psychological phenomenon termed ‘climate anxiety’ or ‘eco-anxiety,’ which has been described as a "chronic fear of environmental doom" (Clayton et al., 2017, p. 68) due to the impact of climate change. This predictive cross-sectional study investigated the link between climate change anxiety and mental health among 433 Filipinos. A total of 145 males and 288 females aged 18 to 26 completed the Climate Change Anxiety Scale and the Mental Health Inventory (MHI-38). Results show a significant relationship between climate change anxiety and mental health, with climate change anxiety predicting 13.5% of the overall Mental Health Index variance. Significantly, climate change anxiety was associated with the MHI-38’s global scale of Psychological Distress but not with the global scale of Psychological Well-being. The findings are discussed concerning the broader context of research on the mental health impacts of climate change.
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The climate crisis is an unprecedented existential threat that causes disturbing emotions, such as anxiety. However, relatively little is known about how people cope with climate anxiety, how it influences mental health and well-being, and whether it is relevant for climate (in)action. Recently, Clayton and Karazsia measured climate anxiety as a “clinically significant anxious response to climate change” (2020, p. 9) that may impair human well-being and functioning. To gain a more nuanced understanding of the phenomenon from an empirical psychological perspective, we translated the Climate Anxiety Scale into German and assessed potential correlates in a large German-speaking quota sample (N=1011, stratified by age and gender). Overall, people reported low levels of climate anxiety. Climate anxiety correlated positively with anxiety and depressiveness, avoidance of climate change in everyday life, and the frustration of basic psychological needs. It correlated negatively with climate-relevant self-protective strategies and denial. While unrelated to ideological beliefs, stronger climate anxiety was associated with pro-environmental intentions and support for climate policies. We were not able to replicate the scale’s original factor structure. Thus, we encourage researchers to rework the scale and include an emotional factor in future research efforts.
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This narrative review examined strategies for preparedness and response to mental health impacts of three forms of climate change from a services perspective: (1) acute and extreme weather events such as hurricanes, floods, and wildfires, (2) sub-acute or long-term events such as droughts and heatwaves; and (3) the prospect of long-term and permanent changes, including higher temperatures, rising sea levels, and an uninhabitable physical environment. Strategies for acute events included development and implementation of programs and practices for monitoring and treating mental health problems and strengthening individual and community resilience, training of community health workers to deliver services, and conducting inventories of available resources and assessments of at-risk populations. Additional strategies for sub-acute changes included advocacy for mitigation policies and programs and adaptation of guidelines and interventions to address the secondary impacts of sub-acute events, such as threats to livelihood, health and well-being, population displacement, environmental degradation, and civil conflict. Strategies for long-lasting changes included the implementation of evidence-based risk communication interventions that address the existing and potential threat of climate change, promoting the mental health benefits of environmental conservation, and promoting psychological growth and resilience.
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Background: Despite the growing impact of climate change on mental health, there have been few studies to date investigating how children and teenagers manage their ecological grief and eco-anxiety and how they can leverage it into environmental action. In this scoping review, we analyze lay press narratives about how youth respond to climate change to examine the dynamics between minors and adults around the evolving climate crisis. Methods: We included articles published between 2018 and 2021 in six of the top ten American newspapers by circulation about young people during the climate crisis. The 131 articles we selected addressed the attitudes of children, adolescents, and parents toward the climate crisis. We conducted a qualitative analysis based on discourse analysis aided by NVivo software. Results: Newspaper articles commonly categorized children, adolescents, and their respective perspectives and experiences around climate change along four patterns of discourse: (a) fierce young activists; (b) adultified children; (c) innocent victims; and/or (d) ultimate saviors. In turn, articles considered parents and adults in one of four paradigmatic ways: (a) experiencing eco-anxiety through parenthood; (b) taming children's eco-anxiety; (c) criticizing youth-led activism; and/or (d) reimagining climate action as a source of meaning in the lives of young people. Conclusion: Through the framework of childism, or prejudice against children, we conceptualize immature ways for adults to respond to youths' concerns as a defensive stance against overwhelming climate change anxiety. Alternatively, principles of existential psychology can help inform healthier and more productive responses from parents, clinicians, educators, and public health officials as they seek truthful yet supportive responses to address legitimate ecological threats that will disproportionately affect generations to come.
Suicide and Associations with Air Pollution and Ambient Temperature: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Article
Given health threats of climate change, a comprehensive review of the impacts of ambient temperature and ar pollution on suicide is needed. We performed systematic literature review and meta-analysis of suicide risks associated with short-term exposure to ambient temperature and air pollution. Pubmed, Scopus, and Web of Science were searched for English-language publications using relevant keywords. Observational studies assessing risks of daily suicide and suicide attempts associated with temperature, particulate matter with aerodynamic diameter ≤10 μm (PM10) and ≤2.5 mm (PM2.5), ozone (O3), sulfur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and carbon monoxide (CO) were included. Data extraction was independently performed in duplicate. Random-effect meta-analysis was applied to pool risk ratios (RRs) for increases in daily suicide per interquartile range (IQR) increase in exposure. Meta-regression analysis was applied to examine effect modification by income level based on gross national income (GNI) per capita, national suicide rates, and average level of exposure factors. In total 2274 articles were screened, with 18 studies meeting inclusion criteria for air pollution and 32 studies for temperature. RRs of suicide per 7.1 °C temperature was 1.09 (95% CI: 1.06, 1.13). RRs of suicide per IQR increase in PM2.5, PM10, and NO2 were 1.02 (95% CI: 1.00, 1.05), 1.01 (95% CI: 1.00, 1.03), and 1.03 (95% CI: 1.00, 1.07). O3, SO2, and CO were not associated with suicide. RR of suicide was significantly higher in higher-income than lower-income countries (1.09, 95% CI: 1.07, 1.11 and 1.20, 95% CI: 1.14, 1.26 per 7.1 °C increased temperature, respectively). Suicide risks associated with air pollution did not significantly differ by income level, national suicide rates, or average exposure levels. Research gaps were found for interactions between air pollution and temperature on suicide risks.
Anxiety disorders, climate change, and the challenges ahead: Introduction to the special issue
Article
Climate change involves (1) increases in the prevalence of extreme weather events (e.g., wildfires, floods, hurricanes), (2) more gradual climatic changes (e.g., rising sea levels, desertification), and (3) increased risks of pandemics and other widespread disease outbreaks. Anxiety evoked by the threat of climate change can be either adaptive or maladaptive. Adaptive anxiety can motivate climate activism, such as efforts to reduce one’s carbon footprint. Maladaptive anxiety can take the form of anxious passivity, where the person feels anxious but incapable of addressing the problem of climate change, and may take the form of an anxiety disorder triggered or exacerbated by climatic stressors. Such stressors may involve exposure to extreme weather events or may involve exposure to other stressors such as forced migration due to rising sea levels or desertification. Three types of interventions are needed to address the various types of climate-related anxiety: (1) programs that motivate people to overcome anxious passivity and thereby take action to mitigate the effects of climate change, (2) treatment programs that address anxiety associated with exposure to climatic stressors, and (3) programs that build resilience at an individual and community level, to help people better cope with the challenges ahead.
Threats to Mental Health and Well-Being Associated with Climate Change
Article
Climate change is a contributor to extreme weather events and natural disasters. The mental health effects of climate change are multifaceted, with post-traumatic stress disorder and depression predominant. This paper aims to describe the impact of climate change on mental health conditions, including risk and protective factors related to the expression of mental health conditions post-disaster, as well as a discussion of our local experience with a devastating wildfire to our region within Canada. The risk of the development of mental health conditions post-disaster is not equally distributed; research has consistently demonstrated that specific risk factors (e.g., gender, socioeconomic status and education, pre-existing mental health symptomatology), are associated with increased vulnerability to mental health conditions following natural disasters. There are multiple strategies that must be undertaken by communities to enhance adjustment and coping post-disaster, including improved access to care, inter-agency cooperation, enhanced community resiliency, and adequate preparation.
The online survey as a qualitative research tool
Article
  • Aug 2020
Fully qualitative surveys, which prioritise qualitative research values, and harness the rich potential of qualitative data, have much to offer qualitative researchers, especially given online delivery options. Yet the method remains underutilised, and there is little in the way of methodological discussion of qualitative surveys. Underutilisation and limited methodological discussion perhaps reflect the dominance of interviewing in qualitative research, and (misplaced) assumptions about qualitative survey data lacking depth. By discussing our experiences of developing online surveys as a tool for qualitative research, we seek to challenge preconceptions about qualitative surveys, and to demonstrate that qualitative surveys are an exciting, flexible method with numerous applications, and advantages for researchers and participants alike. We offer an overview and practical design information, illustrated with examples from some of our studies.